Korean literature

Korean literature is the body of literature produced in Korea or by Korean writers. For much of history, it was written both in classical Chinese and in Korean, first using the transcription systems idu and gugyeol, and finally using the Korean script hangul. It is commonly divided into classical and modern periods, although this distinction is sometimes unclear.

The development of Korean Literature is quite unique due to the creation of a complete new langugage and writing system by the great king Sejong in 1446, the hangul. Sejong wanted that everyone could have access to culture but by that time Chinese characters were essential in philosophy and literature. Therefore hangul remained neglected by the literati and were considered useful only for women and for low class people.

A tension always existed between those preferring hanmun, Chinese characters and those trying to give its value to the Korean language. In consequence a debate arose on what should be considered as truly Korean Literature. Under the Japanese occupation from 1910 to 1945 some Korean scholars aimed at recovering what was purely Korean in language and literature. They hoped to remove what was foreign. After the liberation others tried to focus on what was the true spirit of Koreans without excluding the works written in Chinese characters.

Today there is a common agreement to accept both types of workds in Chinese characters and in hangul as part of the Korean literature heritage. Furthermore interesting researches are done on the traditional oral literature of the early period since Korean literature was first orally transmitted and sometimes written much later either in mixed form, like hyangchal, or hangul.

Although Korean modern literature, particularly in is form of short novel, is much more appreciated today and translated into foreign languages, the classical part is substantial and of great value. Like in other world literature poetry was one of the first literary forms. Koreans always loved to sing and dance and the first poems were sung.

Other litery genry like histoirican and autobiogrpahical appeared around the 13th century but the novel genre took slowly form only around the 15th century. The Confucian atmosphere long predominated either in poetry or the beginning of novels but Sirhak scholars played a role in infusing new ideas through satirical short stories opening people to modernity. Women also were very creative in poetry and autobiographic genres and made the feminine voice heard partcularly from the beginning of the 20th century.

The appreciation of Korean literure requires a balance in the exploration of classic, modern and contemporary literature, various genres as poetry, autobiographies and novels. Some long novels, although they are not knowm, are of great value. Furthermore Koreans have excelled in certain genres like Sijo poetry and short novel that express more adequately their mind and emotion.

Contents

I.Classical literature

1. Hyangga

2. Koryo songs

3. Sijo

4. The evolution of Korean literature

- New literary genres

- The birth of Korean novel

==Classical literature==

Classical Korean literature has its roots in traditional folk beliefs and folk tales of the Korean peninsula. Other influences include Confucianism, Buddhism and to some extent Taoism.

Traditional Korean literature, written in Chinese characters (hanja), was established at the same time as the Chinese script arrived on the peninsula. Korean scholars were writing poetry in the classical Chinese style as early as the 4th century. Some historians exclude these forms of literature from Korean literature, arguing that they were merely forms of Chinese literature. Others argue, however, that the fact that Chinese characters were used is not reason enough to exclude the literature from the classical Korean canon, particularly since it reflects Korean thought and experience.

Under Unified Silla, a national academy was founded to promote Korean literature. For most of the era, Korean upper educated classes were bilingual, speaking Korean but writing in Classical Chinese like Japan, Vietnam.

===Hyangga=== 鄕歌 향가

The word hyangga means "native songs", from Korea in opposition to the Chinese songs. Hyangga poetry was written in Korean using modified Chinese characters in a system that is called [idu]이두 吏讀 , literally "clerk's writings." Specifically, the variety of idu used to write hyangga was sometimes called "hyangchal향찰 鄕札." Under the Hyangchal system, Chinese characters were given a Korean reading based on the syllable associated with the character. The Hyangchal writing system is often classified as a subgroup of Idu.

Idu was a clever system whereby Koreans, who spoke a language much different from Chinese, 

would use Chinese characters to express Korean. The key to the system was to use some Chinese characters for their intended purpose, their meaning, and others for their pronunciation, ignoring their pictographic meaning. On the surface, it appears to be a complicated, even incomprehensible system, but after using the system one become comfortable with certain characters consistently standing for Korean words, and others representing Chinese.

Such texts were deciphered only in the first half of the 20th century. The deciphering of the hyangga, line by line, word by word, is comparable to an archeological work.

Hyangga was the first uniquely Korean form of poetry. Only twenty five survive. The Samguk Yusa 三國遺事 Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms by the monk Iryon (1206-1289) contains 14 poems and the "Gyunyeojeon", a set of biographies of prominent monks, contains eleven poems. Both these classic works were written much after the Silla dynasty, in the subsequent Goryeo dynasty, yet the record appears to be based on no-longer-extant records actually from the Silla period.

Hyangga are characterized by a number of formal rules. The poems may consist of four, eight or ten lines. The ten-line poems are the most developed, structured into three sections with four, four, and two lines respectively. Many of the ten-line poems were written by Buddhist monks. And Buddhist themes predominate the poems.

If most of the hyangga are Buddhist in theme and inspiration, they contain also a broad range of themes which are reflected in a variety of poems such as folk songs, elegies to heroic hwarang knights, requiem for a sister, didactic poems, Shaman exorcism or Buddhist prayer-poem.

Many of the poems are eulogies to monks, to warriors, and to family members. The Silla period, especially before unification (668) was a time of warfare and the hyangga capture the sorrow of mourning for the dead while Buddhism provided answers about where the dead go and the afterlife.

A typical hyangga is the Ode for Life Eternal, or perhaps, the Ode for Nirvana. The poem is a song that calls upon the moon to convey the supplicant's prayer to the Western paradise, the home of Amita (or Amitabha — the Buddha of the Western paradise). The poem's authorship is somewhat unclear; it was either written by a monk or, one source says, the monk's wife.

Ode to Eternal Life

Oh Moon!

As you go to the west this night,

I pray thee, go before the eternal Buddha,

And tell him that there is one here

Who adores Him of the deep oaths,

And chants daily with hands together, saying

    Oh grant me eternal life,
    Oh grant me eternal life.

But alas, can any of the 48 vows be kept

While still trapped in this mortal frame?

                (translation by Mark Peterson, 2006)

Some had a Confucian tone like this poem describing the unflinching and noble spirit of the hwarang.

   Ode to Knight Kip'a

    The moon that pushes her way
    Through the thickets of clouds,
    Is she not pursuing
    The white clouds?

    Knight Kip’a once stood by the water,
    Reflecting his face in the Iro,
    Henceforth I shall seek and gather
    The depth of his mind among pebbles.

    Knight, you are the towering pine
    That scorns frost, ignores snow.
                                   (Transalted by Peter Lee, The Columbia Anthology)

===Goryeo songs=== 長歌 Changga

These songs of Goryeo (Koryo)are called long poems in contrast with the later period Sijo that included only three lines. Only 21 of these poems have been transmitted.

Differently of the hyangga which often had a religious tone these changga anonymous were mostly secular songs expressing the life of ordinary people but their transmission has become complex due to the use by the court with some modificiations. They were first transmitted orally and later on written down at the end of the 15th century and at the beginning of the 16th century

The Koryo songs are considered as the oldes Korean songs. Experts have it that these songs which were transcribed into hangul give us not only the sense but also the sound. They give us the impression that we hear the people of that time.

The themes of these poems deal with simple life close to nature but they focus mainly on the theme of love which can be ordinary love, the parting of someone or special forms of love like the mother's love.

   Samo kok

   Though a hoe too is an edged blade
   It does not cut like a scythe.
   Though father too is a parent,
   Wi tongdo-tungshong
   Nobody loves like a mother.
   Please understand, my Lord,
   Nobody loves like a mother.
                             (Translated by Kichung Kim, Classical Korean Literature)

The poetic form of the Goryeo songs is known as byeolgok. There are two distinct forms: dallyeonche (단련체) and yeonjanche (연잔체). The former is a shorter form in which the entire poem was put into a single stanza, whereas the latter is a more extended form in which the poem is put into several stanzas. The Goryeo songs are characterized by their lack of clear form, and by their increased length. Most are direct in their nature, and cover aspects of common life.

===Sijo and Gasa === 時調 歌詞

See main entry: Sijo, Gasa

Sijo and gasa are closely linked to the development of hangul in the early Joseon period. As hangul was created, akjang was developed as a way to note musical scores using the Korean script. King Sejong himself is credited with a compilation of Buddhist songs.

The word sijo is made of time and harmony. This form of poetry is also called tan-ga 短歌 by opposition to changga since it is short, made only of three lines with a pause in the middle of each line.

Sijo (literally current tune) was common in the Joseon period. Although its poetic form was established in the late Goryeo period, it did not become popular until the Joseon period. Many of the sijo reflected Confucian thought; the theme of loyalty is common but many other themes are dealt with: Regrets about aging, sorrow over spurned love or loss of power and honor, reaffirmation of loyalty to a lost cause.

Sijo are characterized by a structure of three stanzas of four feet each. Each foot contains three to four syllables except on the third stanza, where the 1st foot is supposed to have 3 syllables and the 2nd foot can have as many as seven. Sijo are thought to have been popular with common people.

Among the sijo most cherished by the Koreans is this pem writtent by Chong Mong-ju who, although a Confucian scholar, expressed his loyalty to the las king of Koryo and refused to serve the new dynasty created by General Yi Son-gye in 1392. It movingly expressed the value of an unchanging heart.

   Were I to die a hundred times,
   Then die and die again,
   With all my bones no more than dust,
   My soul gone far from men.  
   Yet still my red blood, shed for you,
   Shall witness that my heart was true.

                           (Peter Lee, The Columbia Anthology)

Gasa is a form of verse, although its content can include more than the expression of individual sentiment, such as moral admonitions. Gasa is a simple form of verse, with twinned feet of three or four syllables each. Some regard gasa a form of essay. Common themes in gasa were nature, the virtues of gentlemen, or love between man and woman.

3.The Evolution of Korean Literature

Besides poetry other genres were taking shape during the Koryo period, mostly during the age of the military under the dictatorship of the family Ch’oe. Let us mention the activity related to different literary genres:

1. Historical writing: Kim Pu-sik (1075-1151), Samguk sagi 三國史記 with a Confucian view and later on Iryôn (1206-1289), a Buddhist monk Samguk yusa 三國遺事, history of the three Kingdoms. As previously mentioned part of the hyanggya were included in the samguk yusa in Chinese characters.  

2. Biographical works like the Tongmunsôn, Eastern Korean Anthology of Literature (1478, 1518) with various texts such as memorials, inscriptions and critical writings. Tongmunson 東文選 is an anthology with an encyclopedic dimension going back as far as Koguryo but mostly written during the Koryo period. Another text is the kongbangjôn 孔方傳 of Im Ch’un (1170). Chuk puinjôn, 竹夫人傳 the story of Madame Bamboo of Yi Kok (1297-1351) speaks of objects or animals as if they weere human beings. It was a way to criticize the king’s court and social problems. It makes us think of the fables of Aesop in Greece or La Fontaine in France.  

The birth of Korean novel

We are used to read all-made books of literature or well printed novels but the appearance of Korean novels and world literature novels are also quite recent. They are the fruits of many attempts and gropes during history.Therefore the genre of Korea "novel” slowly took shape. It is first spoken not of novel but of “romance”.

Among the pioneers of this genre we find Kim Si-sup (1435-1493) with his Kûmho sinhwa, new stories of Kûmho, among them the story of Student Yi peers over the Wall. People spoke too quickly about novel. The genre influenced by Chinese literature still remains at that tome within the atmosphere of Taoism with the dimension of fantastic reality and dreams. Like Rabelais (1494-1553) in France Kim Si-sup was an eccentric monk and both were trying to bring new ideas into society. Both used the fantasy and imageries to awaken the mind of their contemporaries. Often Kim Si-sup counted tales of wonder and love affairs between mortals and ghosts and dream journeys to the underworld or to the dragon palace.

A special place must be made for Hô Kyun (1559-1618), and the story of Hong Kilton. Although this short work is considered as the first real Korean novel, it is closer to a “short story.” It is the fictive biography of the bastard of an aristocrat, in the style of a Chinese story. The hero gathers around him rebels to correct social ills. As an illegitimate son he fights to be recognized and accepted as a legitimate member of the literati. The utopian place he built resembles the Confucian society. Hô Kyun lived at the time of Shakespeare.

The research in the direction of novel within the classical atmosphere is best illustrated by Kim Man-jung (1637-1692)'s story A Nine Cloud Dream. This story of a young Buddhist novice dreaming in his cell of achieving the worldly life of a Confucian scholar and coming to hos cell as a monk to be chastized by his master becuse of his desires was very popular. It was popular for the many adventures, amorous encounters but also for its poetry. It carried two contradictory dreams that usually people have, one for wordless success and the other for a withdrawl from the world to find serenity and peace.

However "A Nine Cloud Dream", as its name indicates was all about dreams, it did not present fiable characters, true concrete situations to which the reader can rely. The hero has already achieved at 16 years of age scholarship, career, family... the story is not related neither to T’ang China or to the 17th century Korea. It is just a blend of romance and fairy tale as it was described. As a consequence this story does not qualify yet as a modern novel.

===Fiction===

. Pansori was a particularly popular form of fiction, appearing in the late 17th and early 18th century. The contents of pansori are rooted in fiction. Pansori fiction is based on the orally transmitted pansori, and characterized by human stereotypes of ordinary people of the time.

In the mid-Joseon period, parable-like stories were published. By the end of the Joseon period, many writers had started to deviate from the orthodox conventions of classical Chinese literature, and literature about common people such as merchants, thieves, or gisaeng were commonplace.

==Modern literature==

Modern Korean literature gradually developed under the influence of Western cultural contacts based on trade and economic development. Christian thought found its way into Korea, but it was mostly artistic styles that influenced Korean literature. Music and classical poetry, formerly considered one as part of changgok, were increasingly perceived as separate realms.

Modern literature is often linked with the development of hangul, which helped spread literacy from the dominant classes to the common people, including women. Hangul, however, only reached a dominant position in Korean literature in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in a major growth in Korean literature. Sinsoseol, for instance, are novels written in hangul.

===Joseon===

Modern Korean literature developed against the background of the Joseon Dynasty's fall. This first period of modern Korean literature is often called gaehwa gyemong (Enlightenment).

This period was to a large extent influenced by the 1894 Gabo Reforms which introduced Western-style schools and newspapers emerged. Many newspapers published sijo, gasa, or even serial novels and led to the emergence of professional writers.

Sinchesi (new poetry) was established, and contributed to the formation of modern free verse poetry (jayusi). Sinchesi abandoned the fixed meter found in classical Korean poetry, influenced by the French verse libre.

Many biographical works were published in the late Joseon period where the main character was often depicted as a hero. These works cultivated patriotism and national consciousness.

Songs of the Dragons Flying to Heaven

Songs of the Dragons Flying to Heaven was compiled during the reign of King Sejong as an official recognition of the Yi dynasty and its ancestral heritage as the forerunners of Chosun, the golden age of Korea. The Songs were composed through the efforts of a committee of Confucian philologists and literati in the form of 125 cantos. This compilation was the first piece of Korean text to depart from a long history reliant on Chinese characters and be recorded in Hangul, the first and official alphabet of Korea. There are several underlying themes in addition to the establishment of the Yi dynasty which are of significant importance to understanding the events that provoked the creation of these poems: linear events that took place in China, the apotheosis of virtuous Kings proceeding the fall of the Koryo dynasty, and Confucian political and philosophical ideologies of the era in rejection to Buddhism. Each of the poems included in the work convey deep-seated feelings of nationalism and a proud proclamation of cultural independence from the Mongol empire.

Implications of the Songs

The dragons spoken of in the title the Songs are a representation of the six ancestors of the Yi dynasty: Mokcho, Ikcho, Tojo, Hwanjo, T’aejo (Yi-Songye), and T’aejong (Yi-Bangwon). The dragons flying to Heaven signifies the Yi dynasty acting accordingly to the Mandate of Heaven, in which they are imparted with divine support. This not only substantiates the Yi ancestry as morally and politically virtuous dynasty, but lays the ideological foundation for generations of Chosun rulers to follow.

Canto II

A tree with deep roots,
Because the wind sways it not,
Blossoms Abundantly
And bears fruit.
The water from a deep spring,
Because a drought dries it not,
Becomes a stream
And flows to the sea.

-Translation by James Hoyt

===Colonial period===

During the Japanese rule of Korea (1910–1945), speech and the press were restricted, affecting the Korean literature of the time. Many expressions of the late Joseon period, with their focus on self-reliance and independence, were no longer possible.

With the Samil Movement in 1919 a new form of Korean literature was established. Many writers exhibited a more positive attitude, trying to cope with the national situation at the time. Literature focused on self-discovery, and increasingly on concrete reality. Artistic endeavors were supported by national newspapers.

Many novels of the 1920s centered around the themes of the suffering of intellectuals who drift through reality. The lives of farmers were often depicted as pathetic. As the Japanese government strengthened ideological coercion during the 1930s, Korean literature was directly affected. Many novels of the time experimented with new literary styles and techniques.

===National division===

After the liberation from Japan in 1945, Korea soon found itself divided into North and South. The Korean War led to the development of literature centered around the wounds and chaos of war. Much of the post-war literature in South Korea deals with the daily lives of ordinary people, and their struggles with national pain. The collapse of the traditional Korean value system is another common theme of the time.

In the post-war period, a traditionalist movement emerged: going back to the roots of traditional rhythms and folk sentiments. Other poets are linked to an experimentalist movement, attempting to bring new experiences to Korean poetry.

In the 1960s many writers started to reject post-war literature as sentimental escapism. While some Korean authors reflected traditional humanism, writings by many others reflect deep alienation and despair. They sought to engage the readers with the political reality of the time. This led poetry and literature in general to become an important means of political expression. Also remarkable for the development of literature in 1960s was the influence of Western modernism. The 1970s saw the emergence of literature that was anti-establishment and dealt with the concerns of rapid industrialization, such as the neglect of farmers. At the same time, literature concerned with the national division (bundansoseol) became more popular.

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the national division is still a common theme, but classic stories are also popular. Some North Korean writers are very highly appreciated in the South and in 2005 writers from both Koreas held a joint literary congress.

==Korean literature abroad==

Until the 1980s Korean literature was largely unknown outside of the peninsula. The kind of works translated has become increasingly diverse, and the quality of the translations has improved. Flowers of Fire was one of the first anthologies of Korean literature published in English. In non-English-speaking countries there are fewer Korean works translated. The increased popularity of Korean film has increased interest in Korean literature.

• See also: Literature of Korea, Korean novel, Korean graphic novel

External links

• http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/literature.htm#Literature%20of%20the%20Period%20of%20National%20Division
• Kyujanggak Achieve(big pdfs of many Korean classics)

See also

• Korean poetry
• Culture of Korea
• List of Korean language poets
• List of Korea-related topics

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