Difference between revisions of "Imhotep" - New World Encyclopedia

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As is often the case for individuals whose historical existence was sufficiently remote, little is definitively known about the life of Imhotep, an Egyptian culture hero from the Third Dynasty period. Fortunately, the surviving complex of scribal records, artistic depictions, and mythic accounts paints a relatively consistent picture of the man, allowing us to draw up the following biographical sketch.
 
As is often the case for individuals whose historical existence was sufficiently remote, little is definitively known about the life of Imhotep, an Egyptian culture hero from the Third Dynasty period. Fortunately, the surviving complex of scribal records, artistic depictions, and mythic accounts paints a relatively consistent picture of the man, allowing us to draw up the following biographical sketch.
  
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Imhotep, often thought to have been a commoner, entered into the service of King Djoser (reigned ca. 2630-2610 B.C.E.)<ref>Dates courtesy of [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/djoser.shtml BBC History]. A slightly different timeline is suggested by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_dynasty_of_Egypt wikipedia]. Both retrieved August 15, 2007.</ref> relatively early in life, gradually earning the position of royal chancellor.  
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Imhotep, often thought to have been a Memphite commoner, entered into the service of King Djoser (reigned ca. 2630-2610 B.C.E.)<ref>As per [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/djoser.shtml BBC History]. A slightly different timeline is suggested by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_dynasty_of_Egypt wikipedia]. Both retrieved August 15, 2007.</ref> relatively early in life, gradually earning the position of royal chancellor. In this capacity, he began to began to enact the humanistic, administrative and scientific reforms for which he came to be revered. Most notably, he was renowned for his architectural prowess, and was credited with designing the [[Pyramid of Djoser]]&mdash;the first Step Pyramid in Egyptian history, built at [[Saqqara]] in between  2630 and 2611 B.C.E.<ref>Barry J. Kemp, ''Ancient Egypt: The Anatomy of a Civilization'', (Routledge, 2005). 159. ISBN 0415063469. See also Shafer, who notes that "in the Djoser complex, the architect Imhotep apparently united basic elements found in the royal funerary architecture of Abydos with the traditions of Memphis. The royal Abydene tomb may be reflected in the south tomb; the Memphite tomb, in the north tomb under the stepped pyramid. ... Perhaps later builders believed Imhotep's large-scale architectural model was too much of a pastiche to warrant further development. In any event, the funerary complexes of the short-lived successors of King Djoser were greatly simplified and consisted of paneled enclosures that omitted all the interior buildings except the stepped pyramid and the southern tomb" (43-44).</ref> He was also recognized for his contributions to Egyptian literature, to the extent that he was "mentioned in a Middle Kingdom text as one of the sages whose memory lives through their writings."<ref>Pinch, 148. For another example of this characterization, Breasted quotes an Old Kingdom-era funerary song that states: "I have heard the words of Imhotep" (182).</ref> His association with written culture is also evidenced by iconographic depictions, which portray him with as a studious man with a scribal papyrus in his lap.<ref>Wilkinson, 112.</ref> The range of this remarkable man's achievements is evidenced by a Third Dynasty stele, which comprises a list of royally-sanctioned titles, including "Chancellor of the King of Lower Egypt; First after the King of Upper Egypt; Administrator of the Great Palace; Hereditary nobleman; High Priest of Heliopolis; Builder; Chief Carpenter; Chief Sculptor and Maker of Vases in Chief."<ref>Jimmy Dunn, "Imhotep: Doctor, Architect, High Priest, Scribe and Vizier to King Djoser," [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/imhotep.htm a feature article for tour-egypt.net]. Retrieved August 15, 2007.</ref>
  
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Much else 'known' about him is hearsay and conjecture.  The Egyptians credited him with many inventions. As one of the officials of the [[Pharaoh]] [[Djoser|Djosèr]] he probably designed the [[Pyramid of Djoser]] (the [[Step Pyramid]]) at [[Saqqara]] in [[History of ancient Egypt|Egypt]] around [[27th century B.C.E.|2630]]-[[27th century B.C.E.|2611 B.C.E.]] <ref>''Ancient Egypt'' by Barry J. Kemp, Routledge 2005, p.159</ref>. He may  have been responsible for the first known use of [[column]]s in [[architecture]].  He  has also been claimed to be the inventor of  the [[Papyrus]] scroll being its  oldest known bearer.
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Either during his lifetime (or in the centuries immediately following his death), Imhotep was also deemed to be the founder of Egyptian medicine. This suggestions was supported by his attributed authorship of a medical treatise remarkable for its abstention from magical thinking, the so-called [[Edwin Smith papyrus]], which provided detailed anatomical observations, and a catalog of ailments and cures. The surviving papyrus was probably written around 1700 BCE, though it could easily have been a copy of a text (or texts) that were a thousand years older. This attribution is speculative, but it is consistent with classical Egyptian characterization of Imhotep. As Wilkinson notes, "although his medical achievements are not contemporaneously documented, the fact that Imhotep became known as a virtual medical demigod within a century or so of his death seems to indicate that he may well have been a highly skilled physician."<ref>Wilkinson, 111-112. See also: Erman, 173-174; Leonard Francis Peltier, ''Fractures: A History and Iconography of Their Treatment'' (Norman Publishing, 1990), 16. ISBN 0930405161.</ref>
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Imhotep is credited with being the founder of [[Ancient Egyptian medicine|Egyptian medicine]], and with being the author of a medical treatise remarkable for being devoid of magical thinking, the so-called [[Edwin Smith papyrus]], detailing [[anatomy|anatomical]] observations, ailments, and cures. The surviving papyrus was probably written around [[1700 BC]] but may be a copy of texts a thousand years older. This attribution of authorship is speculative <ref>''Fractures: A History and Iconography of Their Treatment'' By Leonard Francis Peltier, Norman Publishing 1990, p.16</ref>.
 
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The full list of his titles, as preserved on a Third Dynasty stele, includes such epithets as "Chancellor of the King of Lower Egypt; First after the King of Upper Egypt; Administrator of the Great Palace; Hereditary nobleman; High Priest of Heliopolis; Builder; Chief Carpenter; Chief Sculptor and Maker of Vases in Chief."<ref>Jimmy Dunn, "Imhotep: Doctor, Architect, High Priest, Scribe and Vizier to King Djoser," [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/imhotep.htm a feature article for tour-egypt.net]. Retrieved August 15, 2007.</ref>
 
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The knowledge of the location of Imhotep's tomb was lost in antiquity <ref>[http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/harpers_lay.htm The Harper's Lay, ca. 2000 B.C.E.]</ref> and is still unknown, despite efforts to find it. The general consensus is that it is at [[Saqqara]].
 
  
 
== Cultural and Mythological Legacy ==
 
== Cultural and Mythological Legacy ==

Revision as of 06:11, 16 August 2007

Statuette of Imhotep in the Louvre

Imhotep (sometimes spelled Immutef, Im-hotep, or Ii-em-Hotep, Egyptian ii-m-ḥtp *jā-im-ḥatāp meaning "the one who comes in peace") served under the Third Dynasty king Djoser (reigned ca. 2630-2610 B.C.E.)[1] as chancellor to the pharaoh and high priest of the creator god Ptah at Heliopolis. His excellence in practical scholarship has led to the preservation of his reputation as a preeminent architect and physician—arguably the earliest practitioner of each discipline known by name in human history.[2]

<cult>

Imhotep in an Egyptian Context

Imhotep
in hieroglyphs
M18mR4

As an Egyptian culture hero/deity, Imhotep belonged to a complex religious, mythological and cosmological belief system developed in the Nile river basin from earliest prehistory to 525 B.C.E.[3] Indeed, it was during this relatively late period in Egyptian cultural development, a time when they first felt their beliefs threatened by foreigners, that many of their myths, legends and religious beliefs were first recorded.[4] The cults within this framework, whose beliefs comprise the myths we have before us, were generally fairly localized phenomena, with different deities having the place of honor in different communities.[5] Despite this apparently unlimited diversity, however, the gods (unlike those in many other pantheons) were relatively ill-defined. As Frankfort notes, “the Egyptian gods are imperfect as individuals. If we compare two of them … we find, not two personages, but two sets of functions and emblems. … The hymns and prayers addressed to these gods differ only in the epithets and attributes used. There is no hint that the hymns were addressed to individuals differing in character.”[6] One reason for this was the undeniable fact that the Egyptian gods were seen as utterly immanental—they represented (and were continuous with) particular, discrete elements of the natural world.[7] Thus, those who did develop characters and mythologies were generally quite portable, as they could retain their discrete forms without interfering with the various cults already in practice elsewhere. Also, this flexibility was what permitted the development of multipartite cults (i.e. the cult of Amun-Re, which unified the domains of Amun and Re), as the spheres of influence of these various deities were often complimentary.[8]

The worldview engendered by ancient Egyptian religion was uniquely appropriate to (and defined by) the geographical and calendrical realities of its believer’s lives. Unlike the beliefs of the Hebrews, Mesopotamians and others within their cultural sphere, the Egyptians viewed both history and cosmology as being well ordered, cyclical and dependable. As a result, all changes were interpreted as either inconsequential deviations from the cosmic plan or cyclical transformations required by it.[9] The major result of this perspective, in terms of the religious imagination, was to reduce the relevance of the present, as the entirety of history (when conceived of cyclically) was ultimately defined during the creation of the cosmos. The only other aporia in such an understanding is death, which seems to present a radical break with continuity. To maintain the integrity of this worldview, an intricate system of practices and beliefs (including the extensive mythic geographies of the afterlife, texts providing moral guidance (for this life and the next) and rituals designed to facilitate the transportation into the afterlife) was developed, whose primary purpose was to emphasize the unending continuation of existence.[10] Given these two cultural foci, it is understandable that the tales recorded within this mythological corpus tended to be either creation accounts or depictions of the world of the dead, with a particular focus on the relationship between the gods and their human constituents.

Biography

As is often the case for individuals whose historical existence was sufficiently remote, little is definitively known about the life of Imhotep, an Egyptian culture hero from the Third Dynasty period. Fortunately, the surviving complex of scribal records, artistic depictions, and mythic accounts paints a relatively consistent picture of the man, allowing us to draw up the following biographical sketch.

Imhotep, often thought to have been a Memphite commoner, entered into the service of King Djoser (reigned ca. 2630-2610 B.C.E.)[11] relatively early in life, gradually earning the position of royal chancellor. In this capacity, he began to began to enact the humanistic, administrative and scientific reforms for which he came to be revered. Most notably, he was renowned for his architectural prowess, and was credited with designing the Pyramid of Djoser—the first Step Pyramid in Egyptian history, built at Saqqara in between 2630 and 2611 B.C.E.[12] He was also recognized for his contributions to Egyptian literature, to the extent that he was "mentioned in a Middle Kingdom text as one of the sages whose memory lives through their writings."[13] His association with written culture is also evidenced by iconographic depictions, which portray him with as a studious man with a scribal papyrus in his lap.[14] The range of this remarkable man's achievements is evidenced by a Third Dynasty stele, which comprises a list of royally-sanctioned titles, including "Chancellor of the King of Lower Egypt; First after the King of Upper Egypt; Administrator of the Great Palace; Hereditary nobleman; High Priest of Heliopolis; Builder; Chief Carpenter; Chief Sculptor and Maker of Vases in Chief."[15]

Either during his lifetime (or in the centuries immediately following his death), Imhotep was also deemed to be the founder of Egyptian medicine. This suggestions was supported by his attributed authorship of a medical treatise remarkable for its abstention from magical thinking, the so-called Edwin Smith papyrus, which provided detailed anatomical observations, and a catalog of ailments and cures. The surviving papyrus was probably written around 1700 B.C.E., though it could easily have been a copy of a text (or texts) that were a thousand years older. This attribution is speculative, but it is consistent with classical Egyptian characterization of Imhotep. As Wilkinson notes, "although his medical achievements are not contemporaneously documented, the fact that Imhotep became known as a virtual medical demigod within a century or so of his death seems to indicate that he may well have been a highly skilled physician."[16]

Cultural and Mythological Legacy

Another image of the same statue

Imhotep is the only mortal to be depicted on the foot-stone of a king's statue and one of a few commoners to be accorded divine status after his death. The centre of his cult was Memphis. From the First Intermediate Period onward Imhotep was also revered as a poet and philosopher. His sayings were famously referred to in poems: I have heard the words of Imhotep and Hordedef with whose discourses men speak so much. [17]

Two thousand years after his death, his status was raised to that of a god. He became the god of medicine and healing. He was linked to Asclepius by the Greeks. The Encyclopedia Britannica says, "The evidence aforded by Egyptian and Greek texts support the view that Imhotep's reputation was very respected in early times... His prestige increased with the lapse of centuries and his temples in Greek times were the centers of medical teachings."

As the "son of Ian", his mother was sometimes said to be Sekhmet, who was often said to be married to Ptah, since she was the patron of Upper Egypt. As he was considered the inventor of healing, he was also sometimes said to be the one who held up Nut (deification of the sky), as the separation of Nut and Geb (deification of the earth) was said to be what held back chaos. Due to the position this would have placed him in, he was also sometimes said to be Nut's son. In artwork he is also linked with Hathor, who was the wife of Ra, Maat, which was the concept of truth and justice, and Amenhotep son of Hapu, who was another deified architect.

It is Imhotep, says Sir William Osler, who was the real Father of Medicine. "The first figure of a physician to stand out clearly from the mists of antiquity."

An inscription from Upper Egypt, dating from the Ptolemaic period, mentions a famine of seven years during the time of Imhotep. According to the inscription, the reigning pharaoh, Djoser, had a dream in which the Nile god spoke to him. Imhotep is credited with helping to solve the famine, and the obvious parallels with the biblical story of Joseph have long been commented upon. [18]. More recently, the Joseph parallels have led some alternative historians to actually identify Imhotep with Joseph, and to argue that the supposedly thousand years separating them are indicative of a faulty chronology. [19].

Notes

  1. ↑ Dates courtesy of BBC History. A slightly different timeline is suggested by wikipedia. Both retrieved August 15, 2007.
  2. ↑ William Osler, The Evolution of Modern Medicine, (Kessinger Publishing, 2004). 12. ISBN 1426400217.
  3. ↑ This particular "cut-off" date has been chosen because it corresponds to the Persian conquest of the kingdom, which marks the end of its existence as a discrete and (relatively) circumscribed cultural sphere. Indeed, as this period also saw an influx of immigrants from Greece, it was also at this point that the Hellenization of Egyptian religion began. While some scholars suggest that even when "these beliefs became remodeled by contact with Greece, in essentials they remained what they had always been" (Erman, 203), it still seems reasonable to address these traditions, as far as is possible, within their own cultural milieu.
  4. ↑ The numerous inscriptions, stelae and papyri that resulted from this sudden stress on historical posterity provide much of the evidence used by modern archeologists and Egyptologists to approach the ancient Egyptian tradition (Pinch, 31-32).
  5. ↑ These local groupings often contained a particular number of deities and were often constructed around the incontestably primary character of a creator god (Meeks and Meeks-Favard, 34-37).
  6. ↑ Frankfort, 25-26.
  7. ↑ Zivie-Coche, 40-41; Frankfort, 23, 28-29.
  8. ↑ Frankfort, 20-21.
  9. ↑ Assmann, 73-80; Zivie-Coche, 65-67; Breasted argues that one source of this cyclical timeline was the dependable yearly fluctuations of the Nile (8, 22-24).
  10. ↑ Frankfort, 117-124; Zivie-Coche, 154-166.
  11. ↑ As per BBC History. A slightly different timeline is suggested by wikipedia. Both retrieved August 15, 2007.
  12. ↑ Barry J. Kemp, Ancient Egypt: The Anatomy of a Civilization, (Routledge, 2005). 159. ISBN 0415063469. See also Shafer, who notes that "in the Djoser complex, the architect Imhotep apparently united basic elements found in the royal funerary architecture of Abydos with the traditions of Memphis. The royal Abydene tomb may be reflected in the south tomb; the Memphite tomb, in the north tomb under the stepped pyramid. ... Perhaps later builders believed Imhotep's large-scale architectural model was too much of a pastiche to warrant further development. In any event, the funerary complexes of the short-lived successors of King Djoser were greatly simplified and consisted of paneled enclosures that omitted all the interior buildings except the stepped pyramid and the southern tomb" (43-44).
  13. ↑ Pinch, 148. For another example of this characterization, Breasted quotes an Old Kingdom-era funerary song that states: "I have heard the words of Imhotep" (182).
  14. ↑ Wilkinson, 112.
  15. ↑ Jimmy Dunn, "Imhotep: Doctor, Architect, High Priest, Scribe and Vizier to King Djoser," a feature article for tour-egypt.net. Retrieved August 15, 2007.
  16. ↑ Wilkinson, 111-112. See also: Erman, 173-174; Leonard Francis Peltier, Fractures: A History and Iconography of Their Treatment (Norman Publishing, 1990), 16. ISBN 0930405161.
  17. ↑ Ancient Egypt by Barry J. Kemp, Routledge 2005, p.159
  18. ↑ Vandier, La Famine dans l Egypte ancienne
  19. ↑ Emmet Sweeney, The Genesis of Israel and Egypt, London, 1997

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.

  • Assmann, Jan. In search for God in ancient Egypt. Translated by David Lorton. Ithica: Cornell University Press, 2001. ISBN 0801487293.
  • Breasted, James Henry. Development of religion and thought in ancient Egypt. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986. ISBN 0812210454.
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). The Egyptian Book of the Dead. 1895. Accessed at sacred-texts.com.
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). The Egyptian Heaven and Hell. 1905. Accessed at [www.sacred-texts.com/egy/ehh.htm sacred-texts.com].
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis. The gods of the Egyptians; or, Studies in Egyptian mythology. A Study in Two Volumes. New York: Dover Publications, 1969.
  • Budge, E. A. Wallis (translator). Legends of the Gods: The Egyptian texts. 1912. Accessed at sacred-texts.com.
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  • Erman, Adolf. A handbook of Egyptian religion. Translated by A. S. Griffith. London: Archibald Constable, 1907.
  • Frankfort, Henri. Ancient Egyptian Religion. New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1961. ISBN 0061300772.
  • Griffith, F. Ll. and Thompson, Herbert (translators). The Leyden Papyrus. 1904. Accessed at sacred-texts.com.
  • Klotz, David. Adoration of the Ram: Five Hymns to Amun-Re from Hibis Temple. New Haven, 2006. ISBN 0974002526.
  • Larson, Martin A. The Story of Christian Origins. 1977. ISBN 0883310902.
  • Meeks, Dimitri and Meeks-Favard, Christine. Daily life of the Egyptian gods. Translated from the French by G.M. Goshgarian. Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press, 1996. ISBN 0801431158.
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