Dao De Jing

The Tao Te Ching ( Chinese: 道德經, meaning The Classic on the Way and its Power or Virtue) is a famous Chinese philosophical text attributed to the authorship of Lao Tzu (6th century B.C.E.), and highly influential in the religion of Taoism. The Tao Te Ching is renowned as the second most widely translated text in the world after the Holy Bible, and it's influence on Asian thought, literature and art has been substantial. The Tao Te Ching is a small text consisting of a mere 5000 words, divided into 81 chapters. It is written in a pithy style (a set of concise, cryptic aphorisms) and often employs ambigious and paradoxical language to present profoud philosophical teachings. As such, it is open to a variety of interpretations and has generated a substantial corpus of commentaries and translations.

Origin of the Tao Te Ching

According to legend, Lao Tzu, the ostensible founder of Taoism, became disgusted with iniquities of life in feudal China and decided to leave his home in the state Chou for an unfettered life in the wilderness. When he reached the Western Pass (the border between civilized China and the barbarian wilds), a guard petitioned him to record his teachings for the edification of future generations. Compliantly, the elder sage descended from his donkey and wrote the entirety of the Tao Te Ching in one sitting. When finished, and without a backward glance, Lao-tzu departed through the gate, never to be seen again.

Though this story (and the very existence of Lao-tzu) have been contested by modern scholars, the text attributed to him remains one of the most renowned of Chinese philosophicla writings. Throughout Chinese history, the Tao Te Ching has received constant commentarial attention, and it has been continually translated since the earliest Western contact.

For many scholars, the Tao Te Ching, rather than being the product of a single sagely author, is a gradual accretion of centuries of wisdom - a compendium of epigrams forwarding a particularly mystical (or at least contemplative) worldview. This point of view is supported by a number of historical facts including the paucity of historical evidence for the existence of Lao-tzu, the failure of (supposedly) contemporaneous documents to mention the text (especially the Chuang-tzu (Zhuangzi)), and the presence of multiple editorial hands visible in the work (attested to by repetition, confusing passages and other textual problems that should not have arisen if the text was written by a single author). For these scholars, the Tao Te Ching is a text whose final redaction likely occured in the middle of the third century B.C.E. (nearly three centuries later than the traditionally accepted date) (See Fowler, 2005; Graham, 1989; Lau, 1963; Pas, 1998).

Textual and Stylistic Issues

In terms of style, the Tao Te Ching is a set of concise, cryptic aphorisms. The difficulties inherent in apprehending the meaning behind these statements are only deepened by evident textual problems and incoherencies often arising from transmission errors. This “transmission error” hypothesis was verified in 1973, when an archaeological excavation at Ma Wang Tui unearthed two separate versions of the text, each dating from approximately 200 B.C.E. While this find proved the existence of some significant errors in the then-most-current Wang Pi edition of the text, further problematic passages within those texts have caused experts to theorize that, even at this point, some textual corruption had occurred. As a result of these issues, Chinese thinkers have often resorted to commentaries for explicating these difficult passages (Pas, 1998; Graham, 1989). Such difficulties are exacerbated when attempting to translate the text from its original idiom, as classical Chinese is a language that is noted for its ability to traffic in fruitful ambiguities (Rosemont, 1974). For an example of these translation difficulties, we can turn to Michael LaFargue and Julian Pas (1998, p. 290):

[Note: Each of the names preceding a quotation represents an English-language

edition of the text. These all represent different translations of Tao Te Ching 4:1.]

Addiss: Tao is empty/ Its use never exhausted.

Brynner: Existence, by nothing bred,/ Breeds everything.

Ch’u: Tao is a whirling emptiness/ Yet in use it is inexhaustible.

Duyvendak: The Way is like an empty vessel which, in spite of being used, is never filled.

Lau (‘63): The way is empty, yet use will not drain it.

Lau (’82): The way is empty, yet when used there is something that does not make it full.

Though their text contains numerous other examples, the above is sufficient to indicate the difficulties that the style of the text creates, even for the most careful translator.

Philosophy of the Tao Te Ching

Cosmology and the Tao

The first major philosophical achievement of the Tao Te Ching is the elucidation of the concept of Tao. While the term Tao (or Dao) can be found throughout the writings of classical Chinese philosophers, its meaning was rather amorphous – though it typically was tied to the notion of a “path” (usually in a moral context). It was not until the Tao Te Ching (and the Chuang-tzu) that the notion was extended into its modern, cosmological form. Specifically, the text “offers us two basic meanings of the Dao: the Dao is the universal necessity underlying all things and controlling their existence, and the Dao is the very beginning of all things” (Xie, 2000, 470). Though this statement perhaps implies too great a philosophical systematicity (drawing, as it seems to, from the Wang Pi commentary), it does summarize two trends within the ‘’Tao Te Ching's cosmological depiction of the Tao.

The depiction of Tao as (cosmologically) creative force can be seen in chapter 25:

There is a thing confusedly formed,

Born before heaven and earth.

Silent and void

It stands alone and does not change,

Goes round and does not weary.

It is capable of being the mother of the world.

I know not its name

So I style it ‘the way’ [Tao].

This depiction of ‘’Tao’’ as the ultimate source of the cosmos is also echoed in the first chapter of the text, where the Way is described as the union between the named (“the mother of the myriad creatures”) and the nameless (“the beginning of heaven and earth”) (TTC 1:2).

In addition to this understanding of Tao as a cosmological creation point, the text also describes it in more “verbal” terms – as the mode of action by which the world operates. One of the clearest depictions of this unique conception is found in chapter 34:

The way is broad, reaching left as well as right.

The myriad creatures depend on it for life yet it claims no authority

It accomplishes its task yet lays claim for no merit

It clothes and feeds the myriad creatures yet lays no claim to being their master.

Forever free of desire, it can be called small; yet, as it lays no claim to being

master when the myriad creatures turn to it, it can be called great. It is because it

never attempts to be great that it succeeds in becoming great.

This operational depiction of Tao can also be seen in the most common metaphors used to describe it – namely, water (which effortlessly finds the lowest ground (see TTC 8, 28) and uncarved wood (which simply is as it is (TTC 32). This mode of action – acting without desire, in the most natural way possible – is called ‘’wu-wei’’. Numerous passages in the text develop the idea that this is, in fact, the way that the manner in which the ‘’Tao’’ acts in the world (TTC 37).

Developing these two notions (of Tao as cosmological originator and as worldly operational principle) is one of the elements of creative genius visible in the text. The second is its attempt to then unite this cosmological and metaphysical understanding with a practicable system of behavioural ethics.

Ethics, Proper Governance and Te

According to the Tao Te Ching, the Tao’s mode of action in the world is ‘’wu-wei’’ and proper human action is, accordingly, understood in the same manner. Of the sage (an ideal human), the text suggests that “because he does nothing, [he] never ruins anything; and, because he does not lay hold of anything, loses nothing” (TTC 64: cf. 43, 63). In a more explicit manner, the text states:

Know the male

But keep to the role of the female

And be a ravine to the empire.

If you are a ravine to the empire,

Then constant virtue will not desert you

…

Know honour

But keep to the role of the disgraced

And be a valley to the empire.

If you are a valley to the empire,

Then the constant virtue will be self-sufficient

And you will return to being the uncarved block (TTC 28).

The above passage, in addition to advocating behavioural wu-wei, also seems to be addressing a ruler. This theme is developed more explicitly in the context of proper governance. For example, chapter 17 suggests that: The best of all rulers is but a shadowy presence to his subjects. … Hesitant, he does not utter words lightly. When his task is accomplished and his work done The people all say, ‘It happened to us naturally’ (See also: TTC 29, 60, 61, 80). In this way, the classical Chinese model of “virtue” (Te– a notion having more to do with efficacy and charisma than ethics (Slingerland, 2000) becomes reinterpreted within the Taoist framework.

Significance

Why has such a small text commanded such a place of primacy in history of world religions and philosophy? It seems that part of the appeal of the text is derived from its succinctness. While it does not investigate the variety of philosophical issues tackled in the Chuang-tzu, the Tao Te Ching instead focuses with razor-like precision upon two related themes: the development a unique cosmology (focusing on the relationship between the Tao and the world), and the explication of an ethic of virtuous, non-attached action (Wu-wei) corresponding to that cosmological understanding. This division is echoed in the name of the text itself, which can be translated as “The Classic of the Way (Tao) and [its] Virtue (De).” Given the extent to which the text successfully develops these themes, it is perhaps not surprising that the Han dynasty historiographers retroactively deemed the Tao Te Ching to be the quintessential Taoist document – despite the possible philosophical and historical primacy of the Chuang-tzu (Kohn, 1998; Graham, 1989; Fowler, 2005).

In addition to its relevance as a philosophical text in the classical Chinese corpus, the Tao Te Ching has also been influential in the development of various indigenous Chinese religious traditions. For example, an early commentary written by Ho-Shang Kung, which reinterprets the text as an instruction manual for “prolonging life,” was instrumental to the development of Taoist alchemy (with its goal of fostering immortality). Also, the Heavenly Masters (and other Taoist religious sects), used the text as a primary scripture. For these reasons, the text remains a significant component of the Chinese philosophical and religious landscape (Pas, 1998).

References

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• Chan Wing-tsit. A Sourcebook in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963.
• Creel, Herrlee. What is Taoism? Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970.
• Fowler, Jeaneane. An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism. Portland, OR: Sussex Academic Press, 2005.
• Graham, A. C. Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China. La Salle, IL: Open Court, 1989.
• Graham, A. C. “The Origin of the Legend of Lao Tan” in Lao-tzu and the Tao-te-ching. Edited by Livia Kohn and Michael LaFargue. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1998.
• Kohn, Livia. “The Lao-tzu Myth” in Lao-tzu and the Tao-te-ching. Edited by Livia Kohn and Michael LaFargue. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1998.
• LaFargue, Michael and Julian Pas. “On Translating the Tao-te-ching” in Lao-tzu and the Tao-te-ching. Edited by Livia Kohn and Michael LaFargue. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1998.
• Pas, Julian F. in cooperation with Man Kam Leung. “Tao-Te Ching”, “Ho-Shang Kung”, “Heavenly Masters Taoism” in Historical Dictionary of Taoism, Lanham, MD. & London: The Scarecrow Press, 1998.
• Rosemont, Henry, Jr. “On Representing Abstractions in Archaic Chinese.” Philosophy East and West 24:1 (Jan., 1974). 71-88.
• Slingerland, Edward. “Effortless Action: The Chinese Spiritual Ideal of Wu-Wei.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion. June 2000, Vol. 68 (2), 293-328.
• Tao Te Ching. Translated and with notes by D. C. Lau. London: Penguin Books, 1963.
• Xie Wenyu. “Approaching the Dao: From Laozi to Zhuangzi.” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 27:4 (December 2000). 469-488.