Alienation
Alienation refers to the estrangement that occurs in the relation between an individual and that to which he or she is relating. This break in the relation occurs in a variety of forms, such as the estrangements between an individual and her social community, her natural environment, her own self, or even God. As a psychological and theological notion, alienation has its origins in both classical philosophy and Christian theology. As a more specifically philosophical term, the idea became prominent in the 19th century beginning with G. W. F. Hegel and developed further, though in different directions, by Soren Kierkegaard and Karl Marx. In the 20th century, the notion was further explored, particularly in the schools of phenomenology and existentialism, which included thinkers such as Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre.
Historical Origins
Classical Philosophy
Although the philosophical notion of alienation was not fully developed until the modern period, it has its roots in classical thought. In the Republic, for example, Plato considers the psyche of the human soul as being a tripartite relation between reason, emotion, and the senses. A human being, then, only achieves psychological harmony or happiness through a rightly ordered soul that balances these parts in the appropriate manner. Plato develops this ideal order not only psychologically, but socially and politically as well. For in the ideal Polis there should be a similar harmony or order where each part is in concord with the whole and so members of each class maintain their proper station. The Neoplatonists, such as Plotinus, push this platonic notion further in an ontological and quasi-mystical direction where the rightly ordered soul is properly attuned to the Good or One. For this reason, whenever the soul directs its reason, desire, or attention to lower things it results in a form of alienation.
Christian Theology
In the classical Christian tradition alienation is developed even further in a theological direction. Here alienation is understood as the estrangement of the individual soul from God, which initially occurred through original sin and the fall of humanity. St. Augustine succinctly captures the basic idea in his famous phrase in the opening of the Confessions where he states, “Our hearts are restless until they rest in Thee.” In fact, throughout the Confessions Augustine offers a philosophical autobiographical analysis of his own self-estrangement or his dividedness of will. Throughout the work St. Augustine describes his process of transformation in which both the will and reason are redirected toward their proper origin and end, namely, God. Only in this way, then, is the alienation of self from others and one’s own self finally overcome.
19th Century Alienation
Hegel and Dialectical Alienation
In Hegel the notion of alienation is developed through his interpretation of history as a dialectical unfolding of Spirit (Geist). In its initial historical stages Spirit is understood as divorced from the objective world and so suffers a kind of alienation from itself. In other words, to view the world as an “objective reality” separated from my consciousness is merely a form of alienation. Likewise, to view my consciousness as separate from Universal Consciousness (rather than being a “moment” of it) is also a form of alienation. The overcoming of alienation occurs, then, as self-consciousness increases by recognizing that the external world is not separate from the interiority of consciousness. Over time and through the development of cultures Spirit realizes itself through higher forms and manifestations of consciousness and Self-knowledge. This same dialectical relation holds in the development of the social, political, and ethical domains as well. Here too, alienation is overcome in the increasing recognition the unity of relations which culminates in the recognition that the “I is the We, and the We the I.”. Ultimately, though, Hegel gives priority to philosophy and thought such that the highest unity and self-fulfillment occurs in the absolute knowledge of Self-Consciousness.
Kierkegaard and the Existential Alienation of Self
Although inheriting certain aspects of Hegel’s dialectical philosophy, Kierkegaard strongly objected to Hegel’s rationalism as well as his subsuming of the individual person within the collective or social whole. In contrast, Kierkegaard emphasized the existential singularity of the human person, and argued that the task of the self is the overcoming of alienation through its own self-becoming. So Kierkegaard too considered the individual as alienated but not because he or she has not been properly amalgamated within the collective whole. Rather Kierkegaard argued that such social amalgamation is itself a deceptive form of alienation. For more often than not the uniqueness of the individual in his or her particularity is often stifled or suppressed by the demands of the social structure. Here, then, a deeper form of alienation is exposed as the self’s conformity to social demands. In becoming an authentic Self, then, Kierkegaard hearkens back to a more Augustinian theology where faith is understood as the absolute relation to the Absolute. This relation transcends the individual’s relation to society (as a social self) and sets one on the road to attaining a higher Selfhood.
Marx and the Alienated Worker
The work of Karl Marx was also greatly influenced by the dialectical philosophy of Hegel. Marx, however, stood Hegel’s dialectical idealism on its feet by reinterpreting it as Dialectical Materialism. Unlike Hegel’s rationalism, Marx puts the emphasis upon the economic, social, and political forces that are dialectically unfolding throughout history. In terms of alienation Marx’s directed his critique at capitalism, which as a force alienates the worker in a number of ways. First, the modes of production that were being developed during the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century resulted in the worker being alienated from the product he was producing. For not only was he isolated from the final product by being limited to an isolated part in the production, but he was also cut off from the fruits of the labor in term of profit. Moreover, the worker was alienated from the activity of the labor. Again, isolated to a mundane and usually repetitious function in the process of production, the worker’s labor was restricted to a mechanistic rather than human employment (such as craftsmanship being replaced by the machinery of mass production). Finally, there occurred the alienation between human persons in terms of the employer-employee relation. Here Marx’s general critique of capitalism can be seen in common terms such as “human expenditures” or “human resources” where real humans beings are reduced to the logic of assets and liabilities, profits and losses. Insofar as Marx’s view of history is interpreted as teleologically moving toward a utopia, alienation will be overcome when capitalism is replaced by some form of communism.
20th Century Existential Alienation
Heidegger and Ontological Alienation
In the 20th century the notion of alienation assumed much attention particularly in existential philosophy. Martin Heidegger, for example, focused on a kind of “ontological alienation” in which human beings are often “fallen” in their own modes of understanding. Heidegger analyzes certain phenomena such as “idle talk”, “everydayness”, and “the they”. Briefly stated, idle talk or chatter occurs whenever a topic or subject is discussed in the everyday attitude of ‘the they’. In other words, the subject is talked about as “the already known”; for instance, as in, “you know what they say.” ‘The they’, then, represent a kind of anonymous authority who are “in the know”. In such a mode there is nothing new to question or discover for it has all already been said and so merely needs to be repeated. Heidegger contrasts this alienated or fallen understanding with his concept of authenticity. In authenticity a more original mode of questioning occurs as a kind of openness or wonder to that which is under discussion. In authenticity the alienation of idle talk is overcome through an authentic discourse which makes the subject under discussion one’s own. As Heidegger says, “Idle talk is the possibility of understanding everything without previously making the thing one’s own.” It is precisely making this thing one’s own, in one’s own self-understanding, that leaves the mark of authenticity.
Sartre and Ethical Alienation
Like Heidegger Sartre speaks of alienation and authenticity but interprets the terms in a more ethical manner. For Sartre alienation occurs in the “bad faith” that refuses the responsibility and freedom of human existence. As an outright atheist, Sartre argues that because God does not exist, we are free to create the meaning and value of our lives. Such freedom, however, is initially experienced as a tremendous burden when we realize that we have no one but ourselves to rely on. Only we ourselves, then, can be praised or blamed for our successes and failures in life and whatever meaning we do or do not achieve. Alienation occurs when we refuse to accept responsibility for this freedom. We can either deny the actuality of who we are (based on our past choices) or else deny the possibility of who we might become (through our future choices). Authenticity is achieved (and so alienation overcome) by not taking flight in the face of this existential anxiety or dread. Instead we are to assume responsibility for our choices and in turn the creation of our selves.
Sources
- Augustine, Saint. Confessions. Translated by R. S. Pine-Coffin. New York: Penguin, 1961. ISBN: 0-140-44114-X
- Hegel, G. W. F.. The Phenomenology of Spirit. Translated by A. V. Miller. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977. ISBN: 0-19-824597-1
- Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. Translated by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson. New York: Harper& Row, 1962.
- Kierkegaard, Soren. The Sickness Unto Death. Translated by Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980. ISBN: 0-691-02028-0
- Marx, Karl. Selected Writings. Edited by David McLellan. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN: 0-19-878265-9
- Plato. The Republic. Translated by G. M. A. Grube. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1992. ISBN: 0-87220-136-8
- Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness. Translated by Hazel E. Barnes. New York: Philosophical Library, 1956.
Credits
New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:
The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:
Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.
