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| − | {{Infobox Language
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| − | |name=Sanskrit
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| − | |nativename={{lang|sa|संस्कृतम्}} ''{{IAST|saṃskṛtam}}''
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| − | |pronunciation=[sə̃skɹ̩t̪əm]
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| − | |region=[[India]], [[Nepal]]
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| − | |speakers=49,736 fluent speakers (1991 [[Indian census]])
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| − | |familycolor=Indo-European
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| − | |fam2=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
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| − | |fam3=[[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
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| − | |script=[[Devanāgarī]] and several other [[Brāhmī script|Brāhmī]]-based scripts
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| − | |nation={{IND}} (one of the ''[[List of national languages of India|scheduled languages]]''), {{NEP}}
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| − | |iso1=sa|iso2=san|iso3=san
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| − | |notice=Indic}}
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| − | '''Sanskrit''' ({{lang|sa|संस्कृता वाक्}} ''{{IAST|saṃskṛtā [[Vāc|vāk]]}}'', for short {{lang|sa|संस्कृतम्}} ''{{IAST|saṃskṛtam}}'') is an ancient Indo-European [[classical language]] of [[South Asia]], a [[liturgical language]] of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] primarily, and utilized occasionally in [[Jainism]]. It is one of the twenty-two [[official languages of India]], and an ancestor of the modern [[Indo-Aryan]] languages. Its position in the [[culture]]s of [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]] is akin to that of [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] in [[Europe]] and it has [[Proto-language (historical linguistics)|evolved]] into, as well as influenced, many modern languages of the world. It appears in pre-Classical form as [[Vedic Sanskrit]], which was a spoken language for centuries before the ''[[Vedas]]'' were written down. Around 600 B.C.E., in the classical period of [[Iron Age India|Iron Age]] [[Ancient India]], Sanskrit began the transition from a primary language to a second language of religion and learning, used by the educated elite. [[Classical Sanskrit]] is defined by the the oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar , [[Pāṇini|{{unicode|Pāṇini}}]]'s ''[[Ashtadhyayi|{{unicode|Aṣṭādhyāyī}}]]'' (''"Eight-Chapter Grammar"'') dating to around the [[fifth century B.C.E.]].
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| − | The corpus of [[Sanskrit literature]] encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and [[Sanskrit drama|drama]] as well as scientific, technical, [[Hindu philosophy|philosophical]] and [[Hindu scriptures|religious]] texts. Today, Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals in the forms of [[stotra|hymns]] and [[mantra]]s. Spoken Sanskrit is still in use in a few traditional institutions in India, and there are some attempts at [[Sanskrit revival|revival]].
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| − | The scope of this article is the Classical Sanskrit language as laid out in the grammar of [[Panini (grammarian)|Panini]], around 500 B.C.E..
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| − | == History ==
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| − | [[Image:Devimahatmya Sanskrit MS Nepal 11c.jpg|right|thumb|400px|[[Devimahatmya]] manuscript on palm-leaf, in an early [[Bhujimol]] script, [[Bihar]] or [[Nepal]], 11th century.]]
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| − | The language name ''{{unicode|saṃskṛtam}}'' is derived from the past participle ''{{unicode|saṃskṛtaḥ}}'' 'self-made, self-done' of the verb ''{{unicode|saṃ(s)kar-}}'' 'to make self', where ''{{unicode|saṃ-}}'' 'with, together, self' and ''(s)kar-'' 'do, make'. In modern usage, the verbal adjective ''{{unicode|saṃskṛta-}}'' has come to mean "cultured." The language referred to as ''{{unicode|saṃskṛtā vāk}}'' "the language of cultured" has by definition always been a "high" language, used for religious and learned discourse and contrasted with the languages spoken by the people. It is also called ''deva-bhā{{Unicode|ṣ}}ā'' meaning "language of the gods."
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| − | Sanskrit does not belong to the [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] sub-family of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family of languages. It is part of the '''[[Satem]]''' group of Indo-European languages, which also includes the [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] branch.
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| − | When the term arose in India, "Sanskrit" was not thought of as a specific language set apart from other languages, but rather as a particularly refined or perfected manner of speaking. Knowledge of Sanskrit was a marker of [[social class]] and [[education]]al attainment and the language was taught mainly to members of the higher castes, through close analysis of Sanskrit grammarians such as {{unicode|Pāṇini}}. Sanskrit, as the learned language of Ancient India, thus existed alongside the [[Prakrit]]s (vernaculars), which evolved into the modern Indo-Aryan languages ([[Hindi]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Marathi]], [[Konkani Language|Konkani]], [[Urdu]], and [[Bengali language|Bengali]]).
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| − | ===Vedic Sanskrit===
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| − | Sanskrit, as defined by {{unicode|[[Pāṇini]]}}, had evolved out of the earlier "Vedic" form. '''Vedic Sanskrit''' is the language of the earliest religious texts of India, the ''[[Vedas]],'' a large collection of hymns, incantations, and religio-philosophical discussions which are the the [[shruti]] texts of [[Hinduism]]. It is an archaic form of [[Sanskrit]], an early descendant of [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]], attested during the period between roughly 1700 B.C.E. (early [[Rigveda]]) and 600 B.C.E. ([[Sutra]] language) <ref>e.g. Witzel (1989)</ref>. It is closely related to [[Avestan language|Avestan]], the oldest preserved [[Iranian language]].
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| − | Scholars often distinguish [[Vedic Sanskrit]] and Classical or "Paninian" Sanskrit as separate dialects. Vedic Sanskrit differs from Classical Sanskrit to an extent comparable to the difference between Homeric Greek and Classical Greek; they are very similar and only differ in a few points of [[phonology]], [[vocabulary]], and [[grammar]]. Vedic Sanskrit had a [[pitch accent]] which could even change the meaning of the words, and was still in use in Panini's time, as we can infer by his use of devices to indicate its position. At some latter time, this was replaced by a stress accent limited to the second to fourth syllables from the end. Today, the pitch accent can be heard only in the traditional Vedic chantings. Vedic Sanskrit often allowed two like vowels to come together without merger during Sandhi (composition of words and phrases).
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| − | Classical Sanskrit is considered to have descended from Vedic Sanskrit. Modern linguists regard the metrical hymns of the [[Rigveda]] Samhita as the earliest, composed by many authors over centuries of oral tradition. The end of the Vedic period is marked by the composition of the [[Upanishads]], which form the concluding part of the Vedic corpus in the traditional compilations. The current hypothesis holds that the Vedic form of Sanskrit survived until the middle of the first millennium B.C.E.. Around 600 B.C.E., in the classical period of [[Iron Age India|Iron Age]] [[Ancient India]], Sanskrit began the transition from a first language to a second language of religion and learning, marking the beginning of the Classical period.
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| − | ===Classical Sanskrit===
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| − | Classical Sanskrit is defined by the the oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar , [[Pāṇini|{{unicode|Pāṇini}}]]'s ''[[Ashtadhyayi|{{unicode|Aṣṭādhyāyī}}]]'' ("''Eight-Chapter Grammar"'') dating to circa the [[fifth century B.C.E.]]. It is essentially a prescriptive grammar, an authority that defines rather than describes correct Sanskrit, although it contains descriptive parts, mostly to account for Vedic forms that had already passed out of use in Panini's time.
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| − | A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of the [[Hindu Epics]], the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]''. The deviations from {{Unicode|[[Pāṇini]]}} in the epics are generally considered to be the result of interference from ''prakrits'', or "innovations"<ref>Oberlies, "A Grammar of Epic Sanskrit," p.XXIX</ref> and not pre-Paninean" usages. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ''aarsha'' (आर्ष), or "of the [[rishi]]s," the traditional title for the ancient authors. In some contexts there are more "prakritisms" (borrowings from common speech) than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There is also a language called "[[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]]" by modern scholars, which is actually a ''[[prakrit]]'' ornamented with Sanskritized elements (see also [[termination of spoken Sanskrit]]). According to Tuwari <ref>Tuwari, Bholanath. 1978. Bhasha-vigyan. Illahabad: Kitab Mahal.[1955] 2004</ref>, there were four principal dialects of Sanskrit; ''{{IAST|paścimottarī}}'' (Northwestern, also called Northern or Western), ''{{IAST|madhyadeśī}}'' (Middle Country), ''{{IAST|pūrvi}}'' (Eastern) and ''{{IAST|dakṣiṇī}}'' (Southern, originating in the Classical period). The first three are even attested in the Vedic ''{{IAST|[[Brāhmaṇa]]s}}'', of which the first one was regarded as the purest (''{{IAST|Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa, 7.6}}).
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| − | ===European Scholarship===
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| − | European scholarship in Sanskrit, begun by [[Heinrich Roth]] (1620–1668) and [[Johann Ernst Hanxleden]] (1681–1731), is regarded as being responsible for the discovery of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[language family]] by [[William Jones (philologist)|Sir William Jones]], and played an important role in the development of Western [[linguistics]].
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| − | [[William Jones (philologist)|Sir William Jones]], speaking to the [[Asiatic Society]] in Calcutta (now [[Kolkata]]) on February 2, 1786, said:
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| − | :''"The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the [[Greek language|Greek]], more copious than the [[Latin]], and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong, indeed, that no [[philology|philologer]] could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from [[Proto-Indo-European language|some common source]], which, perhaps, no longer exists."''
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| − | == Phonology==
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| − | {{IPA notice}}
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| − | Classical Sanskrit distinguishes about thirty-six [[phoneme]]s. There is, however, some [[allophone|allophony]] and the writing systems used for Sanskrit generally indicate this, thus distinguishing forty-eight [[phone|sounds]]
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| − | The sounds are traditionally listed in the order [[vowel]]s ''(Ach)'', [[diphthong]]s ''(Hal)'', [[anusvara]] and [[visarga]], [[Plosive consonant|plosive]]s (Sparśa) and [[nasal consonant|nasal]]s (starting in the back of the mouth and moving forward), and finally the [[liquid consonants|liquid]]s and [[fricative]]s, written in [[IAST]] as follows (see the tables below for details):
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| − | :{{Unicode|a ā i ī u ū ṛ ṝ ḷ ḹ }}; {{Unicode|e ai o au}}
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| − | :{{Unicode|ṃ ḥ}}
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| − | :{{Unicode|k kh g gh ṅ; c ch j jh ñ; ṭ ṭh ḍ ḍh ṇ; t th d dh n; p ph b bh m}}
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| − | :{{Unicode|y r l v}}; {{Unicode|ś ṣ s h}}
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| − | An alternate traditional ordering is that of the [[Shiva Sutra]] of {{Unicode|[[Pāṇini]]}}.
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| − | ===Vowels===
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| − | The vowels of Classical Sanskrit with their word-initial Devanagari symbol, diacritical mark with the consonant {{Unicode|प्}} ({{IPA|/p/}}), pronunciation (of the vowel alone and of /p/+vowel) in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], equivalent in [[IAST]] and ITRANS and (approximate) equivalents in English are listed below:
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| − | {|class="wikitable"
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| − | ! Letter !! Diacritical mark with “{{Unicode|प्}}” !! Pronunciation !! Pronunciation with {{IPA|/p/}} !! [[IAST]] equiv. !! [[ITRANS]] equiv. !! English equivalent ([[General American|GA]] unless stated otherwise)
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| − | | {{Unicode|अ}}||{{Unicode|प}}||{{IPA|/ɐ/}} or {{IPA|/ə/}}||{{IPA|/pɐ/}} or {{IPA|/pə/}} ||a||a|| short [[near-open central vowel]] or [[schwa]]: ''u'' in b'''u'''nny or ''a'' in '''a'''bout
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{Unicode|आ}}||{{Unicode|पा}}||{{IPA|/aː/}}||{{IPA|/paː/}}||ā||A||long [[open back unrounded vowel]]: ''a'' in f'''a'''ther ([[Received Pronunciation|RP]]
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| − | | {{Unicode|इ}}||{{Unicode|िप}}||{{IPA|/i/}}||{{IPA|/pi/}}||i||i||short [[close front unrounded vowel]]: ''i'' in f'''i'''n
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| − | | {{Unicode|ई}}||{{Unicode|पी}}||{{IPA|/iː/}}||{{IPA|/piː/}}||ī||I||long [[close front unrounded vowel]]: ''ee'' in f'''ee'''t
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| − | | {{Unicode|उ}}||{{Unicode|पु}}||{{IPA|/u/}}||{{IPA|/pu/}}||u||u||short [[close back rounded vowel]]: ''oo'' in f'''oo'''t
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| − | | {{Unicode|ऊ}}||{{Unicode|पू}}||{{IPA|/uː/}}||{{IPA|/puː/}}||ū||U|| long [[close back rounded vowel]]: ''oo'' in c'''oo'''l
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| − | | {{Unicode|ऋ}}||{{Unicode|पृ}}||{{IPA|/ɻ/}}||{{IPA|/pɻ/}}||{{Unicode|ṛ}}||R|| short [[retroflex approximant]]: ''r'' in bu'''r'''l
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| − | | {{Unicode|ॠ}}||{{Unicode|पॄ}}||{{IPA|/ɻː/}}||{{IPA|/pɻː/}}||{{Unicode|ṝ}}||RR|| long [[retroflex approximant]] ''r'' in bu'''r'''l
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| − | | {{Unicode|ऌ}} ||{{Unicode|पॢ}}||{{IPA|/ɭ/}}||{{IPA|/pɭ/}}||{{Unicode|ḷ}}||LR|| short [[retroflex lateral approximant]] (no English equivalent)
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| − | | {{Unicode|ॡ}} ||{{Unicode|पॣ}}||{{IPA|/ɭː/}}||{{IPA|/pɭː/}}||{{Unicode|ḹ}}||LRR|| long [[retroflex lateral approximant]]
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| − | | {{Unicode|ए}}||{{Unicode|पे}}||{{IPA|/eː/}}||{{IPA|/peː/}}||e||e|| long [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]]: ''a'' in b'''a'''ne (some speakers)
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| − | | {{Unicode|ऐ}}||{{Unicode|पै}}||{{IPA|/əi/}}||{{IPA|/pəi/}}||ai||ai|| a long [[diphthong]]: ''i'' in '''i'''ce, ''i'' in k'''i'''te ([[Canadian English]])
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| − | | {{Unicode|ओ}}||{{Unicode|पो}}||{{IPA|/oː/}}||{{IPA|/poː/}}||o||o|| long [[close-mid back rounded vowel]]: ''o'' in b'''o'''ne (some speakers)
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| − | | {{Unicode|औ}}||{{Unicode|पौ}}||{{IPA|/əu/}}||{{IPA|/pəu/}}||au||au|| a long [[diphthong]]: Similar to the ''ou'' in h''ou''se (Canadian English)
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| − | The [[vowel length|long vowels]] are pronounced twice as long as their short counterparts. Also, there exists a third, extra-long length for most vowels, called [[pluti]], which is used in various cases, but particularly in the [[vocative]]. The ''pluti'' is not accepted by all grammarians.
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| − | The vowels {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} continue as allophonic variants of [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]] {{IPA|/ai/}}, {{IPA|/au/}} and are categorized as diphthongs by Sanskrit grammarians even though they are realized phonetically as simple long vowels. (See above).
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| − | Additional points:
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| − | * There are some additional signs traditionally listed in tables of the Devanagari script:
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| − | ** The diacritic {{Unicode|ं}} called ''anusvāra'', ([[IAST]]: {{Unicode|ṃ}}). It is used both to indicate the nasalization of the vowel in the syllable ({{IPA|[◌̃]}} and to represent the sound of a syllabic {{IPA|/n/}} or {{IPA|/m/}}; e.g. {{Unicode|पं}} {{IPA|/pəŋ/}}.
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| − | ** The diacritic {{Unicode|ः}} called ''visarga'', represents {{IPA|/əh/}} ([[IAST]]: {{Unicode|ḥ}}); e.g. {{Unicode|पः}} {{IPA|/pəh/}}.
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| − | ** The diacritic {{Unicode|ँ}} called ''chandrabindu'', not traditionally included in Devanagari charts for Sanskrit, is used interchangeably with the ''anusvāra'' to indicate nasalization of the vowel, primarily in Vedic notation; e.g. {{Unicode|पँ}} {{IPA|/pə̃/}}.
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| − | * If a lone consonant needs to be written without any following vowel, it is given a ''halanta/virāma'' diacritic below ({{Unicode|प्}}).
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| − | * The vowel {{IPA|/aː/}} in Sanskrit is realized as being more central and less back than the closest English approximation, which is {{IPA|/ɑː/}}. But the grammarians have classified it as a back vowel. (Tiwari, [1955] 2004).
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| − | * The ancient Sanskrit grammarians classified the vowel system as velars, retroflexes, palatals and plosives rather than as back, central and front vowels. Hence {{Unicode|ए}} and {{Unicode|ओ}} are classified respectively as palato-velar (a+i) and labio-velar (a+u) vowels respectively. But the grammarians have classified them as [[diphthong]]s and in prosody, each is given two ''mātrās''. This does not necessarily mean that they are proper diphthongs, but neither excludes the possibility that they could have been proper diphthongs at a very ancient stage (see above). These vowels ''are'' pronounced as long {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}} respectively by learned Sanskrit Brahmans and priests of today. Other than the "four" diphthongs, Sanskrit usually disallows any other diphthong—vowels in succession, where they occur, are converted to [[semivowel]]s according to [[sandhi]] rules.
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| − | * In the Devanagari script used for Sanskrit, whenever a consonant in a word-ending position is without any ''virāma'' (freely standing in the orthography: {{Unicode|प}} as opposed to {{Unicode|प्}}), the neutral vowel [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ə/}}) is automatically associated with it—this is of course true for the consonant to be in any position in the word. Word-ending schwa is always short. But the IAST '''a''' appended to the end of masculine noun words rather confuses the foreigners to pronounce it as {{IPA|/ɑː/}}—this makes the masculine Sanskrit words sound like feminine! e.g., '''shiva''' must be pronounced as {{IPA|/ɕivə/}} and not as {{IPA|/ɕivɑː/}}. Tiwari ([1955] 2004) argues that in Vedic Sanskrit, अ indicated short {{IPA|/ɑ/}}, and became centralized and raised in the era of the Prakrits.
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| − | ===Consonants===
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| − | [[IAST]] and [[Devanagari]] notations are given, with approximate [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] values in square brackets.
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| − | {|class="wikitable"
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| − | !colspan="2"|
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| − | !colspan="2"| [[Labial consonant|Labial]]<br/>Ōshtya
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| − | ! [[Labiodental consonant|Labiodental]]<br/>Dantōshtya
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| − | !colspan="2"| [[Dental consonant|Dental]]<br/>Dantya
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| − | !colspan="2"| [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]<br/>Mūrdhanya
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| − | !colspan="2"| [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]<br/>Tālavya
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| − | !colspan="2"| [[Velar consonant|Velar]]<br/>Kanthya
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| − | !colspan="2"| [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
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| − | |-
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| − | !rowspan="2"| [[Plosive consonant|Stop]]<br/>Sparśa
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| − | ! [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Unaspirated]]<br/>Alpaprāna
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| − | | {{Unicode|p}} {{Unicode|प}} {{IPA|[p]}} || {{Unicode|b}} {{Unicode|ब}} {{IPA|[b]}} || || {{Unicode|t}} {{Unicode|त}} {{IPA|[t̪]}} || {{Unicode|d}} {{Unicode|द}} {{IPA|[d̪]}} || {{Unicode|ṭ}} {{Unicode|ट}} {{IPA|[ʈ]}} || {{Unicode|ḍ}} {{Unicode|ड}} {{IPA|[ɖ]}} || {{Unicode|c}} {{Unicode|च}} {{IPA|[c͡ç]}} || {{Unicode|j}} {{Unicode|ज}} {{IPA|[ɟ͡ʝ]}} || {{Unicode|k}} {{Unicode|क}} {{IPA|[k]}} || {{Unicode|g}} {{Unicode|ग}} {{IPA|[g]}}
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| − | |colspan="2"|
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| − | |-
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| − | ! [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]]<br/>Mahāprāna
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| − | | {{Unicode|ph}} {{Unicode|फ}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} || {{Unicode|bh}} {{Unicode|भ}} {{IPA|[bʱ]}} || || {{Unicode|th}} {{Unicode|थ}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}} || {{Unicode|dh}} {{Unicode|ध}} {{IPA|[d̪ʱ]}} || {{Unicode|ṭh}} {{Unicode|ठ}} {{IPA|[ʈʰ]}} || {{Unicode|ḍh}} {{Unicode|ढ}} {{IPA|[ɖʱ]}} || {{Unicode|ch}} {{Unicode|छ}} {{IPA|[c͡çʰ]}} || {{Unicode|jh}} {{Unicode|झ}} {{IPA|[ɟ͡ʝʱ]}} || {{Unicode|kh}} {{Unicode|ख}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} || {{Unicode|gh}} {{Unicode|घ}} {{IPA|[gʱ]}}
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| − | |colspan="2"|
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| − | |-
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| − | !colspan="2"| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br/>Anunāsika
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| − | !colspan="2" style="font-weight: normal"| m {{Unicode|म}} {{IPA|[m]}}
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| − | |
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| − | |colspan="2" style="font-weight: normal"| {{Unicode|n}} {{Unicode|न}} {{IPA|[n̪]}}
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| − | |colspan="2" style="font-weight: normal"| {{Unicode|ṇ}} {{Unicode|ण}} {{IPA|[ɳ]}}
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| − | |colspan="2" style="font-weight: normal"| {{Unicode|ñ}} {{Unicode|ञ}} {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
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| − | |colspan="2" style="font-weight: normal"| {{Unicode|ṅ}} {{Unicode|ङ}} {{IPA|[ŋ]}}
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| − | |colspan="2"|
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| − | |-
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| − | !colspan="2"| [[Semivowel]]<br/>Antastha
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| − | |colspan="2"|
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| − | |style="font-weight: normal"| v {{Unicode|व}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
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| − | |colspan="2"|
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| − | |colspan="2"|
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| − | |colspan="2" style="font-weight: normal"| y {{Unicode|य}} {{IPA|[j]}}
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| − | |colspan="2"|
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| − | |colspan="2"|
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| − | |-
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| − | !colspan="2"| [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]<br/>Drava
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| − | |colspan="2"|
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| − | |
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| − | |colspan="2" style="font-weight: normal"| l {{Unicode|ल}} {{IPA|[l]}}
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| − | |colspan="2" style="font-weight: normal"| r {{Unicode|र}} {{IPA|[r]}}
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| − | |colspan="2"|
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| − | |colspan="2"|
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| − | |colspan="2"|
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| − | |-
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| − | !colspan="2"| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br/>Ūshman
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| − | |colspan="2"|
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| − | |
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| − | |colspan="2" style="font-weight: normal"| {{Unicode|s}} {{Unicode|स}} {{IPA|[s̪]}}
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| − | |colspan="2" style="font-weight: normal"| {{unicode|ṣ}} {{Unicode|ष}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}
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| − | |colspan="2" style="font-weight: normal"| {{unicode|ś}} {{Unicode|श}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}
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| − | |colspan="2"|
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| − | |style="font-weight: normal"| {{unicode|ḥ}} {{Unicode|ः}} {{IPA|[h]}}
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| − | |style="font-weight: normal"| {{unicode|h}} {{Unicode|ह}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}}
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| − | |}
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| − |
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| − | The table below shows the traditional listing of the Sanskrit consonants with the (nearest) equivalents in English/Spanish. Each consonant shown below is deemed to be followed by the neutral vowel [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ə/}}), and is named in the table as such.
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| − |
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| − | {|class="wikitable"
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| − | |+ [[Plosives]] – Sprshta
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| − | |-
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| − | !
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| − | ![[Unaspirated]]<br/>[[Voiceless]] <br/>Alpaprāna Śvāsa
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| − | ![[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]]<br/>[[Voiceless]]<br/>Mahāprāna Śvāsa
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| − | ![[Unaspirated]]<br/>[[Voiced]] <br/>Alpaprāna Nāda
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| − | ![[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]]<br/>[[Voiced]] <br/>Mahāprāna Nāda
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| − | ![[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] <br/>Anunāsika Nāda
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| − | |-align="center"
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| − | ![[Velar consonant|Velar]]<br/>Kantya
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| − | |{{Unicode|क}} <br/>{{IPA|/kə/}}; English: s'''k'''ip
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| − | |{{Unicode|ख}} <br/>{{IPA|/kʰə/}}; English: '''c'''at
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| − | |{{Unicode|ग}} <br/>{{IPA|/gə/}}; English: '''g'''ame
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| − | |{{Unicode|घ}} <br/>{{IPA|/gʱə/}}; somewhat similar to English: do'''gh'''ouse
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| − | |{{Unicode|ङ}} <br/>{{IPA|/ŋə/}}; English: ri'''ng'''
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| − | |-align="center"
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| − | ![[Palatal]]<br/>Tālavya
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| − | |{{Unicode|च}} <br/>{{IPA|/cə/}}; English: ex'''ch'''ange
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| − | |{{Unicode|छ}} <br/>{{IPA|/cʰə/}}; English: '''ch'''urch
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| − | |{{Unicode|ज}} <br/>{{IPA|/ɟə/}}; ≈English: '''j'''am
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| − | |{{Unicode|झ}} <br/>{{IPA|/ɟʱə/}}; somewhat similar to English: he'''dgeh'''og
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| − | |{{Unicode|ञ}} <br/>{{IPA|/ɲə/}}; English: be'''n'''ch
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| − | |-align="center"
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| − | ![[Retroflex]]<br/>Mūrdhanya
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| − | |{{Unicode|ट}} <br/>{{IPA|/ʈə/}}; No English equivalent
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| − | |{{Unicode|ठ}} <br/>{{IPA|/ʈʰə/}}; No English equivalent
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| − | |{{Unicode|ड}} <br/>{{IPA|/ɖə/}}; No English equivalent
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| − | |{{Unicode|ढ}} <br/>{{IPA|/ɖʱə/}}; No English equivalent
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| − | |{{Unicode|ण}} <br/>{{IPA|/ɳə/}}; No English equivalent
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| − | |-align="center"
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| − | !Apico-[[Dental consonant|Dental]]<br/>Dantya
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| − | |{{Unicode|त}} <br/>{{IPA|/t̪ə/}}; Spanish: '''t'''oma'''t'''e
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| − | |{{Unicode|थ}} <br/>{{IPA|/t̪ʰə/}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/t̪/}}
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| − | |{{Unicode|द}} <br/>{{IPA|/d̪ə/}}; Spanish: '''d'''on'''d'''e
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| − | |{{Unicode|ध}} <br/>{{IPA|/d̪ʱə/}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/d̪/}}
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| − | |{{Unicode|न <br/>{{IPA|/n̪ə/}}; English: '''n'''ame
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| − | |-align="center"
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| − | ![[labial consonant|Labial]] <br/>Ōshtya
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| − | |{{Unicode|प}} <br/>{{IPA|/pə/}}; English: s'''p'''in
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| − | |{{Unicode|फ}} <br/>{{IPA|/pʰə/}}; English: '''p'''it
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| − | |{{Unicode|ब}} <br/>{{IPA|/bə/}}; English: '''b'''one
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| − | |{{Unicode|भ}} <br/>{{IPA|/bʱə/}}; somewhat similar to English: clu'''bh'''ouse
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| − | |{{Unicode|म}} <br/>{{IPA|/mə/}}; English: '''m'''ine
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| − | |}
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| − |
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| − | {|class="wikitable"
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| − | |+ Non-Plosives/Sonorants
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| − | |-
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| − | !
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| − | ![[Palatal]]<br/>Tālavya
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| − | ![[Retroflex]]<br/>Mūrdhanya
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| − | ![[Dental consonant|Dental]]<br/>Dantya
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| − | ![[labial consonant|Labial]]/<br/>[[glottal consonant|Glottal]] <br/>Ōshtya
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| − | |-align="center"
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| − | ![[Approximant]]<br/>Antastha
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| − | |{{Unicode|य}} <br/>{{IPA|/jə/}}; English: '''y'''ou
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| − | |{{Unicode|र}} <br/>{{IPA|/rə/}}; English: t'''r'''ip ([[Scottish English]])
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| − | |{{Unicode|ल}} <br/>{{IPA|/l̪ə/}}; English: '''l'''ove
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| − | |{{Unicode|व (labio-dental)<br/>{{IPA|/ʋə/}}; English: '''v'''ase
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| − | |-align="center"
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| − | ![[Sibilant]]/<br/>[[Fricative]] <br/>Ūshman
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| − | |{{Unicode|श}} <br/>{{IPA|/ɕə/}}; English: '''sh'''ip
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| − | |{{Unicode|ष}} <br/>{{IPA|/ʂə/}}; Retroflex form of {{IPA|/ʃ/}}
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| − | |{{Unicode|स}} <br/>{{IPA|/s̪ə/}}; English: '''s'''ame
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| − | |{{Unicode|ह}} (glottal)<br/>{{IPA|/ɦə/}}; English be'''h'''ind
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| − | |}
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| − |
| |
| − | ===Phonology and Sandhi===
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| − | The Sanskrit vowels are as discussed in the section above. The long syllabic l ({{unicode|ḹ}}) is not attested, and is only discussed by grammarians for systematic reasons. Its short counterpart {{unicode|ḷ}} occurs in a single root only, {{unicode|kḷp}} "to order, array." Long syllabic r ({{unicode|ṝ}}) is also quite marginal, occurring in the genitive plural of r-stems (e.g. ''{{unicode|mātṛ}}'' "mother" and ''{{unicode|pitṛ}}'' "father" have gen.pl. ''{{unicode|mātṝṇām}}'' and ''{{unicode|pitṝṇām}}''). {{unicode|i, u, ṛ, ḷ}} are vocalic allophones of consonantal {{unicode|y, v, r, l}}. There are thus only 5 invariably vocalic [[phoneme]]s,
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| − | :{{unicode|a, ā, ī, ū, ṝ}}.
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| − |
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| − | [[Visarga]] {{unicode|ḥ}} {{Unicode|ः}} is an [[allophone]] of {{unicode|r}} and {{unicode|s}}, and [[anusvara]] {{unicode|ṃ}}, Devanagari {{Unicode| ं}} of any nasal, both in [[pausa]] (ie, the nasalized vowel). The exact pronunciation of the three sibilants may vary, but they are distinct phonemes. An aspirated voiced sibilant {{IPA|/zʱ/}} was inherited by [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] from Proto-Indo-Iranian but lost shortly before the time of the Rigveda (aspirated fricatives are exceedingly rare in any language). The [[retroflex consonant]]s are somewhat marginal phonemes, often being conditioned by their phonetic environment; they do not continue a [[PIE]] series and are often ascribed by some linguists to the [[substratum|substratal]] influence of [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]. The nasal {{IPA|[ɲ]}} is a conditioned allophone of {{IPA|/n/}} ({{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/ɳ/}} are distinct phonemes—{{unicode|aṇu}} 'minute', 'atomic' [nom. sg. neutr. of an adjective] is distinctive from {{unicode|anu}} 'after', 'along'; phonologically independent {{unicode|/ŋ/}} occurs only marginally, e.g. in {{unicode|prāṅ}} 'directed forwards/towards' [nom. sg. masc. of an adjective]). There are thus 31 consonantal or semi-vocalic phonemes, consisting of four/five kinds of stops realized both with or without aspiration and both voiced and voiceless, three nasals, four semi-vowels or liquids, and four fricatives, written in [[IAST]] transliteration as follows:
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| − | :{{unicode|k, kh, g, gh; c, ch, j, jh; ṭ, ṭh, ḍ, ḍh; t, th, d, dh; p, ph, b, bh; m, n, ṇ; y, r, l, v; ś, ṣ, s, h}}
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| − | or a total of 36 unique Sanskrit phonemes altogether.
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| − |
| |
| − | The [[phonology|phonological]] rules to be applied when combining morphemes to a word, and when combining words to a sentence are collectively called ''[[sandhi]]'' "composition." Texts are written phonetically, with sandhi applied (except for the so-called ''padapā{{Unicode|ṭ}}ha'').
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| − |
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| − | ==Writing System==
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| − | [[Image:Kashmir Sharada MS.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Kashmir]]i [[Shaivaite]] manuscript in the [[Sharada script]] (17th or 18th century)]]
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| − |
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| − | Historically, Sanskrit was not associated with any particular script. The emphasis on orality, not textuality, in the Vedic Sanskrit tradition was maintained through the development of early classical [[Sanskrit literature]]. When Sanskrit was written, the choice of writing system was influenced by the regional scripts of the scribes. As such, virtually all of the major writing systems of South Asia have been used for the production of Sanskrit manuscripts. Since the late nineteenth century, [[Devanagari]] has been considered as the ''de facto'' writing system for Sanskrit,<ref>Sanskrit Grammar, William Dwight Whitney, 1889</ref>, possibly because of the European practice of printing Sanskrit texts in the script.
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| − |
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| − | Writing came relatively late to India, introduced from the [[Middle East]] by traders around the fifth century B.C.E., according to a hypothesis by [[Thomas William Rhys Davids|Rhys Davids]]. Even after the introduction of writing, oral tradition and memorization of texts remained a prominent feature of Sanskrit literature. In northern India, there are [[Brahmi]] inscriptions dating from the third century B.C.E. onwards, the oldest appearing on the famous [[Edicts of Ashoka|Prakrit pillar inscriptions]] of king [[Ashoka]]. Roughly contemporary with the Brahmi, the [[Kharosthi]] script was used. Later (ca. fourth to eighth centuries C.E.) the [[Gupta script]], derived from Brahmi, became prevalent. From around the eighth century, the [[Sharada script]] evolved out of the Gupta script, and was mostly displaced in its turn by [[Devanagari]] from about the twelfth century, with intermediary stages such as the [[Siddham]] script. In Eastern India, the [[Bengali language|Bengali]] script and, later, the [[Oriya]] script, were used.
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| − |
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| − | In the south where [[Dravidian languages]] predominate, scripts used for Sanskrit include [[Kannada script|Kannada]] in [[Kannada language|Kannada]] and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] speaking regions, [[Telugu script|Telugu]] in Telugu and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] speaking regions, [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] and [[Grantha script|Grantha]] in Tamil speaking regions.
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| − |
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| − | <center>[[Image:Phrase sanskrit.png]]<br/> Sanskrit in modern Indian scripts. ''May [[Shiva|Śiva]] bless those who take delight in the language of the gods.'' ([[Kalidasa]])
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| − | </center>
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| − |
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| − |
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| − | ====Romanization====
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| − |
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| − | Since the late eighteenth century, Sanskrit has been [[transliteration|transliterated]] using the [[Latin alphabet]]. The system most commonly used today is the [[IAST]] (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration), which has been the academic standard since 1912. [[ASCII]]-based transliteration schemes have evolved due to difficulties representing Sanskrit characters in computer systems. These include [[Harvard-Kyoto]] and [[ITRANS]], a lossless transliteration scheme that is used widely on the Internet, especially in Usenet and in email, for considerations of speed of entry as well as rendering issues. With the wide availability of [[Unicode]]-aware web browsers, IAST has become common online.
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| − |
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| − | European scholars in the nineteenth century generally preferred Devanagari for the transcription and reproduction of whole texts and lengthy excerpts. However, references to individual words and names in texts composed in European languages were usually represented with Roman transliteration. From the mid twentieth century, textual editions edited by Western scholars have mostly been in romanized transliteration.
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| − |
| |
| − | ==Grammar==
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| − | {{main|Sanskrit grammar}}
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| − | ===Grammatical Tradition===
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| − |
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| − | Sanskrit grammatical tradition ('''{{unicode|vyākaraṇa}}''', one of the six [[Vedanga]] disciplines) began in late [[Vedic India]] and culminated in the '''{{unicode|[[Aṣṭādhyāyī]]}}''' of {{unicode|[[Pāṇini]]}}, which consists of 3990 sutras (ca. [[fifth century B.C.E.]]). After a century {{unicode|Pāṇini}} (around 400 B.C.E.) Kātyāyana composed Vārtikas on Pāninian sũtras. [[Patañjali]], who lived three centuries after Pānini, wrote the ''{{unicode|[[Mahābhāṣya]]}}'', the "Great Commentary" on the {{unicode|Aṣṭādhyāyī}} and Vārtikas. Because of these three ancient [[Sanskrit grammarians]] this grammar is called '''Trimuni Vyākarana'''. To understand the meaning of sutras, Jayaditya and Vāmana wrote the commentry named Kāsikā in 600 C.E.. Paninian grammar is based on fourteen [[Shiva]] sutras (aphorisms); here the whole Mātrika ([[alphabet]]) is abbreviated. This abbreviation is called Pratyāhara.<ref>Kashinath V. Abhyankar, ''A dictionary of Sanskrit Grammar'', Gaekwad's Oriental Series, No. 134, Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1986</ref>
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| − |
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| − | ===Verbs===
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| − |
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| − | ====Classification of verbs====
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| − | Sanskrit has ten classes of [[verb]]s divided into in two broad groups: [[athematic]] and [[Vowel stem|thematic]]. The thematic verbs are so called because an ''a'', called the [[theme vowel]], is inserted between the stem and the ending. This serves to make the thematic verbs generally more regular. [[exponent (linguistics)|Exponents]] used in verb [[grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] include [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefix]]es, [[suffix]]es, [[infix]]es, and [[reduplication]]. Every root has (not necessarily all distinct) zero, [[guna|gu{{Unicode|ṇ}}a]], and [[vrddhi|v{{Unicode|ṛ}}ddhi]] grades. If V is the vowel of the zero grade, the gu{{Unicode|ṇ}}a-grade vowel is traditionally thought of as a + V, and the v{{Unicode|ṛ}}ddhi-grade vowel as ā + V.
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| − |
| |
| − | ====Tense Systems====
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| − | The verbs [[tense]]s, which express more distinctions than simply temporal sequence, are organized into four 'systems' (as well as [[gerund]]s and [[infinitive]]s, and forms such as [[intensive]]s/[[frequentative]]s, [[desiderative]]s, [[causative]]s, and [[benedictive]]s derived from more basic forms) based on the different stem forms (derived from verbal roots) used in conjugation. There are four tense systems:
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| − | *Present ([[Present tense|Present]], [[Imperfect tense|Imperfect]], [[Imperative mood|Imperative]], [[Optative mood|Optative]])
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| − | *[[Perfect tense|Perfect]]
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| − | *[[Aorist tense|Aorist]]
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| − | *[[Future]] ([[Future tense|Future]], [[Conditional]])
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| − |
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| − |
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| − |
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| − | =====Present system=====
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| − | The present system includes the [[present tense|present]] and [[Imperfect tense|imperfect]] tenses, the [[optative mood|optative]] and [[imperative mood|imperative]] moods, as well as some of the remnant forms of the old [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]]. The tense stem of the present system is formed in various ways. The numbers are the native grammarians' numbers for these classes.
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| − |
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| − | For athematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through
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| − | *2) No modification at all, for example ''ad'' from ''ad'' 'eat'.
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| − | *3) Reduplication prefixed to the root, for example ''juhu'' from ''hu'' 'sacrifice'.
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| − | *7) Infixion of ''na'' or ''n'' before the final root consonant (with appropriate sandhi changes), for example ''rundh'' or ''ru{{Unicode|ṇ}}adh'' from ''rudh'' 'obstruct'.
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| − | *5) Suffixation of ''nu'' (gu{{Unicode|ṇ}}a form ''no''), for example ''sunu'' from ''su'' 'press out'.
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| − | *8) Suffixation of ''u'' (gu{{Unicode|ṇ}}a form ''o''), for example ''tanu'' from ''tan'' 'stretch'. For modern linguistic purposes it is better treated as a subclass of the 5th. ''tanu'' derives from ''tnnu'', which is [[zero-grade]] for *''tannu'', because in the [[Proto-Indo-European language]] [m] and [n] could be vowels, which in Sanskrit (and Greek) change to [a]. Most members of the 8th class arose this way; ''kar'' = "make," "do" was 5th class in [[Vedic language|Vedic]] (''krnoti'' = "he makes"), but shifted to the 8th class in Classical Sanskrit (''karoti'' = "he makes")
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| − | *9) Suffixation of ''nā'' (zero-grade ''nī'' or ''n''), for example ''krī{{Unicode|ṇ}}a'' or ''krī{{Unicode|ṇ}}ī'' from ''krī'' 'buy'.
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| − |
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| − | For thematic verbs, the present tense stem may be formed through
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| − | *1) Suffixation of the thematic vowel ''a'' with gu{{Unicode|ṇ}}a strengthening, for example, ''bháva'' from ''bhū'' 'be'.
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| − | *6) Suffixation of the thematic vowel ''a'' with a shift of accent to this vowel, for example ''tudá'' from ''tud'' 'thrust'.
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| − | *4) Suffixation of ''ya'', for example ''dī́vya'' from ''div'' 'play'.
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| − |
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| − | The tenth class described by native grammarians refers to a process which is derivational in nature, and thus not a true tense-stem formation. It is formed by suffixation of ''ya'' with gu{{Unicode|ṇ}}a strengthening and lengthening of the root's last vowel, for example ''bhāvaya'' from ''bhū'' 'be'.
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| − |
| |
| − | =====Perfect system=====
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| − | The perfect system includes only the [[perfect tense]]. The stem is formed with reduplication as with the present system.
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| − |
| |
| − | The perfect system also produces separate "strong" and "weak" forms of the verb — the strong form is used with the singular active, and the weak form with the rest.
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| − |
| |
| − | =====Aorist system=====
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| − | The [[aorist]] system includes aorist proper (with past indicative meaning, e.g. ''abhū{{Unicode|ḥ}}'' "you were") and some of the forms of the ancient injunctive (used almost exclusively with ''mā'' in prohibitions, e.g. ''mā bhū{{Unicode|ḥ}}'' "don't be"). The principal distinction of the two is presence/absence of an augment – ''a-'' prefixed to the stem.
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| − |
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| − | The aorist system stem actually has three different formations: the simple aorist, the reduplicating aorist (semantically related to the causative verb), and the sibilant aorist. The simple aorist is taken directly from the root stem (e.g. ''bhū-'': ''a-bhū-t'' "he was"). The reduplicating aorist involves reduplication as well as [[vowel reduction]] of the stem. The sibilant aorist is formed with the suffixation of ''s'' to the stem.
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| − |
| |
| − | =====Future system=====
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| − | The future system is formed with the suffixation of ''sya'' or ''i{{Unicode|ṣ}}ya'' and gu{{Unicode|ṇ}}a.
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| − |
| |
| − | ===Verbs: Conjugation===
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| − | Each verb has a [[grammatical voice]], whether active, passive or middle. There is also an impersonal voice, which can be described as the passive voice of intransitive verbs. Sanskrit verbs have an [[indicative mood|indicative]], an [[optative mood|optative]] and an [[imperative mood]]. Older forms of the language had a [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]], though this had fallen out of use by the time of Classical Sanskrit.
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| − |
| |
| − | ====Basic conjugational endings====
| |
| − | Conjugational endings in Sanskrit convey [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]], and [[grammatical voice|voice]]. Different forms of the endings are used depending on what tense stem and mood they are attached to. Verb stems or the endings themselves may be changed or obscured by sandhi.
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| − |
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="2" colspan="2"|
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Active
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| − | !colspan="3"| Middle
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| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
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| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="3"| Primary
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| − | ! First Person
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| − | | mi || vás || más || é || váhe || máhe
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| − | |-
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| − | ! Second Person
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| − | | si || thás || thá || sé || ā́the || dhvé
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| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Third Person
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| − | | ti || tás || ánti, áti || té || ā́te || ánte, áte
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="3"| Secondary
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| − | ! First Person
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| − | | am || vá || má || í, á || váhi || máhi
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| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Second Person
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| − | | s || tám || tá || thā́s || ā́thām || dhvám
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| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Third Person
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| − | | t || tā́m || án, ús || tá || ā́tām || ánta, áta, rán
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="3"| Perfect
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| − | ! First Person
| |
| − | | a || vá || má || é || váhe || máhe
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Second Person
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| − | | tha || áthus || á || sé || ā́the || dhvé
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| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Third Person
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| − | | a || átus || ús || é || ā́te || ré
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| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="3"| Imperative
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| − | ! First Person
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| − | | āni || āva || āma || āi || āvahāi || āmahāi
| |
| − | |-
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| − | ! Second Person
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| − | | dhí, hí, — || tám || tá || svá || ā́thām || dhvám
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| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Third Person
| |
| − | | tu || tā́m || ántu, átu || tā́m || ā́tām || ántām, átām
| |
| − | |}
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| − |
| |
| − | Primary endings are used with present indicative and future forms. Secondary endings are used with the imperfect, conditional, aorist, and optative. Perfect and imperative endings are used with the perfect and imperative respectively.
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| − |
| |
| − | ====Present system conjugation====
| |
| − | Conjugation of the present system deals with all forms of the verb utilizing the present tense stem (explained under Tense Stems above). This includes the present tense of all moods, as well as the imperfect indicative.
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| − |
| |
| − | =====Athematic inflection=====
| |
| − | The present system differentiates strong and weak forms of the verb. The strong/weak opposition manifests itself differently depending on the class:
| |
| − | *The root and reduplicating classes (2 & 3) are not modified in the weak forms, and receive {{Unicode|guṇa}} in the strong forms.
| |
| − | *The nasal class (7) is not modified in the weak form, extends the nasal to ''ná'' in the strong form.
| |
| − | *The nu-class (5) has ''nu'' in the weak form and ''nó'' in the strong form.
| |
| − | *The nā-class (9) has ''nī'' in the weak form and ''nā́'' in the strong form. ''nī'' disappears before vocalic endings.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The present indicative takes primary endings, and the imperfect indicative takes secondary endings. Singular active forms have the accent on the stem and take strong forms, while the other forms have the accent on the endings and take weak forms.
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |+ Indicative
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="2" colspan="2"|
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Active
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| − | !colspan="3"| Middle
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| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
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| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="3"| Present
| |
| − | ! First Person
| |
| − | | dvé{{Unicode|ṣ}}mi || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}vás || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}más || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}é || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}váhe || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}máhe
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Second Person
| |
| − | | dvék{{Unicode|ṣ}}i || dvi{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}hás || dvi{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}há || dvik{{Unicode|ṣ}}é || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}ā́the || dvi{{Unicode|ḍḍ}}hvé
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Third Person
| |
| − | | dvé{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}i || dvi{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}ás || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}ánti || dvi{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}é || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}ā́te || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}áte
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="3"| Imperfect
| |
| − | ! First Person
| |
| − | | ádve{{Unicode|ṣ}}am || ádvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}va || ádvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}ma || ádvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}i || ádvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}vahi || ádvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}mahi
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Second Person
| |
| − | | ádve{{Unicode|ṭ}} || ádvi{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}am || ádvis{{Unicode|ṭ}}a || ádvi{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}hās || ádvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}āthām || ádvi{{Unicode|ḍḍ}}hvam
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Third Person
| |
| − | | ádve{{Unicode|ṭ}} || ádvi{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}ām || ádvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}an || ádvi{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}a || ádvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}ātām || ádvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}ata
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The optative takes secondary endings. ''yā'' is added to the stem in the active, and ''ī'' in the passive.
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |+ Optative
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="2"|
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Active
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Middle
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! First Person
| |
| − | | dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}yā́m || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}yā́va || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}yā́ma || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}īyá || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}īvahi || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}īmahi
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Second Person
| |
| − | | dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}yā́s || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}yā́tam || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}yā́ta || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}īthās || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}īyāthām || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}īdhvam
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Third Person
| |
| − | | dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}yā́t || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}yā́tām || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}yus || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}īta || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}īyātām || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}īran
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The imperative takes imperative endings. Accent is variable and affects vowel quality. Forms which are end-accented trigger gu{{Unicode|ṇ}}a strengthening, and those with stem accent do not have the vowel affected.
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |+ Imperative
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="2"|
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Active
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Middle
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! First Person
| |
| − | | dvé{{Unicode|ṣāṇ}}i || dvé{{Unicode|ṣ}}āva || dvé{{Unicode|ṣ}}āma || dvé{{Unicode|ṣ}}āi || dvé{{Unicode|ṣ}}āvahāi || dvé{{Unicode|ṣ}}āmahāi
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Second Person
| |
| − | | dvi{{Unicode|ḍḍ}}hí || dvi{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}ám || dvi{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}á || dvik{{Unicode|ṣ}}vá || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}āthām || dvi{{Unicode|ḍḍ}}hvám
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Third Person
| |
| − | | dvé{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}u || dvi{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}ā́m || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}ántu || dvi{{Unicode|ṣṭ}}ā́m || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}ā́tām || dvi{{Unicode|ṣ}}átām
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Nominal Inflection===
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Sanskrit is a highly [[inflection|inflected]] language with three [[grammatical gender]]s (masculine, feminine, neuter) and three numbers (singular, plural, [[dual grammatical number|dual]]). It has eight [[grammatical case|cases]]: [[nominative case|nominative]], [[vocative case|vocative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], [[instrumental case|instrumental]], [[dative case|dative]], [[ablative case|ablative]], [[genitive case|genitive]], and [[locative case|locative]].
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The number of actual [[declension]]s is debatable. [[Panini (grammarian)|Panini]] identifies six ''karakas'' corresponding to the nominative, accusative, dative, instrumental, locative, and ablative cases [http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/srb/cyber/man3.html]. Panini defines them as follows (Ashtadhyayi, I.4.24-54):
| |
| − |
| |
| − | # ''Apadana'' (lit. 'take off'): "(that which is) firm when departure (takes place)." This is the equivalent of the ablative case, which signifies a stationary object from which movement proceeds.
| |
| − | # ''Sampradana'' ('bestowal'): "he whom one aims at with the object." This is equivalent to the dative case, which signifies a recipient in an act of giving or similar acts.
| |
| − | # ''Karana'' ("instrument") "that which effects most." This is equivalent to the instrumental case.
| |
| − | # ''Adhikarana'' ('location'): or "substratum." This is equivalent to the locative case.
| |
| − | # ''Karman'' ('deed'/'object'): "what the agent seeks most to attain." This is equivalent to the accusative case.
| |
| − | # ''Karta'' ('agent'): "he/that which is independent in action." This is equivalent to the nominative case. (On the basis of Scharfe, 1977: 94)
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Possessive ''(Sambandha)'' and vocative are absent in Panini's grammar.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | In this article they are divided into five declensions. The declension to which a noun belongs to is determined largely by form.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ====Basic Noun and Adjective Declension ====
| |
| − | The basic scheme of suffixation is given in the table below—valid for almost all nouns and adjectives. However, according to the gender and the ending consonant/vowel of the uninflected word-stem, there are predetermined rules of compulsory ''sandhi'' which would then give the final inflected word. The parentheses give the case-terminations for the neuter gender, the rest are for masculine and feminine gender. Both devanagari script and IAST transliterations are given.
| |
| − | {|class="wikitable"
| |
| − | ! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Nominative <br/> ''(Karta)''
| |
| − | | -स् -s<br/>(-म् -m)||-औ -au<br/>(-ई -ī)||-अस् -as<br/>(-इ -i)
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Accusative <br/> ''(Karma)''
| |
| − | | -अम् -am<br/>(-म् -m)||-औ -au<br/>(-ई -ī)||-अस् -as<br/>(-इ -i)
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Instrumental <br/> ''(Karana)''
| |
| − | | -आ -ā||-भ्याम् -bhyām||-भिस् -bhis
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Dative <br/> ''(Sampradana)''
| |
| − | | -ए -e||-भ्याम् -bhyām||-भ्यस् -bhyas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Ablative <br/> ''(Apadana)''
| |
| − | | -अस् -as||-भ्याम् -bhyām||-भ्यस् -bhyas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Genitive <br/> ''(Sambandha)''
| |
| − | | -अस् -as||-ओस् -os||-आम् -ām
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Locative <br/>''(Adhikarana)''
| |
| − | | -इ -i||-ओस् -os||-सु -su
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Vocative
| |
| − | | -स् -s<br/>(- -)||-औ -au<br/>(-ई -ī)||-अस् -as<br/>(-इ -i)
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ====a-stems====
| |
| − | A-stems ({{IPA|/ə/ or /aː/}}) comprise the largest class of nouns. As a rule, nouns belonging to this class, with the uninflected stem ending in short-a ({{IPA|/ə/}}), are either masculine or neuter. Nouns ending in long-A ({{IPA|/aː/}}) are almost always feminine. A-stem adjectives take the masculine and neuter in short-a ({{IPA|/ə/}}), and feminine in long-A ({{IPA|/aː/}}) in their stems. This class is so big because it also comprises the Proto-Indo-European o-stems.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="2"|
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Masculine ''(kāma-)''
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Neuter (''āsya-'' 'mouth')
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Feminine (''kānta-'' 'beloved')
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Nominative
| |
| − | | kā́mas || kā́māu || kā́mās || āsyàm || āsyè || āsyā̀ni || kāntā || kānte || kāntās
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Accusative
| |
| − | | kā́mam || kā́māu || kā́mān || āsyàm || āsyè || āsyā̀ni || kāntām || kānte || kāntās
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Instrumental
| |
| − | | kā́mena || kā́mābhyām || kā́māis || āsyèna || āsyā̀bhyām || āsyāìs || kāntayā || kāntābhyām || kāntābhis
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Dative
| |
| − | | kā́māya || kā́mābhyām || kā́mebhyas || āsyā̀ya || āsyā̀bhyām || āsyèbhyas || kāntāyai || kāntābhyām || kāntābhyās
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Ablative
| |
| − | | kā́māt || kā́mābhyām || kā́mebhyas || āsyā̀t || āsyā̀bhyām || āsyèbhyas || kāntāyās || kāntābhyām || kāntābhyās
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Genitive
| |
| − | | kā́masya || kā́mayos || kā́mānām || āsyàsya || āsyàyos || āsyā̀nām || kāntāyās || kāntayos || kāntānām
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Locative
| |
| − | | kā́me || kā́mayos || kā́me{{Unicode|ṣ}}u || āsyè || āsyàyos || āsyè{{Unicode|ṣ}}u || kāntāyām || kāntayos || kāntāsu
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Vocative
| |
| − | | kā́ma || kā́mau || kā́mās || ā́sya || āsyè || āsyā̀ni || kānte || kānte || kāntās
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ====i- and u-stems====
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |+ i-stems
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="2"|
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Masc. and Fem. (''gáti-'' 'gait')
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Neuter (''vā́ri-'' 'water')
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Nominative
| |
| − | | gátis || gátī || gátayas || vā́ri || vā́ri{{Unicode|ṇ}}ī || vā́rī{{Unicode|ṇ}}i
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Accusative
| |
| − | | gátim || gátī || gátīs || vā́ri || vā́ri{{Unicode|ṇ}}ī || vā́rī{{Unicode|ṇ}}i
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Instrumental
| |
| − | | gátyā || gátibhyām || gátibhis || vā́ri{{Unicode|ṇ}}ā || vā́ribhyām || vā́ribhis
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Dative
| |
| − | | gátaye, gátyāi || gátibhyām || gátibhyas || vā́ri{{Unicode|ṇ}}e || vā́ribhyām || vā́ribhyas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Ablative
| |
| − | | gátes, gátyās || gátibhyām || gátibhyas || vā́ri{{Unicode|ṇ}}as || vā́ribhyām || vā́ribhyas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Genitive
| |
| − | | gátes, gátyās || gátyos || gátīnām || vā́ri{{Unicode|ṇ}}as || vā́ri{{Unicode|ṇ}}os || vā́ri{{Unicode|ṇ}}ām
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Locative
| |
| − | | gátāu, gátyām || gátyos || gáti{{Unicode|ṣ}}u || vā́ri{{Unicode|ṇ}}i || vā́ri{{Unicode|ṇ}}os || vā́ri{{Unicode|ṣ}}u
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Vocative
| |
| − | | gáte || gátī || gátayas || vā́ri, vā́re || vā́ri{{Unicode|ṇ}}ī || vā́rī{{Unicode|ṇ}}i
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |+ u-stems
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="2"|
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Masc. and Fem. (''śátru-'' 'enemy')
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Neuter (''mádhu-'' 'honey')
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Nominative
| |
| − | | śátrus || śátrū || śátravas || mádhu || mádhunī || mádhūni
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Accusative
| |
| − | | śátrum || śátrū || śátrūn || mádhu || mádhunī || mádhūni
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Instrumental
| |
| − | | śátru{{Unicode|ṇ}}ā || śátrubhyām || śátrubhis || mádhunā || mádhubhyām || mádhubhis
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Dative
| |
| − | | śátrave || śátrubhyām || śátrubhyas || mádhune || mádhubhyām || mádhubhyas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Ablative
| |
| − | | śátros || śátrubhyām || śátrubhyas || mádhunas || mádhubhyām || mádhubhyas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Genitive
| |
| − | | śátros || śátrvos || śátrū{{Unicode|ṇ}}ām || mádhunas || mádhunos || mádhūnām
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Locative
| |
| − | | śátrāu || śátrvos || śátru{{Unicode|ṣ}}u || mádhuni || mádhunos || {{Unicode|mádhuṣu}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Vocative
| |
| − | | śátro || śátrū || śátravas || mádhu || mádhunī || mádhūni
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ====Long Vowel-stems====
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="2"|
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| {{Unicode|ā}}-stems (''{{Unicode|jā-}}'' 'progeny')
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| {{Unicode|ī}}-stems (''{{Unicode|dhī-}}'' 'thought')
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| {{Unicode|ū-stems}} (''{{Unicode|bhū-}}'' 'earth')
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Nominative
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|jā́s}} || {{Unicode|jāú}} || {{Unicode|jā́s}}
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|dhī́s}} || {{Unicode|dhíyāu}} || dhíyas
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|bhū́s}} || {{Unicode|bhúvāu}} || bhúvas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Accusative
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|jā́m}} || {{Unicode|jāú}} || {{Unicode|jā́s}}, jás
| |
| − | | dhíyam || {{Unicode|dhíyāu}} || dhíyas
| |
| − | | bhúvam || {{Unicode|bhúvāu}} || bhúvas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Instrumental
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|jā́}} || {{Unicode|jā́bhyām}} || {{Unicode|jā́bhis}}
| |
| − | | dhiyā́ || {{Unicode|dhībhyā́m}} || {{Unicode|dhībhís}}
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|bhuvā́}} || {{Unicode|bhūbhyā́m}} || {{Unicode|bhūbhís}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Dative
| |
| − | | jé || {{Unicode|jā́bhyām}} || {{Unicode|jā́bhyas}}
| |
| − | | dhiyé, {{Unicode|dhiyāí}} || {{Unicode|dhībhyā́m}} || {{Unicode|dhībhyás}}
| |
| − | | bhuvé, {{Unicode|bhuvāí}} || {{Unicode|bhūbhyā́m}} || {{Unicode|bhūbhyás}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Ablative
| |
| − | | jás || {{Unicode|jā́bhyām}} || {{Unicode|jā́bhyas}}
| |
| − | | dhiyás, {{Unicode|dhiyā́s}} || {{Unicode|dhībhyā́m}} || {{Unicode|dhībhyás}}
| |
| − | | bhuvás, {{Unicode|bhuvā́s}} || {{Unicode|bhūbhyā́m}} || {{Unicode|bhūbhyás}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Genitive
| |
| − | | jás || jós || {{Unicode|jā́nām, jā́m}}
| |
| − | | dhiyás, {{Unicode|dhiyā́s}} || dhiyós || {{Unicode|dhiyā́m, dhīnā́m}}
| |
| − | | bhuvás, {{Unicode|bhuvā́s}} || bhuvós || {{Unicode|bhuvā́m, bhūnā́m}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Locative
| |
| − | | jí || jós || {{Unicode|jā́su}}
| |
| − | | dhiyí, {{Unicode|dhiyā́m}} || dhiyós || {{Unicode|dhīṣú}}
| |
| − | | bhuví, {{Unicode|bhuvā́m}} || bhuvós || {{Unicode|bhūṣú}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Vocative
| |
| − | | jā́s || {{Unicode|jāú}} || {{Unicode|jā́s}}
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|dhī́s}} || {{Unicode|dhiyāu}} || dhíyas
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|bhū́s}} || {{Unicode|bhuvāu}} || bhúvas
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===={{Unicode|ṛ}}-stems====
| |
| − | {{Unicode|ṛ}}-stems are predominantly [[Agent (grammar)|agental]] derivatives like ''dāt{{Unicode|ṛ}}'' 'giver', though also include kinship terms like ''pit{{Unicode|ṛ}}́'' 'father', ''māt{{Unicode|ṛ}}́'' 'mother', and ''svás{{Unicode|ṛ}}'' 'sister'.
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Nominative
| |
| − | | pitā́ || pitárāu || pitáras
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Accusative
| |
| − | | pitáram || pitárāu || pit{{Unicode|ṝ}}́n
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Instrumental
| |
| − | | pitrā́ || pit{{Unicode|ṛ}}́bhyām || pit{{Unicode|ṛ}}́bhis
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Dative
| |
| − | | pitré || pit{{Unicode|ṛ}}́bhyām || pit{{Unicode|ṛ}}́bhyas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Ablative
| |
| − | | pitúr || pit{{Unicode|ṛ}}́bhyām || pit{{Unicode|ṛ}}́bhyas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Genitive
| |
| − | | pitúr || pitrós || pit{{Unicode|ṝṇ}}ā́m
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Locative
| |
| − | | pitári || pitrós || pit{{Unicode|ṛ́ṣ}}u
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Vocative
| |
| − | | pítar || pitárāu || pitáras
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | See also [[Devi inflection]], [[Vrkis inflection]].
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Personal Pronouns and Determiners===
| |
| − | {{main|Sanskrit pronouns and determiners}}
| |
| − | The first and second person pronouns are declined for the most part alike, having by [[analogy]] assimilated themselves with one another.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Note: Where two forms are given, the second is [[enclitic]] and an alternative form. Ablatives in singular and plural may be extended by the syllable -''tas''; thus ''mat'' or ''mattas'', ''asmat'' or ''asmattas''.
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="2"|
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| First Person
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Second Person
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Nominative
| |
| − | | aham || āvām || vayam
| |
| − | | tvam || yuvām || yūyam
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Accusative
| |
| − | | mām, mā || āvām, nau || asmān, nas
| |
| − | | tvām, tvā || yuvām, vām || {{Unicode|yuṣmān}}, vas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Instrumental
| |
| − | | mayā || āvābhyām || asmābhis
| |
| − | | tvayā || yuvābhyām || {{Unicode|yuṣmābhis}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Dative
| |
| − | | mahyam, me || āvābhyām, nau || asmabhyam, nas
| |
| − | | tubhyam, te || yuvābhyām, vām || {{Unicode|yuṣmabhyam}}, vas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Ablative
| |
| − | | mat || āvābhyām || asmat
| |
| − | | tvat || yuvābhyām || {{Unicode|yuṣmat}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Genitive
| |
| − | | mama, me || āvayos, nau || asmākam, nas
| |
| − | | tava, te || yuvayos, vām || {{Unicode|yuṣmākam}}, vas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Locative
| |
| − | | mayi || āvayos || asmāsu
| |
| − | | tvayi || yuvayos || {{Unicode|yuṣmāsu}}
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The demonstrative ''ta'', declined below, also functions as the third person pronoun.
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="2"|
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Masculine
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Neuter
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Feminine
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | ! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Nominative
| |
| − | | sás || tāú || té
| |
| − | | tát || té || tā́ni
| |
| − | | sā́ || té || tā́s
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Accusative
| |
| − | | tám || tāú || tā́n
| |
| − | | tát || té || tā́ni
| |
| − | | tā́m || té || tā́s
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Instrumental
| |
| − | | téna || tā́bhyām || tāís
| |
| − | | téna || tā́bhyām || tāís
| |
| − | | táyā || tā́bhyām || tā́bhis
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Dative
| |
| − | | tásmāi || tā́bhyām || tébhyas
| |
| − | | tásmāi || tā́bhyām || tébhyas
| |
| − | | tásyāi || tā́bhyām || tā́bhyas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Ablative
| |
| − | | tásmāt || tā́bhyām || tébhyam
| |
| − | | tásmāt || tā́bhyām || tébhyam
| |
| − | | tásyās || tā́bhyām || tā́bhyas
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Genitive
| |
| − | | tásya || táyos || {{Unicode|téṣām}}
| |
| − | | tásya || táyos || {{Unicode|téṣām}}
| |
| − | | tásyās || táyos || tā́sām
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Locative
| |
| − | | tásmin || táyos || {{Unicode|téṣu}}
| |
| − | | tásmin || táyos || {{Unicode|téṣu}}
| |
| − | | tásyām || táyos || tā́su
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Compounds===
| |
| − | {{main|Sanskrit compounds}}
| |
| − | One other notable feature of the nominal system is the very common use of nominal compounds, which may be huge (10+ words) as in some modern languages such as [[German language|German]]. Nominal compounds occur with various structures, however morphologically speaking they are essentially the same. Each noun (or adjective) is in its (weak) stem form, with only the final element receiving case inflection. Some examples of nominal compounds include:
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ; {{unicode|[[Dvandva]]}} (co-ordinative)
| |
| − | : These consist of two or more [[noun]] stems, connected in sense with 'and'. There are mainly two kinds of ''dvandva'' constructions in Sanskrit. The first is called ''itaretara dvandva'', an enumerative compound word, the meaning of which refers to all its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the dual or plural number and takes the gender of the final member in the compound construction. e.g. ''rāma-lakşmaņau'' – Rama and Lakshmana, or ''rāma-lakşmaņa-bharata-śatrughnāh'' – Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata and Satrughna. The second kind is called ''samāhāra dvandva'', a collective compound word, the meaning of which refers to the collection of its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the singular number and is always neuter in gender. e.g. ''pāņipādam'' – limbs, literally hands and feet, from pāņi = hand and pāda = foot. According to some grammarians, there is a third kind of dvandva, called ''ekaśeşa dvandva'' or residual compound, which takes the dual (or plural) form of only its final constituent member, e.g. ''pitarau'' for mātā + pitā, mother + father, i.e. parents. According to other grammarians, however, the ''ekaśeşa'' is not properly a compound at all.
| |
| − | ; {{unicode|[[Bahuvrīhi]]}} (possessive)
| |
| − | : Bahuvrīhi, or "much-rice," denotes a rich person—one who has much rice. Bahuvrīhi compounds refer (by example) to a compound noun with no head—a compound noun that refers to a thing which is itself not part of the compound. For example, "low-life" and "block-head" are bahuvrihi compounds, since a low-life is not a kind of life, and a block-head is not a kind of head. (And a much-rice is not a kind of rice.) Compare with more common, headed, compound nouns like "fly-ball" (a kind of ball) or "alley cat" (a kind of cat). Bahurvrīhis can often be translated by "possessing..." or "-ed"; for example, "possessing much rice," or "much riced."
| |
| − | ; [[Tatpurusha|{{unicode|Tatpuruṣa}}]] (determinative)
| |
| − | : There are many tatpuru{{Unicode|ṣ}}as (one for each of the nominal cases, and a few others besides); in a tatpuru{{Unicode|ṣ}}a, the first component is in a case relationship with another. For example, a doghouse is a dative compound, a house ''for'' a dog. It would be called a "caturtitatpuru{{Unicode|ṣ}}a" (caturti refers to the fourth case—that is, the dative). Incidentally, "tatpuru{{Unicode|ṣ}}a" is a tatpuru{{Unicode|ṣ}}a ("this man"—meaning someone's agent), while "caturtitatpuru{{Unicode|ṣ}}a" is a [[Karmadharya|karmadhārya]], being both dative, and a tatpuru{{Unicode|ṣ}}a. An easy way to understand it is to look at English examples of tatpuru{{Unicode|ṣ}}as: "battlefield," where there is a genitive relationship between "field" and "battle," "a field of battle"; other examples include instrumental relationships ("thunderstruck") and locative relationships ("towndwelling").
| |
| − | ; {{unicode|[[Karmadhāraya]]}} (descriptive)
| |
| − | : The relation of the first member to the last is appositional, attributive or adverbial, e. g. uluka-yatu (owl+demon) is a demon in the shape of an owl.
| |
| − | ; [[Amredita|{{unicode|Amreḍita}}]] (iterative)
| |
| − | : Repetition of a word expresses repetitiveness, e. g. dive-dive 'day by day', 'daily'.
| |
| − | ;[[Dvigu]]
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Syntax===
| |
| − | Because of Sanskrit's complex declension system the [[word order]] is free (with tendency toward [[Subject Object Verb|SOV]]).
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Numerals===
| |
| − | The numbers from one to ten:
| |
| − |
| |
| − | # {{IAST|éka-}}
| |
| − | # {{IAST|dva-}}
| |
| − | # {{IAST|tri-}}
| |
| − | # {{IAST|catúr-}}
| |
| − | # {{IAST|páñcan-}}
| |
| − | # {{IAST|ṣáṣ-}}
| |
| − | # {{IAST|saptán-}}
| |
| − | # {{IAST|aṣṭá-}}
| |
| − | # {{IAST|návan-}}
| |
| − | # {{IAST|dáśan-}}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The numbers one through four are declined. '''Éka''' is declined like a pronominal adjective, though the dual form does not occur. '''Dvá''' appears only in the dual. '''Trí''' and '''catúr''' are declined irregularly:
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan="2"|
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Three
| |
| − | !colspan="3"| Four
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Masculine !! Neuter !! Feminine !! Masculine !! Neuter !! Feminine
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Nominative
| |
| − | | tráyas || <font face="Tahoma">{{Unicode|trī́ṇi}}</font> || tisrás || catvā́ras || catvā́ri || cátasras
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Accusative
| |
| − | | trīn || <font face="Tahoma">{{Unicode|trī́ṇi}}</font> || tisrás || catúras || catvā́ri || cátasras
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Instrumental
| |
| − | |colspan="2"| tribhís
| |
| − | | <font face="Tahoma">{{Unicode|tisṛ́bhis}}</font>
| |
| − | |colspan="2"| catúrbhis
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|catasṛ́bhis}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Dative
| |
| − | |colspan="2"| tribhyás
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|tisṛ́bhyas}}
| |
| − | |colspan="2"| catúrbhyas
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|catasṛ́bhyas}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Ablative
| |
| − | |colspan="2"| tribhyás
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|tisṛ́bhyas}}
| |
| − | |colspan="2"| catúrbhyas
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|catasṛ́bhyas}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Genitive
| |
| − | |colspan="2"|<font face="Tahoma"> {{Unicode|triyāṇā́m}}
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|tisṛṇā́m}}</font>
| |
| − | |colspan="2"| {{Unicode|caturṇā́m}}
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|catasṛṇā́m}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! Locative
| |
| − | |colspan="2"| {{Unicode|triṣú}}
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|tisṛ́ṣu}}
| |
| − | |colspan="2"| {{Unicode|catúrṣu}}
| |
| − | | {{Unicode|catasṛ́ṣu}}
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ==Influence==
| |
| − | === Modern India ===
| |
| − | ====Influence on Vernaculars====
| |
| − | Sanskrit's greatest influence, presumably, is that which it exerted on languages that grew from its vocabulary and grammatical base. Especially among élite circles in India, Sanskrit is prized as a storehouse of scripture and the language of prayers in [[Hinduism]]. It is used as a liturgical language of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], and utilized occasionally in [[Jainism]]. Similar to the way in which [[Latin]] influenced European languages and Classical Chinese influenced East Asian languages, Sanskrit has influenced most Indian languages. While vernacular prayer is common, Sanskrit [[mantra]]s are recited by millions of Hindus and most temple functions are conducted entirely in Sanskrit, often Vedic in form. Of modern day Indian languages, while Hindi and Urdu tend to be more heavily weighted with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] influence, [[Nepali language|Nepali]], Bengali, [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Konkani]] and [[Marathi]] still retain a largely Sanskrit vocabulary base. The national anthem, ''[[Jana Gana Mana]]'', is written in a literary form of Bengali (known as ''shuddha bhasha''), Sanskritized so as to be recognizable, but still archaic to the modern ear. The national song of India, ''[[Vande Mataram]]'', originally a poem composed by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay and taken from his book called '[[Anandamath]]', is in a similarly highly Sanskritized Bengali. [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Kannada language|Kannada]] also combine a great deal of Sanskrit vocabulary.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Sanskrit is one of the twenty-two [[official languages of India]], and an ancestor of the modern [[Indo-Aryan]] languages. It has the same status in [[Nepal]] as well.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ==== Revival Efforts ====
| |
| − | The [[1991 Indian census]] reported 49,736 fluent speakers of Sanskrit. Since the 1990s, efforts to revive spoken Sanskrit have been increasing. Many organizations like the ''Samskrta Bharati'' are conducting Speak Sanskrit workshops to popularize the language. The ''[[CBSE]]'' (Central Board of Secondary Education) in India has made Sanskrit a third language (though schools have the option to adopt it or not, the other choice being the state's own official language) in the schools it governs. In such schools, learning Sanskrit is an option for grades 5 to 8 (Classes V to VIII). This is true of most schools, including but not limited to Christian missionary schools, which are also affiliated to the [[ICSE]] board, especially in those states where the official language is [[Hindi]]. [[Sudharma]], the only daily newspaper in Sanskrit, has been published out of [[Mysore]] in [[India]] since the year 1970.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Sanskrit is spoken natively by the population in [[Mattur]] village in central [[Karnataka]]. Inhabitants of all castes learn Sanskrit starting in childhood and converse in the language. <ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-1199965,curpg-1.cms This village speaks gods language], 13 Aug 2005, 1104 hrs IST,S. Kushala, TNN, The Times of India. Retrieved November 18, 2007.</ref>
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Symbolic Usage===
| |
| − | In the Republic of India and Indonesia, Sanskrit phrases are widely used as mottoes for various educational and social organizations (much as [[Latin]] is used by some institutions in the West). The [[motto]] of the Republic is also in Sanskrit.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ; [[Republic of India]] : ''[[Satyameva Jayate]]''
| |
| − | ; [[Nepal]] : ''Janani Janmabhūmis ca Svargād api garīyasi'' "Mother and motherland are greater than heaven"
| |
| − | ; [[Goa]] : ''Sarve Bhadrāni Paśyantu Mā Kaścid Duhkhabhāg bhavet''
| |
| − | ; [[Life Insurance Corporation of India]] : ''Yogakshemam Vahāmyaham''
| |
| − | ; [[Indian Navy]] : ''Shanno Varuna''
| |
| − | ; [[Indian Air Force]] : ''Nābha Sparsham Dīptam''
| |
| − | ; [[Indian Police]] : ''sadd rakshanay khalah nighranayah''
| |
| − | ; [[Indian Coast Guard]] : ''Vayam Rakshāmaha''
| |
| − | ; [[All India Radio]] : ''Bahujana-hitāya bahujana-sukhāya''
| |
| − | ; [[Indonesian Navy]] : ''Jalesveva Jayamahe''
| |
| − | ; [[Aceh Province]] : Pancacita
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Many of the post–Independence educational institutions of national importance in India and Sri Lanka have Sanskrit mottoes.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Interactions with Eastern and Southeastern Asiatic Languages ===
| |
| − | Sanskrit and related languages have also influenced their Sino-Tibetan-speaking neighbors to the north through the spread of [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] texts in translation.<ref>"Siddham; an essay on the history of Sanskrit studies in China and Japan," [[Robert van Gulik]], Nagpur, International Academy of Indian Culture, 1956.</ref> Buddhism was spread to [[China]] by [[Mahayana|Mahayanist]] missionaries mostly through translations of [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]] and Classical Sanskrit texts, and many terms were transliterated directly and added to the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] vocabulary. Although Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit is not Sanskrit, properly speaking, its vocabulary is substantially the same, both because of genetic relationship, and because of conscious imitation on the part of composers. Buddhist texts composed in Sanskrit proper were primarily found in philosophical schools like the [[Madhyamaka]].
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The [[Thai language]] contains many [[loan word]]s from Sanskrit. For example, in Thai, the [[Raavana|Rāvana]], the legendary emperor of Lanka, is called 'Thoskanth' which is a derivation of his Sanskrit name 'Dashakanth' ("of ten necks"). The influence extends as far as the [[Philippines]], where the Tagalog for 'teacher' is 'gurò' from 'guru,' probably acquired from the [[Hindu]] seafarers who traded there. Many Sanskrit loanwords are also found in [[Malay language|traditional Malay]] and [[Indonesian language|Modern Indonesian]], [[Old Javanese]] language (close to 50%<ref>According to [[P.J. Zoetmulder]] in the introduction of his Old Javanese - English dictionary (1982); "Of the more than 25,500 entries in this dictionary, over 12,600, that is almost half of the total number, go back, directly or indirectly, to a Sanskrit original." (page IX)</ref>) and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]].
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Modern Usage ===
| |
| − | Many of India's scientific discoveries and developments are named in Sanskrit, as a counterpart of the western practice of naming scientific developments in Latin or Greek. The Indian guided [[missile]] program that was commenced in 1983 by [[DRDO]] has named the five missiles (ballistic and others) that it has developed as [[Prithvi]], [[Agni]], [[Akash]], [[Nag]] and [[Trishul]]. India's first modern fighter [[aircraft]] is named [[Tejas]]. This practice is usually followed in scientific institutions in India also.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Recital of Sanskrit [[shloka]]s as background chorus in [[film]]s, [[television]] advertisements and as slogans for corporate organizations has become a trend.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Sanskrit has also made an appearance in Western pop music in recent years, in two recordings by [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]. One, "Shanti/Ashtangi," from the 1998 album "Ray of Light," is the traditional [[Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga]] chant (referenced above) set to music. The second, "Cyber-raga," released in 2000, is a Sanskrit-language ode of devotion to a higher power and a wish for peace on earth. The climactic battle theme of The [[Matrix Revolutions]] features a choir singing Sanskrit prayer in the closing titles of the movie. Composer [[John Williams]] also featured a choir singing in Sanskrit for [[Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace]].
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The [[Sky One]] version of the title sequence in season one of [[Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series)|Battlestar Galactica 2004]] features the [[Gayatri Mantra]], taken from the [[Rig Veda]] (3.62.10). The composition was written by miniseries composer [[Richard Gibbs]].
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Computational Linguistics===
| |
| − | There have been proposals to use Sanskrit as a [[metalanguage]] for knowledge representation in e.g. [[machine translation]], and other areas of [[natural language processing]], because of its highly regular structure.<ref>first suggested by {{cite journal
| |
| − | | author = Rick Briggs of the NASA Ames Research Center
| |
| − | | date = Spring 1985
| |
| − | | title = Knowledge Representation in Sanskrit and Artificial Intelligence
| |
| − | | journal = AI Magazine
| |
| − | | volume = 6
| |
| − | | issue = 1
| |
| − | | url = http://www.gosai.com/science/sanskrit-nasa.html
| |
| − | | accessdate = 2006-09-26
| |
| − | }}Retrieved November 13, 2007.</ref> Classical Sanskrit is a regularized, prescriptivist form abstracted from the much more irregular and richer [[Vedic Sanskrit]]. This leveling of the grammar of Classical Sanskrit occurred during the Brahmana phase, after the language had fallen out of popular use.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | == See also ==
| |
| − | * [[Avestan]]
| |
| − | * [[Devanagari]]
| |
| − | * [[Sanskrit literature]]
| |
| − | * [[Sanskrit numerals]]
| |
| − | * [[Grantha]] Script
| |
| − | * [[Indo-European languages]]
| |
| − | * [[Languages of India]]
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ==Notes==
| |
| − | <references/>
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ==References==
| |
| − | * Burrow, T. 1955. ''The Sanskrit language''. Great languages. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 81-208-1767-2
| |
| − | * Hall, Bruce Cameron. 1992. ''Sanskrit pronunciation''. Pasadena, Calif: Theosophical University Press. ISBN 1557000212 ISBN 9781557000217
| |
| − | * Coulson, Michael, Richard Gombrich, and James D. Benson. 1992. ''Sanskrit an introduction to the classical language.'' Sevenoaks: Teach Yourself. ISBN 0340568674 ISBN 9780340568675
| |
| − | * Robert P. Goldman. 1999. ''Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An Introduction to the Sanskrit Language.'' Berkeley : Center for South Asia Studies, University of California : Distributed by IAS Publications Program. ISBN 0-944613-40-3
| |
| − | * Kale, Moreshwar Ramchandra. 1960. ''A higher Sanskrit grammar.'' Delhi: R.M. Lal. ISBN 81-208-0178-4
| |
| − | * Macdonell, Arthur Anthony. 1927. ''A Sanskrit grammar for students''. London: Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press. ISBN 81-246-0094-5
| |
| − | * Maurer, Walter Harding. 1995. ''The Sanskrit language an introductory grammar and reader.'' Surrey: Curzon Press. ISBN 0700703527 ISBN 9780700703524
| |
| − | * Dr. Vagish Shastri. 2000. ''Vāgyoga Conversational Sanskrit.'' Varanasi : Vāgyoga Chetanāpitham.ISBN 81-85570-12-4
| |
| − | * Tuwari, Bholanath. 1978. ''Bhasha-vigyan.'' Illahabad: Kitab Mahal.
| |
| − | * [[Monier Monier-Williams]]. 1857. ''A Practical Grammar Of The Sanskrit Language Arranged With Reference To The Classical Languages Of Europe For The Use Of English Students.'' Oxford, University Press.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ;Grammars
| |
| − | *W. D. Whitney, ''Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language and the Older Dialects''
| |
| − | *W. D. Whitney, ''The Roots, Verb-Forms and Primary Derivatives of the Sanskrit Language: (A Supplement to His Sanskrit Grammar)''
| |
| − | *Wackernagel, Debrunner, ''[[Altindische Grammatik]]'', Göttingen.
| |
| − | **[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1421247127&id=mWaIUMIoUvkC&dq=Altindische vol. I. phonology], Jacob Wackernagel (1896). Retrieved November 18, 2007.
| |
| − | **[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1421247100&id=qql6RRqTAuIC&dq=Altindische vol. II.1. introduction to morphology, nominal composition], Wackernagel (1905). Retrieved November 18, 2007.
| |
| − | **vol. II.2. nominal suffixes, J. Wackernagel and [[Albert Debrunner]] (1954)
| |
| − | **vol. III. nominal inflection, numerals, pronouns, Wackernagel and Debrunner (1930)
| |
| − | *B. Delbrück, [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1421246880&id=_-9K_xT8OBAC&dq=Altindische ''Altindische Tempuslehre''] (1876). Retrieved November 18, 2007.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ;Dictionaries
| |
| − | *[[Otto Böhtlingk]], [[Rudolph Roth]], ''Petersburger Wörterbuch'', 7 vols., 1855-75
| |
| − | *Otto Böhtlingk, ''Sanskrit Wörterbuch in kürzerer Fassung'' 1883–86 (1998 reprint, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi)
| |
| − | *[[Monier Monier-Williams]], ''Sanskrit-English Dictionary'' (1898, 1899)
| |
| − | *[[Manfred Mayrhofer]], ''Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindischen'', 1956-76
| |
| − | *Manfred Mayrhofer, ''Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen'', 3 vols., 2742 pages, 2001, ISBN 3-8253-1477-4
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ==Bibliography==
| |
| − | ;Introductions
| |
| − | * ''The Sanskrit Language'' – T. Burrow – ISBN 81-208-1767-2
| |
| − | * ''Sanskrit Pronunciation'' – Bruce Cameron – ISBN 1-55700-021-2
| |
| − | * ''Teach Yourself Sanskrit'' – Prof. M. Coulson – ISBN 0-340-85990-3
| |
| − | * ''Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An Introduction to the Sanskrit Language'' – Robert P. Goldman – ISBN 0-944613-40-3
| |
| − | * ''A Higher Sanskrit Grammar'' – M. R. Kale – ISBN 81-208-0178-4
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| − | * ''A Sanskrit Grammar for Students'' – A. A. Macdonell – ISBN 81-246-0094-5
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| − | * ''The Sanskrit Language: An Introductory Grammar and Reader'' – Walter Harding Maurer – ISBN 0-7007-1382-4
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| − | * ''Conversational Sanskrit'' – Dr. Vagish Shastri – ISBN 81-85570-12-4
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| − | * भाषा विज्ञान ''(Bhasha Vigyan)''—Bholanath Tiwari—[1955] 2004—ISBN 81-225-0007-2
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| − | * [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC03325543&id=REQhAAAAMAAJ&dq=Monier-Williams ''A Practical Grammar Of The Sanskrit Language Arranged With Reference To The Classical Languages Of Europe For The Use Of English Students''] - Monier Monier-Williams (1846). Retrieved November 18, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | ;Grammars
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| − | *W. D. Whitney, ''Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language and the Older Dialects''
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| − | *W. D. Whitney, ''The Roots, Verb-Forms and Primary Derivatives of the Sanskrit Language: (A Supplement to His Sanskrit Grammar)''
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| − | *Wackernagel, Debrunner, ''[[Altindische Grammatik]]'', Göttingen.
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| − | **[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1421247127&id=mWaIUMIoUvkC&dq=Altindische vol. I. phonology], Jacob Wackernagel (1896). Retrieved November 18, 2007.
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| − | **[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1421247100&id=qql6RRqTAuIC&dq=Altindische vol. II.1. introduction to morphology, nominal composition], Wackernagel (1905). Retrieved November 18, 2007.
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| − | **vol. II.2. nominal suffixes, J. Wackernagel and [[Albert Debrunner]] (1954)
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| − | **vol. III. nominal inflection, numerals, pronouns, Wackernagel and Debrunner (1930)
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| − | *B. Delbrück, [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1421246880&id=_-9K_xT8OBAC&dq=Altindische ''Altindische Tempuslehre''] (1876). Retrieved November 18, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | ;Dictionaries
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| − | *[[Otto Böhtlingk]], [[Rudolph Roth]], ''Petersburger Wörterbuch'', 7 vols., 1855-75
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| − | *Otto Böhtlingk, ''Sanskrit Wörterbuch in kürzerer Fassung'' 1883–86 (1998 reprint, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi)
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| − | *[[Monier Monier-Williams]], ''Sanskrit-English Dictionary'' (1898, 1899)
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| − | *[[Manfred Mayrhofer]], ''Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindischen'', 1956-76
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| − | *Manfred Mayrhofer, ''Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen'', 3 vols., 2742 pages, 2001, ISBN 3-8253-1477-4
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| − |
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| − | == External links ==
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| − |
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| − | {{cleanup-spam|section}}
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| − | {{Interwiki|code=sa}}
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| − | {{Wikibookspar||Sanskrit}}
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| − |
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| − | *[http://samskrita-bharati.org/ Samskrita Bharati]. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://americansanskrit.com/ American Sanskrit Institute]. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *{{ethnologue|code=san}} Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://hinduwisdom.info/Sanskrit.htm Sanskrit: The Language of Ancient India]. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://iit.edu/~laksvij/language/sanskrit.html Transliterator] from [[romanized]] to [[Unicode]] Sanskrit. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://baraha.com/ Sanskrit transliterator] with font conversion to Latin and other Indian Languages. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://www.unics.uni-hannover.de/nhtcapri/sanskrit-alphabet.html Sanskrit Alphabet] in Devanagari, Gujarati, Thai scripts with an extensive list of Devanagari and Gujarati conjuncts. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://thestatesman.net/page.arcview.php?id=169574 "Sanskrit as a career option.."]. The Statesman. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://myweb.uiowa.edu/pjai/Sanskrit/SanskritStudies.htm Academic Courses on Sanskrit Around The World]. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | === Sanskrit Documents ===
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| − | *[http://sanskrit.gde.to/ Sanskrit Documents]: Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc. and a metasite with links to translations, dictionaries, tutorials, tools and other Sanskrit resources. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | *[http://uwest.edu/sanskritcanon/index.html Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon]. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | *[http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil.htm GRETIL: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages], a cumulative register of the numerous download sites for electronic texts in Indian languages. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | *[http://www.granthamandira.org/index.php?sessionid=1e28fd1e2b89440cf2e17e3ce6be8b7b Gaudiya Grantha Mandira] - A Sanskrit Text Repository. This site also provides encoding converter. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | *[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/index.htm Sanskrit texts at Sacred Text Archive]. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | *[http://claysanskritlibrary.org Clay Sanskrit Library] publishes Sanskrit literature with facing-page text and translation. Also offers searchable corpus and numerous downloadable materials. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | === Dictionaries ===
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| − | *[http://webapps.uni-koeln.de/tamil/ Monier-Williams Dictionary], searchable. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0000/ Monier-Williams Dictionary], printable. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://indica-et-buddhica.org/sections/repositorium-preview/materials/dictionaries/monier-williams-sanskrit-english-dict-html Monier-Williams: DICT & HTML], downloadable. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://spokensanskrit.de Online Hypertext Dictionary]. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://sanskrit.inria.fr/DICO/ The Sanskrit Heritage Dictionary]. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://sanskritdict.20m.com/sanskrit.htm Sanskrit Dictionary]. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://selfdiscoveryportal.com/cmSanskrit.htm Glossary of Sanskrit Terms]. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://atmajyoti.org/sw_glossary.asp A Brief Sanskrit Glossary] with the meanings of common Sanskrit spiritual terms. Recently updated. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | === Primers ===
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| − | *[http://chitrapurmath.net/sanskrit/step-by-step.htm Sanskrit Self Study] An introduction to Sanskrit Language in 64 self study lessons by Chitrapur Math. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://sanskrit.farfromreal.com Discover Sanskrit] A concise study of the Sanskrit language. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://bhagavata.org/downloads/sanskritgrammar.pdf Harivenu Dâsa: An Introductory Course based on S'rîla Jîva Gosvâmî's Grammar], a vaishnava version of Pânini's grammar (pdf-file). Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://sanskrit-lamp.org/ A Sanskrit Tutor]. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://samskrita-bharati.org/newsite/publications.php#bestseller Samskrit Video Lessions]. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | *[http://utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/vedol-0-X.html Ancient Sanskrit Online] from the University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | === Grammars ===
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| − | *[http://warnemyr.com/skrgram/ An Analytical Cross Referenced Sanskrit Grammar] By Lennart Warnemyr. Phonology, morphology and syntax, written in a semiformal style with full paradigms. Retrieved November 13, 2007.
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| − | {{Indo-Iranian languages}}
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| − | [[Category:languages]]
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| − | {{credits|Sanskrit|168179208|Vedic_Sanskrit|167446682}}
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