Difference between revisions of "Suicide" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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[[Category:Psychology]]
 
[[Category:Psychology]]
  
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'''Suicide''' (from [[Latin]] ''sui caedere'', to [[kill]] oneself) is the act of willfully ending one's own [[life]]. ''Suicide'' can also refer to the individual who has committed or attempted the act.
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'''Suicide''' (from [[Latin]] ''sui caedere'', to [[kill]] oneself) is the act of wilfully ending one's own [[life]]. It can also refer to the individual who has committed or attempted the act. Suicide is neither an illness nor a condition. Rather, it's a complex set of behaviors that exists on a continuum, from ideas to actions.
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==Terminology==
 
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===Suicidal ideation===
 
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'''Suicidal ideation''' is a common [[medical terminology|medical term]] for thoughts about suicide, which may be as detailed as a formulated plan, without the suicidal act itself. Although most people who undergo suicidal ideation do not commit suicide, some go on to make suicide attempts or take their own lives. <ref>{{cite journal
 
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| last = Gliatto
 
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| first = Michael F.
 
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| authorlink =
 
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| coauthors = Rai, Anil K.
 
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| year = 1999
 
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| month = March
 
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| title = Evaluation and Treatment of Patients with Suicidal Ideation
 
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| journal = [[American Family Physician]]
 
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| volume = 59
 
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| issue = 6
 
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| url = http://www.aafp.org/afp/990315ap/1500.html
 
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| accessdate = 2007-01-08
 
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}}</ref> The range of suicidal ideation varies greatly from fleeting to detailed planning, [[role playing]] and unsuccessful attempts, which may be deliberately constructed to fail or be discovered or may be fully intended to succeed but not actually do so.
 
  
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===Parasuicide===
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==Types of suicidal behavior==
  
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Many suicidal people participate in suicidal activities that do not result in death. These activities fall under the designation ''attempted suicide'' or ''parasuicide''. Those with a history of such attempts are almost 23 times more likely to eventually end their own lives than those who don't participate in such activites.<ref>{{cite journal
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Suicidal behavior:  Some people engage in acts intended to bring death or acts unlikely to result in death but that indicate self-destructive or suicidal thoughts. These acts include overdosing, reckless driving or excessive drinking. This is called suicidal behavior.  
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| last = Shaffer
 
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| first = D.J.
 
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| authorlink =
 
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| coauthors =
 
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| year = 1988
 
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| month = September
 
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| title = The Epidemiology of Teen Suicide: An Examination of Risk Factors
 
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| journal = [[Journal of Clinical Psychiatry]]
 
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| volume = 49
 
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| issue = supp.
 
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| pages = 36&ndash;41
 
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| id = PMID 3047106
 
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| url =
 
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| accessdate = 2006-04-12
 
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}}</ref>
 
  
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===Suicidal gestures and attempts===
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====Suicidal ideation====
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Sometimes, a person will make actions resembling suicide attempts while not being fully committed, or in a deliberate attempt to have others notice. This is called a ''[[suicidal gesture]]'' (also known as a "cry for help").  [[Prototypical]] methods might be a non-lethal method of [[self-harm]] that leaves obvious signs of the attempt, or simply a lethal action at a time when the person considers it likely that he/she will be rescued or prevented from fully carrying it out.
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A common [[medical terminology|medical term]] for thoughts about suicide, which may be as detailed as a formulated plan, without the suicidal act itself. Although most people who undergo suicidal ideation do not commit suicide, some go on to make suicide attempts or take their own lives
  
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On the other hand, a person who genuinely wishes to die may fail, due to lack of knowledge about what they are doing, unwillingness to try methods that may end in permanent damage if they fail or harm others, or an unanticipated rescue, among other reasons.  This is referred to as a ''suicidal attempt''.
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The range of suicidal ideation varies greatly from fleeting to detailed planning, [[role playing]] and unsuccessful attempts, which may be deliberately constructed to fail or be discovered or may be fully intended to succeed but not actually do so.
  
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Distinguishing between a suicidal attempt and a suicidal gesture may be difficult.  Intent and motivation are not always fully discernible since so many people in a suicidal state are genuinely conflicted over whether they wish to end their lives.  One approach, assuming that a sufficiently strong intent will ensure success, considers all near-suicides to be suicidal gestures.  This however does not explain why so many people who fail at suicide end up with severe injuries, often permanent, which are most likely undesirable to those who are making a suicidal gesture.  Another possibility is those wishing merely to make a suicidal gesture may end up accidentally killing themselves, perhaps by underestimating the lethality of the method chosen or by overestimating the possibility of external intervention by others.  Suicide-like acts should generally be treated as seriously as possible because if there is an insufficiently strong reaction from loved ones from a suicidal gesture, this may motivate future, and ultimately more committed attempts.
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====Attempted suicide====
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Attempted suicide generally refers to an act that was intended to cause death but didn't.
  
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In the technical literature the use of the terms ''[[parasuicide]]'', or ''deliberate [[self-harm]] (DSH)'' are preferred &ndash; both of these terms avoid the question of the intent of the actions.
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====Parasuicide====
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Not all seemingly self-destructive behavior is suicidal behavior. Acts that may resemble suicidal behavior but aren't intended to lead to death, such as deliberately injuring yourself, are known as parasuicide. Some people engage in this type of behavior as a way of soothing themselves. People who engage in self-injurious behavior, such as cutting, however, are at higher risk of suicide.
  
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===Self-harm===
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In some cases, people who engage in suicidal behavior or parasuicide kill themselves accidentally —they hadn't intended the act to progress to a lethal outcome. For instance, they make take an overdose and expect to be discovered in time to be rescued.
  
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An important difference to note is that self-harm is not a suicide attempt. There is a non-causal correlation between self-harm and suicide; individuals who suffer from [[clinical depression|depression]] or other mental health issues are also more likely to choose suicide. Deliberate self-harm (DSH) is far more common than suicide, and the majority of DSH participants are [[female]]s aged under 35. They are usually not physically ill and while [[Psychology|psychological]] factors are highly significant, they are rarely clinically ill and severe depression is uncommon. Social issues are key as DSH is most common among those living in overcrowded conditions, in [[conflict]] with their [[family|families]], with disrupted childhoods and history of [[drinking]], criminal behavior, and [[violence]]. Individuals under these [[Stress (medicine)|stress]]es become anxious and depressed and then, usually in reaction to a single particular crisis, they attempt to harm themselves. The motivation may be a desire for relief from emotional [[Pain and nociception|pain]] or to communicate feelings, although the motivation will often be complex and confused. DSH may also result from an inner conflict between the desire to end life and the desire to continue living.
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====Completed suicide====
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Completed suicide means taking your own life. It's impossible to know absolutely why someone did this, or even if they intended to. In the case of an attempted suicide, the only way to understand your friend or loved one's intent is to talk about it. That, of course, isn't an option after completed suicide, although conversations before the act and notes left behind may provide clues.
  
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===Suicide note===
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==Questions about the phenomenon: suicide vs. death by accident or by proxy==  
  
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A written message left by someone who attempts or commits suicide is known as a suicide note.  The practice is fairly common, occurring in approximately one out of three suicides.[http://wonder.cdc.gov/wonder/prevguid/p0000164/p0000164.asp] Motivations for leaving one range from seeking [[Closure (psychology)|closure]] with loved ones to exacting revenge against others by blaming them for the decision.
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One, rather classic, definition of the situation leading to suicide reads :“….''Suicide is not chosen; it happens when pain exceeds  resources for coping with pain''…….”
  
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===Combination of homicide and suicide===
 
  
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Since crime just prior to suicide is often perceived as being without consequences, it is not uncommon for suicide to be linked with  [[homicide]]. Motivations may range from [[guilt]] to evading punishment, insanity, and killing others as part of a [[suicide pact]].
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That said, it is clear nevertheless that suicide is far more enigmatic and disconcerting phenomenon. Because of others' inability to directly occupy the mental world of the suicidal, suicide appears to elude easy explanation.  
  
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===Assisted suicide===
 
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{{main|Euthanasia}}
 
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A suicidal individual who lacks the physical capacity to take their own life may enlist someone else to carry out the act on their behalf, frequently a family member or physician.  This may or may not be considered a form of suicide according to different moral views of the practice, with opponents regarding it instead as akin to [[murder]].  Assisted suicide is a contentious  moral and political issue in many countries.
 
  
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==Methods==
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Among the questions, we have been challenged for millenia,  are: What makes a person's behavior suicidal? What motivates such behavior? Is suicide morally permissible, or even morally required in some extraordinary circumstances? Is suicidal behavior rational? How to try to minimize such a behaviour? In the following text, we shall  present some philosophical, behavioural, medical, and sociolological notions about these questions.
  
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In countries where [[firearms]] are readily available, many suicides involve the use of firearms. In fact, just over 55% of suicides committed in the United States in 2001 were by firearm<ref>http://www.preventsuicidenow.com/suicide-statistics.html</ref>. [[Asphyxiation]] methods (including [[hanging]]) and toxification ([[poisoning]] and [[overdose]]) are fairly common as well. Each comprised about 20% of suicides in the US during the same time period. Other methods of suicide include [[blunt force trauma]] (jumping from a building or bridge, or stepping in front of a train, for example), [[exsanguination]] or bloodletting (slitting one's wrist or throat), [[self-immolation]], [[electric shock|electrocution]], car collision and intentional [[starvation]].
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Besides there are cases resulting in death that are either not suicide in legal terms or in technical terms.
  
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A '''suicide method''' is any means by which someone purposely kills himself/herself. Methods that have been used to commit [[suicide]] include:
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===Technical obstacles to the definition of siucide===
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While it is tempting to say that suicide is any self-caused death, this account is vulnerable to obvious counterexamples. An individual who knows the health risks of smoking or of skydiving, but willfully engages in these behaviors and dies as a result, could be said to be causally responsible for her own death but not to have committed suicide.
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Similarly, an individual who takes a swig of hydrochloric acid, believing it to be lemonade, and subsequently dies causes her own death but does not engage in suicidal behavior.
  
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=== Bleeding ===
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===Legal obstacles to the definition od suicide===
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[[Exsanguination]] is a method of death which is caused by [[blood loss]]. It is usually the result of damage inflicted on [[arteries]]. The [[External carotid artery|carotid]], [[radial artery|radial]], [[ulnar artery|ulnar]] or [[femoral artery|femoral]] arteries would be targeted.
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Sometimes, not only are there self-caused deaths that are not suicides, but there are behaviors that result in death and are arguably suicidal in which the agent is not the cause of her own death or is so only at one remove. This can occur when an individual arranges the circumstances for her death. A terminally ill patient who requests that another person inject her with a lethal dose of tranquilizers has, intuitively, committed suicide. Though she is not immediately causally responsible for her death, she appears morally responsible for her death, since she initiates a sequence of events which she intended to culminate in her death, a sequence which cannot be explained without reference to her beliefs and desires. (Such a case might also be an example of a voluntary [[euthanasia]].)
  
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=== Cutting the carotid artery ===
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Likewise, those who commit ‘suicide by cop,’ where an armed crime is committed in order to provoke police into shooting its perpetrator, are responsible for their own deaths despite not being the causes of their deaths. In these kinds of cases, such agents would not die, or would not be at an elevated risk for death, were it not for their initiating such causal sequences. (See Brandt 1975, Tolhurst 1983, Frey 1981, but for a possible objection see Kupfer 1990).
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Cutting through the [[throat]] is one method of exsanguination. Damage is inflicted to the [[External carotid artery|carotid artery]] which carries blood to the [[brain]], and it takes no longer than a few minutes to lose enough blood for death to occur, although death could also be caused by blood clogging the [[Vertebrate trachea|trachea]].  
 
  
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It was also practiced as a ritual suicide method in [[Japan]], by noble women for the same purposes as [[seppuku]] was used by men.
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==Philosophy of suicide==
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Undoubtedly, the challenge of simply fathoming suicide accounts for the vast array of attitudes toward suicide found in the history of Western civilization: bafflement, dismissal, heroic glorification, sympathy, anger, moral or religious condemnation. Suicide is now an object of multidisciplinary scientific study, with sociology, anthropology, psychology, and psychiatry each providing important insights into suicide. Particularly promising are the significant advances being made in our scientific understanding of the neurological basis of suicidal behavior (Stoff and Mann 1997) and the mental conditions associated with it. Nonetheless, certain questions about suicide seem to fall at least partially outside the domain of science, and indeed, suicide has been a focus of philosophical examination in the West since at least the time of Plato.
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Suicide has always aroused deep passions in humanity. Suicide is a threat whether religious, existential, political, or emotional. It has been represented as the ultimate irrationality and evil, pure selfishness, a dangerous precedent, madness, and pathology. Conceptions of suicide clearly are framed within and effected by the cultures they are born out of. Yet suicide isn’t merely a matter of navigating cultural norms, or the product of emergent social structures (though of course these play a role). There is a normative element to the question, there is a philosophy and an deontology of suicide.  
  
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=== Burning (self-immolation)===
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Nearly all the great philosophers had positions on suicide. Kant made suicide a special example in his moral philosophy, and was troubled by the challenges it posed. Plato laid out specific instances where suicide was or was not deviant. Spinoza regarded the will to self-preservation as fundamental and key to value, and likewise suicide as true irrationality and wrong.
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Some philosophers have indeed killed themselves. The most famous philosopher suicide though was Seneca. Seneca had earlier argued for the reason as well as virtue of suicide, that is before Nero’s wrath descended upon him forcing him to take his own life. Yet Seneca turns the question on its head. Common discourse, and philosophical writings with it, regard the question as well suicide is right or wrong, what harm it does, etc. With clarity he writes “Living is not the good, but living well”. The question of death then should be the question of life. Life is justified not by nature as Spinoza would have it, or reason as Kant would have it, but by the living. “The dirtiest death is preferable to the daintiest slavery” (Seneca).
  
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Self-immolation is the act of setting oneself on [[fire]]; an [[accelerant]] such as [[gasoline]] is frequently used to hasten [[death]].
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To make a sense of some of it, we  start  with three excerpts:
  
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There are many documented cases of this method as a public and often spectacular method of protest, particularly but not exclusively within or against repressive regimes. [[Thich Quang Duc|Thích Quảng Ðức]], a Buddhist monk, burned himself alive in 1963 in protest against the oppression of [[Buddhism]] by the administration of [[Vietnam]]ese [[Prime Minister]] [[Ngo Dinh Diem|Ngô Đình Diệm]]. The [[BBC]] has reported that there have been a significant number of cases among [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] women.<ref name=bbcimolation>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/6196716.stm Pain of Afghan suicide women], Payenda Sargand, [[BBC News]], December 7, 2006</ref>
 
  
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Burning to death can take several minutes to several hours, making this a painful way to expire. Death may result from [[smoke inhalation]], [[Shock (medical)|shock]], or, after a period of days, systemic failure. A person who survives self-immolation may still suffer extensive [[Burn (injury)|burns]].
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“….''If the covenant which unites man to society be considered, it will be obvious that every contract is conditional, must be reciprocal; that is to say, supposes mutual advantages between the contracting parties. The citizen cannot be bound to his country, to his associates, but by the bonds of happiness. Are these bonds cut asunder? He is restored to liberty. Society, or those who represent it, do they use him with harshness, do they treat him with injustice, do they render his existence painful?… Chagrin, remorse, melancholy, despair, have they disfigured to him the spectacle of the universe? In short, for whatever cause it may be, if he is not able to support his evils, let him quit a world which from thenceforth is for him only a frightful desert''….”(d'Holbach 1970, pp.136-137).
  
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=== Drowning === 
 
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Suicide by [[drowning]] is the act of deliberately submerging oneself in [[water]] or other liquid and staying there long enough to prevent [[breath]]ing and [[asphyxia|deprive the brain of oxygen]]. Genuine cases of drowning are determined by whether the victim's lungs are filled with water. As with other deaths by suffocation, if the drowning is stopped before death, [[oxygen]] deprivation can cause [[brain damage]].
 
  
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=== Drug overdosing ===
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“……''When a man's circumstances contain a preponderance of things in accordance with nature, it is appropriate for him to remain alive; when he possesses or sees in prospect a majority of the contrary things, it is appropriate for him to depart from life…. Even for the foolish, who are also miserable, it is appropriate for them to remain alive if they possess a predominance of those things which we pronounce to be in accordance with nature.'' …..”(Cicero, III, 60-61).
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Suicide by pharmaceuticals ("[[overdosing]]") is a method which involves taking [[medication]] in doses of several times greater than the indicated levels, or in a combination which will enhance each drug's effect. Due to the unpredictability of dosing requirements, death is uncertain, and an attempt may leave a person alive but with severe [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]] damage. Drugs taken orally may also be [[Vomiting|vomited]] back out before being absorbed.
 
  
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[[Painkiller]] overdoses are among the most common due to easy availablilty of [[over-the-counter substance]]s..
 
  
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Overdosing may also be performed by mixing medications in a cocktail with one another or with alcohol or illegal drugs. This method may leave confusion over whether the death was a suicide or accidental.
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“……''One may well ask why, aside from the demands of religion, it is more praiseworthy for a man grown old, who feels his powers decrease, to await his slow exhaustion and disintegration, rather than to put a term to his life with complete consciousness? In this case, suicide is quite natural, obvious, and should by rights awaken respect for the triumph of reason. This it did in those times when the leading Greek philosophers and the doughtiest Roman patriots used to die by suicide. Conversely, the compulsion to prolong life from day to day, anxiously consulting doctors and accepting the most painful, humiliating conditions, without the strength to come nearer the actual goal of one’s life: that is far less worthy of respect. Religions provide abundant excuses to escape the need to kill oneself: this is how they insinuate themselves into those who are in love with life……..”''Nietzsche ( 1984, p. 60 ).
  
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=== Electrocuting ===
 
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Suicide by electrocution involves using a lethal [[electric shock]] to kill oneself. A high enough [[voltage]] can overcome the high [[Electrical resistance|resistance]] of the skin and pass a sizable [[Electric current|current]] through the trunk. A large [[alternating current]] through the body can seriously disrupt [[nerve|nerve signal]]s and can cause the [[heart]] to go into [[fibrillation]].
 
  
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=== Hanging ===
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From this, a list --- althouhg  not nearly complete, of a “basic” reasons to suicide ---  emerges.
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{{main|Hanging}}
 
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[[Image:Giotto - Scrovegni - -47- - Desperation.jpg|thumb|right|120px|Suicide by [[hanging]].]]
 
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The traditional death penalty of hanging by [[gallows]] consist of a rope is tied to some fixed object (i.e. the gallows), with one end tied into a [[noose]] and put around the neck.  The person falls through the release of a trap door (or jumps, in the case of suicide) from a height, and death is instantaneous due to breaking of the neck. If the neck is not broken, [[asphyxiation]] due to the obstructed [[Vertebrate trachea|trachea]] ultimately leads to death.
 
  
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=== Jumping ===
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===Reasons and causes for suicide===
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Jumping from a great height can shatter organs and tissues. If a person jumps from a tall bridge into water, the person may die by impact rather than by drowning. Such jumpings off the [[Golden Gate Bridge]], of which there have been 1,300 between 1937 and 2006, were depicted in the documentary film ''[[The Bridge (documentary film)|The Bridge]]''.
 
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The 68.6 metre plunge from the bridge has proven to be fatal in 98% of cases. The jumper would hit the water at 120 km/h. Most die violently of internal bleeding due to broken ribs which pierce the heart, lungs, liver or spleen. Survivors, who would have hit the water feet-first, would often have had their femurs shattered<ref>"The bridge of suicide," Catherine Philip, [[The Times]], February 28, 2007</ref>.
 
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=== Poisoning ===
 
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Suicide can be committed by using fast-acting [[poisons]], or substances which are known for their high levels of [[toxicity]] to humans. For example, the people of [[Jonestown]], in northwestern [[Guyana]], all died when the leader of a [[religious sect]] organised a [[mass suicide]] by drinking a cocktail of [[diazepam]] and [[cyanide]] in 1978.<ref>[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/jonestown1.html Ministry of Terror - The Jonestown Cult Massacre], Elissa Haney, Infoplease, 2006</ref>
 
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=== Suicide by cop ===
 
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The term "suicide by cop" is used to describe situations where an individual behaves in a manner intended to provoke an armed [[Police officer|law enforcement officer]] into use of lethal force against that individual, by placing the officer in a position where they believe they must shoot them in order to protect their own life or that of others.
 
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=== Seppuku ===
 
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{{main|Seppuku}}
 
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Seppuku (a.k.a. harakiri) is a [[Japan]]ese [[ritual]] method of suicide, practiced mostly in the [[Japan#Medieval era|medieval era]], though some isolated cases appear in modern times. For example, [[Yukio Mishima]] committed seppuku in 1970 after a failed [[coup d'etat]] intended to restore full power to the [[Japanese Emperor]].
 
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Contrary to other methods of suicide, this was regarded as a way of preserving one's honour. The ritual is part of [[bushido]], the code of the [[Samurai]].
 
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Dressed ceremonially, with his [[sword]] placed in front of him and sometimes seated on special cloth, the [[warrior]] would prepare for death by writing a [[death poem]]. With a selected attendant ([[kaishakunin]], his second) standing by, he would open his [[kimono]], take up his [[wakizashi]] (short sword), [[Japanese war fan|fan]], or a [[tanto]] (knife) and plunge it into his [[Human abdomen|abdomen]], making first a left-to-right cut and then a second slightly upward stroke. On the second stroke, the kaishakunin would perform [[daki-kubi]], when the warrior is all but [[Decapitation|decapitated]], leaving a slight band of flesh attaching the [[head]] to the [[body]].
 
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=== Shooting ===
 
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[[Image:Suicide rates by methods, aged 15-19 (1992-2001).gif|thumb|Methods of suicide among person aged 15-19. The use of a firearm is the leading method in the United States.]]
 
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This method involves using a [[firearm]] to cause a fatal injury to oneself. It is used more frequently in countries where firearms are easier to obtain, and is the leading method in the United States. It is debatable, however, if that increases the number of suicides in general. It might be that it just increases the number of people choosing this method. In countries where firearms are harder to obtain, this method is sometimes still used, especially by people who use firearms in their work (e.g., soldiers or police).
 
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Brain or heart damage kills a person most quickly; however, the gun must be powerful enough for that to succeed. Mortality also depends on where the shot is aimed, usually the side of forehead ([[Temple (anatomy)|temple]]) or in the mouth (both ways ultimately aimed at the brain). In some cases the heart is chosen as a target, but it is harder to aim correctly. Being shot in other parts of the anatomy may not result in death or lethal damage. There are many cases of brain damage and severe physical trauma that do not result in loss of life.
 
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Some studies have shown that in Western nations, men tend to use this method of suicide more often than women, which has been cited as one potential reason for the higher suicide success rate among men. Though most men shoot themselves in the head, women tend to shoot themselves in the heart.<ref>[http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/145/6/718  "Some differences between men and women who commit suicide"], ''American Journal of Psychiatry'', Rich ''et al.'', 1988. Retrieved 3 May 2006.</ref>
 
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=== Carbon monoxide poisoning ===
 
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A particular type of asphyxia is via inhalation of high levels of Carbon monoxide.
 
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Death usually occurs through [[hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]]. In most cases [[carbon monoxide]] ([[Carbon|C]][[Oxygen|O]]) is used for this, as it is easily available as a product of [[combustion]]; for example, it can be released by [[car]]s and some types of [[heater]]s where there has been incomplete combustion.
 
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Carbon monoxide is a colourless and odourless [[gas]], so its presence cannot be detected. It is harmful to the human organism as the CO [[molecule]]s attach themselves irreversibly to [[hemoglobin]] in the blood, displacing oxygen molecules and progressively lowering the body's [[oxygenation]], eventually resulting in death.
 
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In the past, before [[Air Quality Index|air-quality]] regulations and [[catalytic converter]]s, suicide by [[carbon monoxide poisoning]] would be achieved by running a car's engine in a closed space such as a garage, or by redirecting a running car's exhaust back inside the cabin with a hose. However, the incidence of suicide by carbon monoxide poisoning through burning [[fossil fuel]] or [[charcoal]] ([[charcoal-burning suicide]]) within a confined space appears to have risen.<ref>[http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/326/7387/498?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=suicide+hong+kong&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&sortspec=relevance&resourcetype=HWCIT#resp2 Media influence on suicide: Media's role is double edged], ''British Medical Journal (326:498)'', CHAN et al., 2003</ref>
 
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In cases where levels of Carbon monoxide are not high enough to induce asphyxia, secondary poisoning may result in death.
 
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=== Suicide attack ===
 
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A suicide attack is an attack in which the attacker (''attacker'' being either an individual or a group) intends to kill others and intends to die in the process of doing so. In a suicide attack in the strict sense the attacker dies by the attack itself, for example in an explosion or crash caused by the attacker. The term is sometimes loosely applied to an incident in which the intention of the attacker is not clear though he is almost sure to die by the defense or retaliation of the attacked party.
 
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Such attacks are typically motivated by religious or political ideologies and have been carried out using numerous methods. For example, attackers might attach explosives directly to their bodies before detonating themselves close to their target, or they may use [[car bomb]]s or other machinery to cause maximum damage (e.g. Japanese [[kamikaze]] pilots during [[World War II]]). Some sources refer to this as a "[[homicide]] attack," to emphasize the idea that killing other people is usually the primary purpose of such an attack. However, this usage is ambiguous since the word "homicide" already refers to unlawful killing and the key aspect of a suicide attack that distinguishes it from other forms of homicide is the death of the perpetrator.
 
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[[Islamist terrorism|Islamist extremist terrorists]] have engaged in suicide attacks numerous times in the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]], and also against the West at other times. Perpetrators believe that the gains to others, or to a religious, political or moral cause, outweigh their personal loss and/or that they will be rewarded in the [[afterlife]].
 
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The [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] by [[Al-Qaeda]] using civilian aircraft on the [[World Trade Center]] and [[The Pentagon]] are examples of suicide attacks.
 
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==Reasons for suicide==
 
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===Causes of suicide===
 
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No single factor has gained acceptance as a universal cause of suicide. However, [[Clinical depression|depression]] is a common [[phenomenon]] amongst those who commit suicide. Other factors that may be related are as follows (Note that this is not meant as a comprehensive list, but rather as a summary of notable causes):
 
  
 
*[[Pain and nociception|Pain]] (e.g. physical or emotional agony that is not correctable)
 
*[[Pain and nociception|Pain]] (e.g. physical or emotional agony that is not correctable)
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*Adverse environment (e.g. [[sexual abuse]], [[poverty]], [[homelessness]], [[discrimination]], [[bullying]], fear of murder and/or torture)
 
*Adverse environment (e.g. [[sexual abuse]], [[poverty]], [[homelessness]], [[discrimination]], [[bullying]], fear of murder and/or torture)
 
*[[Financial]] loss (e.g. [[gambling addiction]], loss of [[employment|job]]/[[assets]], [[stock market]] crash, [[debt]]s)
 
*[[Financial]] loss (e.g. [[gambling addiction]], loss of [[employment|job]]/[[assets]], [[stock market]] crash, [[debt]]s)
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*Unresolved [[human sexuality|sexual issues]] (e.g. [[sexual orientation]]<ref>http://www.med.uio.no/ipsy/ssff/engelsk/menuprevention/Friis.htm</ref>, [[unrequited love]], aftermath of a [[break up]])
 
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*To avoid shame or dishonour (e.g. Under the [[Bushido]] ideal, if a [[samurai]] failed to uphold his honour, he could regain it by performing [[seppuku]].)
 
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*[[Curiosity]] (e.g. The need to know what comes after life.)
 
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*[[Boredom]] (e.g. The dissatisfaction with life has resulted in more calculated and planned suicides)
 
−
*[[Terrorism]] can also be a motive for suicide, especially when related to the following:
 
−
**[[Religion]] (e.g., [[suicide bombings]], [[Heaven's Gate (cult)|Heaven's Gate]])
 
−
**[[Nationalism|Extreme nationalism]] (e.g., the [[Kamikaze]], [[Selbstopfer]], and [[Kaiten]] suicide weapons)
 
  
−
===Suicide and mental illness===
+
For these causes the following excerpts are trying to illuminate them: 
  
−
===Epidemiology===
+
“…..''But I’m curious to see just how much a man can endure! And if I reach the limit of the
−
[[Image:Edouard_Manet_059.jpg|thumb|[[Edouard Manet]]: ''Suicide'', 1877]]
+
endurable, well, then I can just open the door and leave''…….” (Hesse, 1961, p.11)
  
  
−
According to official statistics, about a million people commit suicide annually, more than those murdered or killed in war.  <ref>{{cite web
+
“……''When Durkheim wrote his great treatise on suicide in 1911 and identified anomic suicide, he emphasised that poverty and deprivation are less likely to cause self-murder than a debilitating disatisfaction with what is. A constant devaluing of the given in the present and a yearning for an ever more glowing future is a profoundly destabilizing force in individual lives''…..” ( Rakoff, 1998 )
−
| title=Suicide prevention
 
−
| publisher=World Health Organization
 
−
| year=February 16, 2006
 
−
| work=WHO Sites: Mental Health
 
−
| url=http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/suicideprevent/en/
 
−
| accessdate=2006-04-11
 
−
}}</ref>. As of 2001 in the USA, suicides outnumber homicides by 3 to 2 and deaths from [[AIDS]] by 2 to 1 <ref>{{cite web
 
−
| title=Teen Suicide Statistics
 
−
| publisher=FamilyFirstAid.org
 
−
| year=2001
 
−
| work=Adolescent Teenage Suicide Prevention
 
−
| url=http://www.familyfirstaid.org/suicide.html
 
−
| accessdate=2006-04-11
 
−
}}</ref>
 
  
−
'''Gender and suicide''': In the Western world, [[male]]s die much more often than [[female]]s by suicide, while females attempt suicide more often.  Some medical professionals believe this is due to the fact that males are more likely to end their life through violent means ([[gun]]s, knives, hanging, drowning, etc.), while women primarily overdose on medications or use other ineffective methods. Others ascribe the difference to inherent differences in male/female psychology, with men having more of an operational mindset and women being more aware of social nuance. <ref>Cantor CH.  Suicide in the [[Western World]]. In: Hawton K, van Heering K, eds. International handbook of suicide and attempted suicide. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2000: 9-28.</ref>  Greater social stigma against male depression and a lack of social networks of support and help with depression is often identified as a key reason for men's disproportionately higher level of suicides, since "suicide as a cry for help" is not seen as an equally viable option by men. Typically males die from suicide 3 to 4 times as often as females, and not unusually 5 or more times as often.
+
Lastly, largely thanks to the work of sociologists such as Durkheim ( 1987 ) and Laplace, suicide was increasingly viewed as a social ill reflecting widespread alienation  and other attitudinal byproducts of modernity. In many European nations, the rise in suicide rates was thought to signal a cultural decline. The next two causes are typical: 
  
−
Excess male mortality from suicide is also evident from data from non-western countries. In 1979-81, 74 countries reported one or more cases of suicides. Two of these reported equal rates for the sexes: [[Seychelles]] and [[Kenya]]. Three countries reported female rates exceeding male rates:  [[Papua-New Guinea]], [[Macao]], [[French Guiana]]. The remaining 69 countries had male suicide rates greater than female suicide rates. <ref>Lester, Patterns, Table 3.3, pp. 31-33</ref>
+
*[[Curiosity]] (e.g. The need to know what comes after life.)
 +
*[[Boredom]] (e.g. The dissatisfaction with life has resulted in more calculated and planned suicides)
  
−
Barraclough found that the female rates of those aged 5-14 equaled or exceeded the male rates only in 14 countries, mainly in [[South America]] and [[Asia]]. <ref>Barraclough,B M. Sex ratio of juvenile suicide. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 1987, 26, 434-435.</ref>
+
In fact, in some cases, suicide may be honorable. Suicides that are clearly other-regarding, aiming at protecting the lives or well-being of others, or at political protest, may fall into this category (Kupfer 1990, pp. 73-74) Examples of this might include the grenade-jumping solider mentioned earlier, or the spy who takes his life in order not to be subjected to torture that will lead to his revealing vital military secrets.  
  
−
'''National suicide rates''' sometimes tend to be stable. For example, the 1975 rates for Australia, Denmark, England, France, Norway, and Switzerland, were within 3.0 per 100,000 of population  from the 1875 rates (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1983; Lester, Patterns, 1996, p. 21).  The rates in 1910-14 and in 1960 differed less than 2.5 per 100,000 of population in Australia, Belgium, Denmark, England & Wales, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Scotland, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, and The Netherlands (Lester, Patterns, 1996, p. 22).
+
*To avoid shame or dishonour (e.g. Under the [[Bushido]] ideal, if a [[samurai]] failed to uphold his honour, he could regain it by performing [[seppuku]].)
  
−
There are considerable differences between national suicide rates.  Findings from two studies showed a range from 0.0 to more than 40 suicides per 100,000 of population. <ref>La Vecchia, C., Lucchini, F., & Levi, F. (1994) Worldwide trends in suicide mortality, 1955-1989. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 90, 53-64.; Lester, Patterns, 1996, pp. 28-30.</ref>
+
*Suicide as a form of defiance and protest
  
−
National suicide rates, apparently universally, show an upward [[secular trend]]. This trend has been well documented for European countries. <ref>Lester, Patterns, 1996, p. 2.</ref> The trend for national suicide rates to rise slowly over time might be an indirect result of the gradual reduction in deaths from other causes, i.e. falling death rates from causes other than suicide uncover a previously hidden predisposition towards suicide. 
+
Heroic suicide, for the greater good of others, is often celebrated. For instance, [[Mahatma Gandhi]] went on a [[hunger strike]] to prevent fighting between [[Hindu]]s and [[Muslim]]s, and, although he was stopped before dying, it appeared he would have willingly succumbed to starvation. This attracted attention to Gandhi's cause, and generated a great deal of respect for him as a spiritual leader.  During the [[Cold War]] in [[Eastern Europe]], the death of [[Jan Palach]] by self-immolation, following the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion of [[Czechoslovakia]], brought a lot of international attention to the, obviously, illegal act against a state.  
−
<ref>Baldessarini, R. J., & Jamison, K. R. (1999) Effects of medical interventions on suicidal behavior. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60 (Suppl. 2), 117-122.</ref> <ref>Khan, A., Warner, H. A., & Brown, W. A. (2000) Symptom reduction and suicide risk in patients treated with placebo in antidepressant clinical trials. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 311-317.</ref>       
 
  
−
'''Race and suicide'''. At least in the USA, [[White American|Caucasians]] commit suicide more often than [[African American]]s do. This is true for both genders. Non-Hispanic Caucasians are nearly 2.5 times more likely to kill themselves than are African Americans or [[Hispanic]]s. <ref>[http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr54/nvsr54_13.pdf] {{PDFlink}}</ref>
+
And finally, there are the religiously, nationalistic and/or politically motivated suicides.  
  
−
'''Age and suicide'''  At least in the USA, males over 70 commit suicide more often than younger males. There is no such trend for females. Older non-Hispanic Caucasian men are much more likely to kill themselves than older men or women of any other group, which contributes to the relatively high suicide rate among Caucasians. Caucasian men in their 20s, conversely, kill themselves only slightly more often than African American or Hispanic men in the same age group.
+
*[[Terrorism]] can also be a motive for suicide, especially when related to the following:
−
 
+
*[[Religion]] (e.g., [[suicide bombings]], [[Heaven's Gate (cult)|Heaven's Gate]])
−
'''Season and suicide'''  People commit suicide more often during spring and summer. The idea that suicide is more common during the [[winter]] holidays (including [[Christmas]] in the [[northern hemisphere]]) is a common misconception.<ref name="christmas">{{cite news
+
*[[Nationalism|Extreme nationalism]] (e.g., the [[Kamikaze]], [[Selbstopfer]], and [[Kaiten]] suicide weapons)
−
|url=http://www.suicideinfo.ca/csp/go.aspx?tabid=30
 
−
|publisher=Centre For Suicide Prevention
 
−
|title=Questions About Suicide
 
−
|date=2006
 
−
}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Other reasons===
 
−
====Suicide as a form of defiance and protest====
 
−
Heroic suicide, for the greater good of others, is often celebrated. For instance, [[Mahatma Gandhi]] went on a [[hunger strike]] to prevent fighting between [[Hindu]]s and [[Muslim]]s, and, although he was stopped before dying, it appeared he would have willingly succumbed to starvation. This attracted attention to Gandhi's cause, and generated a great deal of respect for him as a spiritual leader.  In the 1960s, [[Buddhist]] [[monk]]s, most notably [[Thích Quảng Đức]], in [[South Vietnam|South]] [[Vietnam]] drew [[Western world|Western]] attention to their protests against President [[Ngô Đình Diệm]] by [[self-immolation|burning themselves to death]]. Similar events were reported during the [[Cold War]] in [[eastern Europe]], such as the death of [[Jan Palach]] following the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion of [[Czechoslovakia]], or [[Romas Kalanta]]'s self-immolation in the main street of [[Kaunas]], [[Lithuania]] in 1972. More recently, (November 2006) an American anti-war activist, [[Malachi Ritscher]] committed suicide by self-immolation as a protest against the [[2003 Invasion of Iraq|Iraq war]]. Critics may see such suicides as counter-productive, arguing that these people would probably achieve a comparable or greater result by spending the rest of their lives in active struggle.  Suicide or attempted suicide as a means of effecting social or political change is related to [[martyrdom]].
 
−
 
 
−
====Military suicide====
 
−
In the desperate final days of [[World War II]], many [[Japan]]ese pilots volunteered for [[kamikaze]] missions in an attempt to forestall defeat for the Empire.  In [[Nazi Germany]];  [[Luftwaffe]] squadrons were formed to smash into [[United States|American]] [[B-17 Flying Fortress|B-17]]s during daylight bombing missions, in order to delay the highly-probable [[Allied]] victory, although in this case, inspiration was primarily the Soviet and Polish ''taran'' [[ramming]] attacks, and death of the pilot was not a desired outcome.  The degree to which such a pilot was engaging in a heroic, selfless action or whether they faced immense social pressure is a matter of historical debate. The Japanese also built one-man "[[human torpedo]]" suicide [[submarine]]s.
 
−
 
 
−
However, suicide has been fairly common in warfare throughout history. Soldiers and civilians committed suicide to avoid capture and slavery (including the wave of German and Japanese suicides in the last days of World War II). Commanders committed suicide rather than accept defeat. Behaviour that could be seen as suicidal occurred often in battle. For instance, soldiers under [[cannon]] fire at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] took fatal hits rather than duck and place their comrades [[Dutiful suicide|in harm's way]]{{verify source}}. The [[Charge of the Light Brigade]] in the [[Crimean War]], [[Pickett's Charge]] at [[Gettysburg]] in the [[American Civil War]] <!-- What does this mean? (Unlikely they could see with that much smoke on the field and they were trained to stay in line). Ditto Charge of the Light Brigade, which was not especially fatal for the troops involved. —>, and the charge of the French cavalry at the [[Battle of Sedan]] in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] were assaults that continued even after it was obvious to participants that the attacks were unlikely to succeed and would probably be fatal to most of the attackers. Japanese [[infantry]]men usually fought to the last man, launched [[Banzai charge|"banzai" suicide charges]], and committed suicide during the [[Pacific island]] battles in World War II. In [[Saipan]], [[Okinawa]], civilians joined in the suicides. Suicidal attacks by pilots were common in the [[20th century]]: the attack by U.S. [[torpedo planes]] at the [[Battle of Midway]] was very similar to a [[kamikaze]] attack. Also, it could be argued that it is an action of military suicide to [[falling on a grenade|fall on a grenade]], the action of throwing oneself onto a grenade, hoping to shield one's platoon from the shrapnel and/or explosion but most certainly losing one's own life in the process.
 
  
−
This particular reference to suicide is also what leads to the everyday usage of the term when indicating a hopeless situation, often in business, such as "it would be suicide for us to go to market without a viable product."
+
=== Risk factors of suicide===
 +
Regardless of what specifically motivates someone to attempt suicide or complete suicide, a number of medical, biological, psychological and social risk factors are often involved. Those factors can vary based on age, gender and ethnic group, and they can change over time.
 +
Some factors consistently increase a person's risk of suicide and attempted suicide. The factors that put people at higher risk include:
  
−
==Impact of suicide==
 
  
−
It is estimated that an average of six people are suicide "survivors" for each suicide that occurs in the United States<ref>http://www.suicidology.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=6</ref>. It is important to note that in the context of suicide, the word "survivors" refers to the family and friends of the person who has died by suicide; this figure therefore does not represent the total number of people who may be affected. For example, the suicide of a child may leave the school and their entire community left to make sense of the act.
+
*A prior suicide attempt(s)
 +
*Having a psychiatric disorder, such as depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia or    personality disorders
 +
*Alcohol or substance abuse
 +
*A family history of mental disorders or substance abuse
 +
*A family history of suicide  
 +
*Family violence, including physical or sexual abuse
 +
*Firearms in the home
 +
*A significant medical illness, such as cancer or chronic pain
  
−
As with any death, family and friends of a suicide victim feel [[grief]] associated with loss. These suicide survivors are often overwhelmed with [[psychological trauma]] as well, depending on many factors associated with the event. This trauma can leave survivors feeling [[guilt|guilty]], [[anger|angry]], [[remorse|remorseful]], helpless, and [[confusion|confused]]. It can be especially difficult for survivors because many of their questions as to why the victim felt the need to take his or her own life are left unanswered. Moreover, survivors often feel that they have failed or that they should have intervened in some way. Given these complex sets of emotions associated with a loved one's suicide, survivors usually find it difficult to discuss the death with others, causing them to feel isolated from their own network of family and friends and often making them reluctant to form new relationships as well. <ref>http://www.faqs.org/faqs/suicide/info/</ref>.
 
−
 
−
"Survivor groups" can offer counseling and help bring many of the issues associated with suicide out into the open. They can also help survivors reach out to their own friends and family who may be feeling similarly and thus begin the healing process. In addition, counseling services and therapy can provide invaluable support to the bereaved. Some such groups can be found online, providing a forum for discussion amongst survivors of suicide (see Support Groups for Survivors section below).
 
−
 
−
As well as providing counseling for the grief-stricken, survivor groups have also attempted to change the language used to describe suicide. Believing that the term "commit" attaches criminal implications to suicide, they have pushed for alternative terms that remove this meaning including "attempting" suicide, or "died by" suicide{{fact}}.
 
  
 
==Medical views of suicide==
 
==Medical views of suicide==
 +
Modern medicine treats suicide as a [[mental health]] issue. Treatment, often including medication and psychotherapy, is directed at the underlying causes of suicidal thinking. Clinical depression is the most common treatable cause, with alcohol or drug abuse being the next major categories. Other psychiatric disorders associated with suicidal thinking include bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, Borderline personality disorder, Gender identity disorder and eating disorders. Suicidal thoughts provoked by crises will generally settle with time and counseling. Severe depression can continue throughout life even with treatment and repetitive suicide attempts or suicidal ideation can be the result.
  
−
Modern medicine treats suicide as a [[mental health]] issue. Overwhelming suicidal thoughts are considered a [[medical emergency]]. Medical professionals advise that people who have expressed plans to kill themselves be encouraged to seek medical attention immediately. This is especially important if the means (weapons, drugs, or other methods) are available, or if the patient has crafted a detailed plan for executing the suicide. Special consideration is given to trained personnel to look for suicidal signs in patients. Depressive people are considered a high-risk group for suicidal behavior. Suicide hotlines are widely available for people seeking help. However, the negative and often too clinical reception that many suicidal people receive after relating their feelings to health professionals (threats of institutionalization, simply increasing dosages of medication, the stigmatization of suicide as a topic of discussion, etc), often causes them to keep their suicidal thoughts to themselves.
+
Overwhelmingly, suicidal thoughts are considered a [[medical emergency]]. Medical professionals advise that people who have expressed plans to kill themselves be encouraged to seek medical attention immediately. This is especially important if the means (weapons, drugs, or other methods) are available, or if the patient has crafted a detailed plan for executing the suicide. Special consideration is given to trained personnel to look for suicidal signs in patients. Depressive people are considered a high-risk group for suicidal behavior. Suicide hotlines are widely available for people seeking help. However, the negative and often too clinical reception that many suicidal people receive after relating their feelings to health professionals (threats of institutionalization, simply increasing dosages of medication, the stigmatization of suicide as a topic of discussion, etc), often causes them to keep their suicidal thoughts to themselves.
  
−
{{worldwide}}
 
  
 +
===Potential warning signs of suicide===
 +
You may notice possible indications that a friend or loved one is thinking about suicide. Here are some typical warning signs:
  
−
'''Suicide intervention''' or '''[[suicide crisis]] intervention''' is direct effort to stop or prevent persons attempting or contemplating suicide from killing themselves. Current medical advice concerning people who are attempting or seriously considering suicide is that they should immediately go or be taken to the nearest [[emergency room]], or [[emergency services]] should be called immediately by them or anyone aware of the problem.  Modern medicine treats suicide as a [[mental health]] issue.  According to medical practice, severe [[suicidal ideation]], that is, serious contemplation or planning of suicide,  is a [[medical emergency]] and that the condition requires immediate emergency medical treatment. 
+
*Talking about suicide, including making such statements as "I'm going to kill myself," "I wish I were dead," or "I wish I hadn't been born"
 +
*Withdrawing from social contact and having an increased desire to be left alone
 +
*Wide mood swings, such as being emotionally high one day but deeply discouraged the next
 +
*Preoccupation with death and dying or violence
 +
*Changes in routine, including eating or sleeping patterns
 +
*Personality changes, such as becoming very outgoing after being shy
 +
*Risky or self-destructive behavior, such as drug use or unsafe driving
 +
*Giving away belongings or getting affairs in order
 +
*Saying goodbye to people as if they won't be seen again
  
−
In the [[United States]], individuals who express the intent to harm themselves are automatically determined to lack the ''present mental capacity'' to refuse treatment, and can be transported to an [[emergency room|emergency department]] against their will. An [[emergency physician]] there will determine whether or not inpatient care at a [[psychiatric hospital|mental health care facility]] is warranted. This is sometimes referred to as being "[[involuntary commitment|committed]]." If the doctor determines involuntary commitment is needed, the patient is hospitalized and kept under observation until a court hearing is held to determine the patient's ''[[competence (law)|competence]]''.
+
===Possible treatment===
−
 
+
Recently, an unexpected and very positive result in treating the depression as a main cause of suicidal atttempts, were published in 2007 issue of  American Journal of Psychiatry ( AJP ). Patients  with depression treated in two independent health care systems experienced overall drops in suicide attempts between the month prior to starting treatment with  antidepressant medications and the month after treatment began.
−
Individuals suffering from depression are considered a high-risk group for suicidal behavior. When [[Clinical depression|depression]] is a major factor, successful treatment of the depression usually leads to the disappearance of suicidal thoughts.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} However, medical treatment of depression is not always successful, and lifelong depression can contribute to recurring suicide attempts.
 
−
 
 
−
Medical personnel frequently receive special training to look for suicidal signs in patients. Suicide hotlines are widely available for people seeking help. However, the negative and often too clinical reception that many suicidal people receive after relating their feelings to health professionals (e.g. threats of institutionalization, increased dosages of medication, the social stigma) may cause patients to remain more guarded about their mental health history or suicidal urges and ideation.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 
−
 
 
−
=== First aid for suicide ideation ===
 
−
 
 
−
Medical professionals advise that people who have expressed plans to kill themselves be encouraged to seek medical attention immediately.  This is especially relevant if the means (weapons, drugs, or other methods) are available, or if the patient has crafted a detailed plan for executing the suicide.  Mental health practitioners (MHPs) suggest that people who know a person whom they suspect to be suicidal can assist him or her by asking directly if the person has contemplated committing suicide and made specific arrangements, has set a date, etc.  Posing such a question ''does not'' render a previously non-suicidal person suicidal{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. According to this advice, the person questioning should seek to be understanding and sympathetic above all else since a suicidal person will often already feel ashamed or guilty about contemplating suicide so care should be taken not to exacerbate that [[guilt]].
 
−
 
 
−
MHPs suggest that an affirmative response to these questions should motivate the immediate seeking of medical attention, either from that person's doctor, or, if unavailable, the [[emergency room]] of the nearest [[hospital]].
 
−
 
 
−
If the prior [[intervention]]s fail, MHPs suggest involving [[law enforcement]] officers. While the police do not always have the authority to stop the suicide attempt itself, in some countries including some jurisdictions in the US, killing oneself is illegal.
 
−
 
 
−
In most cases law enforcement does have the authority to have people involuntarily committed to [[mental health ward]]s. Usually a [[court order]] is required, but if an officer feels the person is in immediate danger she can order an involuntary commitment without waiting for a court order. Such commitments are for a limited period, such as 72 hours &ndash; which is intended to be enough time for a doctor to see the person and make an evaluation. After this initial period, a hearing is held in which a judge can decide to order the person released or can extend the treatment time. Afterwards, the court is kept informed of the person's condition and can release the person when they feel the time is right to do so. Legal punishment for suicide attempts is extremely rare{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
 
−
 
 
−
=== Mental health treatment ===
 
−
Treatment, often including [[medication]] and [[psychotherapy]], is directed at the underlying causes of suicidal thinking. [[Clinical depression]] is the most common treatable cause, with [[alcohol abuse|alcohol]] or [[drug abuse]] being the next major categories{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
 
−
 
 
−
Other [[psychiatric disorder]]s associated with suicidal thinking include [[bipolar disorder]], [[schizophrenia]], [[Borderline personality disorder]], [[Gender identity disorder]] and [[eating disorders]]. Suicidal thoughts provoked by crises will generally settle with time and [[Psychotherapy|counseling]]. Severe depression can continue throughout life even with treatment and repetitive suicide attempts or suicidal ideation can be the result.
 
−
 
 
−
Methods for disrupting suicidal thinking include having family members or friends tell the person contemplating suicide about who else would be hurt by the loss, citing valuable and productive aspects of the patient's life, and provoking simple curiosity about the victim's own future{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
 
−
 
 
−
During the acute phase, the safety of the person is one of the prime factors considered by doctors, and this can lead to admission to a [[psychiatric ward]] or even [[involuntary commitment]].
 
−
 
 
−
According to a 2005 [[randomized controlled trial]] by [[Gregory Brown]], [[Aaron Beck]] and others, [[cognitive therapy]] can reduce repeat suicide attempts by 50%.<ref name="Brown_et_al_2005">''[http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/294/5/563 Cognitive Therapy for the Prevention of Suicide Attempts]'', Brown, G.K., [[Thomas Have|Have, T.T.]], [[Gregg Henriques|Henriques, G.R.]], [[Sharon Xie|Xie, S.X.]], [[Judd Hollander|Hollander, J.E.]], Beck, A.T., [[Journal of the American Medical Association]], 2005</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
=== Suicide prevention ===
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
Various [[suicide prevention]] strategies are suggested by Mental Health professionals{{Fact|date=February 2007}}:
 
−
* Promoting mental resilience through [[optimism]] and connectedness.
 
−
* Education about suicide, including risk factors, warning signs, and the availability of help.
 
−
* Increasing the proficiency of health and welfare services in responding to people in need. This includes better training for health professionals and employing crisis counseling organizations.
 
−
* Reducing [[domestic violence]] and [[substance abuse]] are long-term strategies to reduce many mental health problems.
 
−
* Reducing access to convenient means of suicide (e.g., toxic substances, [[handguns]]).
 
−
* Reducing the quantity of dosages supplied in packages of non-prescription medicines e.g., [[aspirin]].
 
−
* Interventions targeted at high-risk groups.
 
−
 
 
−
====Research on suicide prevention ====
 
−
'''Research''' into suicide is published across a wide spectrum of journals dedicated to the [[Portal:Biology|biological]], [[Portal:Business and Economics|economic]], [[Portal:Psychology|psychological]], [[Portal:Medicine|medical]] and [[Social sciences|social]] sciences. In addition to those, a few journals are exclusively devoted to the study of suicide (suicidology), most notably, ''Crisis'', ''Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior'', and the ''Archives of Suicide Research''.
 
−
 
 
−
The [[American Foundation for Suicide Prevention]] is dedicated to funding research on suicide and its prevention.
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
==Cultural views of suicide==
 
−
 
 
−
In the Warring States Period and the Edo period of [[Japan]], [[samurai]] who disgraced their honor chose to end their own lives by [[harakiri]] (hara = stomach, kiri = cut) or [[seppuku]], a method in which the samurai takes a sword and slices into his [[abdomen]], causing a fatal injury. The cut is usually performed diagonally from the top corner of the samurai's writing hand, and has long been considered an honorable form of death (even when done to punish dishonor). Though obviously such a wound would be fatal, seppuku was not always technically suicide, as the samurai's assistant (the kaishaku) would stand by to cut short any suffering by quickly administering [[decapitation]]—sometimes as soon as the first tiny incision into the abdomen was made.
 
−
 
 
−
{{originalresearch}}
 
−
{{cleanup-tone}}
 
−
{{Expand|date=January 2007}}
 
−
Various human cultures may have '''views on suicide''' not directly or solely linked to [[religious views of suicide]].
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
=== China ===
 
−
[[Chinese culture]] has historically taken an ambivalent view on suicide. It has been commonly mentioned throughout Chinese history and frequently tolerated, if not explicitly sanctioned. It is frequently used as a means of  escaping tragedy and shame, an especially strong pressure given the collective aspects of traditional Chinese culture. [[Ritual suicide]] has historically been  relatively common, particularly as a form of political protest.
 
−
 
 
−
Nonetheless, many moral systems dominant in traditional China prohibited or looked disfavorably upon suicide, including [[Buddhism]] and [[Confucianism]]. (''See also [[Chinese bioethics]]'') However, even in these cases, exceptions were often made.
 
−
 
 
−
Suicide has been closely tied with gender in Chinese culture, both historically and today. There are countless examples of females committing suicide in pre-modern Chinese history, usually as a result of oppression or misfortune, such as family members (particularly husbands and mothers-in-law) looking upon them in condemnation, or when women fell into shame. In the latter cases, it was viewed as an honorable way to escape shame &ndash; especially because the repercussions of shame typically fell not merely on the individual, but to an immense degree upon the individual's extended family.
 
−
 
 
−
Suicide was also glamorised by popular stories among the people, in which lovers unable to be together in life because of various reasons, were joined together in death. An example is that of the Butterfly Lovers, and also Pan Yu-Ann and Su Qi in "A Dream of Red Mansions," one of the four great works of Chinese literature. In these stories, death by suicide was the only way that they could be together.
 
−
 
 
−
During the [[Cultural Revolution]] in China (1966-1976), numerous publicly-known figures, especially intellectuals and writers, are reported to have committed suicide, typically to escape persecution, typically at the hands of the [[Red Guards]]. Some, or perhaps many, of these reported suicides are suspected by many observers to have, in fact, not been voluntary but instead the result of mistreatment. Some reported suicides include famed writer [[Lao She]], among the best-known 20th century Chinese writers, and journalist [[Fan Changjiang]].
 
−
 
 
−
Today, suicide among females in China is at an extraordinarily high rate, reckoned to be the highest in the world. This typically occurs among poorly educated rural women. Because of the difficulties in transportation in the rural environment, women who attempt suicide are frequently successful in ending their lives because they cannot be brought to medical care early enough to be treated successfully. Some researchers, such as [[Canadian]] [[physician]] [[Michael Phillips (psychiatrist)|Michael Phillips]] have called to light this tragic phenomenon, and authorities in China are gradually awakening to the problem.
 
−
 
 
−
=== India ===
 
−
Like the contemporary Asian cultures of [[China]] and [[Japan]], [[India]]n culture has historically taken an ambivalent view on suicide. It has been commonly mentioned throughout Indian history and frequently tolerated.  Ritual suicide has historically been relatively common, particularly as a form of political protest, warrior code or as a religious/philosophical undertaking.  Many notable Indian [[rishi]]s, kings and other figures have died through suicide for these reasons.
 
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The religions of India, such as [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]], have traditionally opposed suicide, except in extraordinary circumstances.  Hindu, Jain and Buddhist monks would sometimes practice [[sallekhana]], where starvation was used as a form of suicide that prevented rash decisions, and so was used with full consideration, perhaps as a way of ending one's life in their final years, or as a form of extreme protest, as during the Indian Independence movement, when various freedom fighters, such as [[Mahatma Gandhi]] would declare 'fast unto death'.  Occasionally [[self-immolation]] was also practiced for similar reasons - perticularily by Hindu monks who would enter their own funeral pyre at the end of their lives as a form of devotion/renouncement, and Buddhist monks for similar reasons.
 
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Like other East Asian cultures, 'death before dishonour' was a tenet of warrior classes or [[kshatriya]], and thus military or martial suicide was permitted when defeat was deemed inevitable, such as in the case of [[Rajput]] warriors, who would ride out to meet death when a siege was inevitably doomed, whilst their womanfolk would immolate themselves to avoid capture, molestation and rape by dishonourable enemies such as the [[Arab]], [[Central Asia]]n and [[Persia]]n raiders of medieval times.  This practice was known as [[jauhar]].  There are numerous examples of Indian warrior classes such as [[Gurkhas]], [[Sardar]]s and [[Rajputs]] giving their lives to further a battle or - many of these warriors gained renown even amongst the British - many Indians during World War II allegedly astonished even Japanese troops with their willingness to die for honour, and launch kamikaze-like attacks.
 
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In some parts of India, an extreme interpretation of select ancient philosophical texts led to the practice of [[sati]], where a woman would immolate herself to join her husband upon his death, and theoretically vis a vis. In practice this was abused, with women often being forced to commit suicide in this manner by the local rural communities to prevent the burden of a widow on resources.
 
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Heroic suicide, for the greater good of others, is often celebrated. For instance, [[Gandhi]] went on a hunger strike to prevent fighting between Hindus and Muslims; if they had not stopped before he died, he may have indeed killed himself. For this, he earned the respect of many.
 
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=== Japan ===
 
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Similarly to China and India, Japanese culture takes a view that, in comparison to European and American cultures, is relatively tolerant of suicide. However, recent events in Japan and some of the highest rates of suicide in the world among younger people have forced the Japanese government to take a more critical view of suicide as a "problem." As in China, suicide is traditionally viewed as a means of maintaining one's honor, perhaps more so - a ritual self-disembowelling known as [[Seppuku]] was in common use in Feudal Japan, and while this tradition largely faded out with the demise of the Samurai and the introduction of a western-style society, many young Japanese people of today still perceive suicide as an acceptable means to avoid bringing shame or dishonor upon their family. In the early 21st century, an average of 30,000 Japanese killed themselves every year.
 
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It is a common misconception that the act of [[kamikaze]] also belongs to Japanese culture. However, it was a tactic devised during the [[Second World War]] by the Japanese air force and was used neither prior to nor after the war. The term "Kamikaze" has no such connotation in Japanese, instead meaning "godly wind," which originated after not one, but two storms protected Japan from invasion by destroying the invading fleets of [[Genghis Khan]] from Mongolia in the 13th Century.
 
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===European views===
 
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The decline of religion and the rise of individualisation in the Netherlands over the course of the latter half of the twentieth century contributed to a relatively open-minded culture around the turn of the millennium regarding the subject of suicide. This atmosphere allowed for liberal laws to be passed through parliament, legalising euthanasia in 2001. The right to live is widely recognised and supported throughout the Netherlands and the past few decades have seen the 'right to die' gain equal status. The strong decline of religions (most notably Protestantism, to a lesser extent Catholicism) changed society's view of suicide to the extent that old views (based on Christian religious views), which strongly condemned it, started to fade. Although usually experienced as a tragedy by those who are left behind, the consensus towards the deceased tends to be vastly similar to that in case of a natural death. Feeling everybody has a right to live, as well as a right to die, the Dutch will usually respect the decision made by the deceased even if they don't understand the reasons behind it (or don't even have knowledge of them).
 
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<br/>Also, the act of committing suicide itself bears little moral meaning. It is neither considered a weak nor a strong thing to do. It's just a choice equal to many other choices in life. The choice to marry, or not. The choice to have children, or not. The choice to live, or not.
 
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<br/>In other words; the decline of religious influences allowed for a different attitude towards life. Life is no longer a gift received from God, but something obtained without ever having asked for. As a result, the living have full authority over their own lives. If they wish to end it, they have the right to do so.
 
  
 +
The findings are based on records from a large prepaid health plan and from Veterans Health Administration ( VHA ) ,  Washington state and Idaho databases, reflecting the clinical care of more than  500, 000 patients.
  
 +
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) were the most commonly prescribed antidepressants, and the rate of suicide attempts for patients taking SSRIs fell from 221 per 100, 000 patients before treatment, to 123 per 100,000 after treatment began. The rate also fell after the beginning of treatment with medications known as non-serotonergic and tricyclic antidepressants.
  
 +
( AJP Editor in Chief, Robert Freedman M. D., stated “….''These studies of treatment in actual clinical practice find a decrease in suicide attempts after treatment, regardless of whether the treatment is psychotherapy or drug therapy. Patients and their doctors are concerned because of the FDA’s black-box warning that antidepressants can cause suicide attempts….  The studies in this issue provide more evidence that this side effect is rare, compared to the overall decrease in suicide attempts that occurs when treatment is initiated. Furthermore, suicide attempts in the first month of treatment occur regardless of whether the treatment is psychotherapy or drug therapy, which suggests that these attempts are part of the natural evolution of symptoms in depression itself''…….”)
  
 
==Religious views of suicide==
 
==Religious views of suicide==
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{{cleanup-rewrite}}
 
  
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There are a variety of '''religious views of [[suicide]]'''.
+
===Buddhism===
 +
For Buddhists, since the first precept is to refrain from the destruction of life, including oneself, suicide should be clearly considered a negative form of action. Despite this view, an ancient Asian ideology similar to [[seppuku]] (''hara-kiri'') continues to influence oppressed Buddhists to choose the act of [[honor suicide]]. Many questions arise from the ambiguity in defining suicide. From a Buddhist perspective these include questions such as whether nirvana is a kind of suicide. Thus, suicide is justified in the persons of the Noble Ones who have already cut off desire and by so doing neutralised their actions by making them incapable of producing further fruit. From the point of view of early Buddhism, suicide is a normal matter in the case of the Noble Ones who, having completed their work, sever their last link with the world and voluntarily pass into Nirvaa.na, thus definitively escaping from the world of rebirths ( Lamotte, 1965:106f).The significant distinction then, is that the Arhat ( Noble One ) acts without desire whereas the unenlightened person does not.
 +
 +
===Judaism===
 +
[[Judaism]] has traditionally, in light of its great emphasis on the sanctity of [[life]], viewed suicide as one of the most serious of [[sin]]s. Suicide has always been forbidden by [[Jewish law]] in all cases. It is not seen as an acceptable alternative even if one is being forced to commit certain cardinal sins for which one must give up one's life rather than sin. The views on suicide have shifted lately, however.
  
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===Buddhism & Jainism===
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In the past, the bodies of Jewish people who committed suicide traditionally were buried on the outskirts of a Jewish cemetery, but that is no longer necessarily the case either. Raymond Perlman of Sinai Mortuary in Phoenix says that suicide deaths today usually are dealt with the same as others.
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According to [[Buddhism]], individuals' past acts heavily influence what they experience in the [[present (time)|present]]; present acts, in turn, become the background influence for future experiences (the [[doctrine]] of [[karma]]). Intentional action by mind, body or speech have a reaction. This reaction, or repercussion, is the cause of conditions and differences we come across in the world.
 
  
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Buddhism teaches that all people experience substantial [[suffering]] ([[dukkha]]), which suffering primarily originates from past negative deeds (karmically), or just from being in [[samsara]], the cycle of birth and death. Another reason for the prevalent suffering individuals experience is [[impermanence]] and [[illusion]] ([[maya (Buddhism)|maya]]). Since everything is in a constant state of impermanence or flux, individuals experience dissatisfaction with the fleeting events of life. To break out of samsara, one simply must realize his or her true nature by [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] in the present moment; this is [[Nirvana]].
+
"….''To put (those bodies) in a corner or on the side is really additional punishment for the survivors''…." Perlman says, "………..''So we would just classify (the suicide) as another death. Unfortunately, a suicide death in most cases punishes the living''………….."
  
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For Buddhists, since the first precept is to refrain from the destruction of life, including oneself, suicide is clearly considered a negative form of action. Despite this view, an ancient Asian ideology similar to [[seppuku]] (''hara-kiri'') continues to influence oppressed Buddhists to choose the act of [[honor suicide]]. The most well-known instance of this was [[Thich Quang Duc]]'s suicide by self-immolation to protest the government of [[Ngo Dinh Diem]]. Also in modern times, [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan monks]] have used this perceived ideal to protest the Chinese occupation of [[Tibet]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]]'s human rights violations against Tibetans.
+
Jewish teachings suggest that those who commit suicide would not face God's punishment, Sherwin says. "….''Our teachings tell us that when we are in pain, God cries with us…." Sherwin says…."…….If God doesn't judge and condemn, then how can we''?........"
  
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In Jainism, the practise of fasting to death is not considered completely taboo.  However, this is not a form of suicide, as it is not done on impulse, and is seen as becoming closer to God.
 
  
 
===Christianity===
 
===Christianity===
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====Early Christianity====
 
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Early [[Christianity]] was attracted to death as [[martyr]]dom and something they felt called upon by their faith to permit. Even the death of [[Jesus]] can be considered a kind of suicide, by some, such as [[Tertullian]]. There were seven suicides in the [[Old Testament]].<ref>http://www.new-life.net/faq022.htm Article includes a list of suicides found in the Old Testament, with links to Bible passages.</ref> In [[Matthew 27:3]], the suicide of [[Judas Iscariot]], who betrayed Jesus, is perhaps a sign of his repentance or at least the recognition of his guilt.
 
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The most notable pro-suicide group was the [[Donatists]], who believed that by killing themselves they could attain martyrdom and go to heaven. They jumped off cliffs, burned themselves in large numbers, and stopped travellers, either offering to pay them or threatening them with death to encourage them to kill the supposed Donatist martyr.{{Fact|date=April 2007}} They were eventually declared [[heresy|heretics]].
 
  
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As Christianity became the dominant religion of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] empire, however, its views on suicide changed, gradually. In the fifth century, St. [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] wrote the book ''[[The City of God]]'', in it making Christianity's first overall condemnation of suicide. His biblical justification for this was his novel interpretation of the commandment, "thou shalt not kill," and the rest of his reasons were from Plato's "[[Phaedra (mythology)|Phaedra]]." Although this was a humanitarian opposition, some Christians ended up persecuting suicides, degrading their bodies (sometimes by being buried at crossroads with a stake through their body), defaming their memories, and persecuting their families.
+
Early [[Christianity]] was attracted to death as [[martyr]]dom and something they felt called upon by their faith to permit. Even the death of [[Jesus]] can be considered a kind of suicide, by some, such as [[Tertullian]].
 +
 +
Of the seven or so suicides reported in Scripture, most familiar are Saul, Samson, and Judas. Saul apparently committed suicide to avoid dishonor and suffering at the hands of the Philistines. He is rewarded by the Israelites with a war hero's burial, there being no apparent disapproval of his suicide (1 Samuel 31:1-6). And while there is no hero's burial for Judas Iscariot (Matthew 27:5-7), Scripture is once more silent on the morality of this suicide of remorse.
  
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In the sixth century, suicide became a religious [[sin]] and secular crime. In 533, those who committed suicide while accused of a crime were denied a Christian burial, which was a requirement for going to [[heaven]]. In 562, all suicides were punished in this way. In 693, even the attempt of suicide became an ecclesiastical crime, which could be punished by [[excommunication]], with civil consequences following.  
+
The suicide of Samson has posed a greater problem for Christian theologians. Both Saint Augustine and Saint Thomas Aquinas wrestled with the case and concluded that Samson's suicide was justified as an act of obedience to a direct command of God.
  
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Many Christians believe in the sanctity of human life, a principle which, broadly speaking, says that all human life is [[sacred]] — a wonderful, even miraculous creation of the divine God — and every effort must be made to save and preserve it whenever possible.
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Objections to suicide have a long history in the church. But the idea that suicide is an unforgivable sin is less easily traced. Among the church fathers, Saint Augustine was the most prominent and influential opponent of suicide.  
  
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It was not until about a thousand years after St. Augustine that Christians again questioned suicide. Thus, even while believing that suicide is generally wrong, [[liberal]] Christians may hold that people who choose suicide are severely distressed and that the loving God of Christianity can [[Forgiveness#Christianity|forgive]] such an act.
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The most notable pro-suicide group was the [[Donatists]], who believed that by killing themselves they could attain martyrdom and go to heaven. They jumped off cliffs, burned themselves in large numbers, and stopped travellers, either offering to pay them or threatening them with death to encourage them to kill the supposed Donatist martyr.{{Fact|date=April 2007}} They were eventually declared [[heresy|heretics]].
  
 
====Modern Catholicism====
 
====Modern Catholicism====
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In [[Catholicism]], [[death]] by suicide is considered a grave and [[mortal sin]]. The chief Christian argument is that one's life is the property of [[God]], and to destroy that life is to wrongly assert dominion over what is God's.
 
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In point 2281 of the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church|Catechism]] it is stated:
 
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''2281 Suicide contradicts the natural inclination of the human being to preserve and perpetuate his life. It is gravely contrary to the just love of self. It likewise offends love of neighbor because it unjustly breaks the ties of solidarity with family, nation, and other human societies to which we continue to have obligations. Suicide is contrary to love for the living God.''
 
  
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The 1997 ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'' indicates that suicide may not always be fully conscious &ndash; and thus not one-hundred-percent morally culpable: ''"Grave psychological disturbances, anguish, or grave fear of hardship, suffering, or torture can diminish the responsibility of the one committing suicide."''
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“……….''Suicide is always as morally objectionable as murder. The Church's tradition has always rejected it as a gravely evil choice. Even though a certain psychological, cultural and social conditioning may induce a person to carry out an action which so radically contradicts the innate inclination to life, thus lessening or removing subjective responsibility, suicide, when viewed objectively, is a gravely immoral act. In fact, it involves the rejection of love of self and the renunciation of the obligation of justice and charity towards one's neighbour, towards the communities to which one belongs, and towards society as a whole. In its deepest reality, suicide represents a rejection of God's absolute sovereignty over life and death, as proclaimed in the prayer of the ancient sage of Israel: 'You have power over life and death; you lead men down to the gates of Hades and back again'(Wis 16:13; cf. Tob 13:2)...…….'' ”( John Paul II, 1995 )
  
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The essential context regarding the Catholic Church's condemnation of suicide is the Church's absolute insistence on the sanctity of life. It is in this regard, and taking into account the clear deliberation of the act by a thinking person, that the Church regards suicide as being among the gravest sins a person may commit and therefore creating the risk of eternal damnation.
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====Some of the Anglicans’ objections====
  
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The gravity of the Church's position resides in a twofold argument - 1. Suicide is a rejection of God's love for mankind, and mankind's love for God. 2. Suicide causes fracture to the social community of friends, loved-ones and broader human society.
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The 1996 Statement by the House of Bishops of the Anglican Church in America says:
  
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====Modern Protestantism====
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“…..''The Episcopal Diocese of Newark has entered a growing national debate by proposing quite irresponsibly:
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[[Conservative Christians]] ([[Evangelicals]], [[Charismatics]] and [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]]) have often argued that because suicide involves self-[[murder]], then anyone who commits it automatically goes to [[Hell]].{{Fact|date=April 2007}} A number of Biblical figures committed suicide, most notably [[Judas Iscariot]] who hanged himself after betraying Christ. While suicide is certainly treated in a negative way in the Bible, there is, however, no specific verse that explicitly states that suicide leads directly to Hell. Yet because Jesus Christ took the punishment for the sins of mankind, and suicide is seen as a sin, the result would be that the person who commits suicide would not be culpable, and that all his sins (including the killing of himself) would be covered by Christ (2 Corinthians 5:21).  Consequently, there is a growing belief that Christians who commit suicide are still granted [[Heaven]].
+
*That self-killing (suicide) is a "moral choice" for the terminally ill, and for those living in persistent and/or progressive pain (i.e., with severely reduced "quality of life");
 +
*because "nowhere in the Bible does it say that there is a value to suffering simply for the sake of suffering;"
 +
*and that therefore we need to "redefine" what we mean by "life" (assumedly to provide a rationale for destroying what now should be held to have no value).'' …….”, which, on the face of the argument, are  similar to the ambiguities in the development of, both, Judaism and Buddhism that we mentioned above.
  
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===Hinduism===
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===Suicide martyrs-cum-bombers in Islam===
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In [[Hinduism]], murdering one's own body is considered equally [[sin]]ful as murdering another, with the exception of the currently defunct practice of [[sati (practice)|sati]]. Scriptures generally state that to die by suicide (and any type of violent death) results in becoming a [[ghost]].
+
[[Islam]], like other [[Abrahamic faith|Abrahamic]] religions, views suicide as sinful and highly detrimental to one's spiritual journey. For those who formerly believed, but ultimately rejected belief in [[God]], the result seems unambiguously negative. A verse in the fourth chapter of the Quran, An-Nisaa (The Women) instructs; "….''And do not kill yourselves, surely Allah is most Merciful to you…''.." (4:29)  
  
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===Islam===
 
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[[Islam]], like other [[Abrahamic faith|Abrahamic]] religions, views suicide as sinful and highly detrimental to one's spiritual journey. For those who formerly believed, but ultimately rejected belief in [[God]], the result seems unambiguously negative.
 
  
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A verse in the fourth chapter of the Quran, An-Nisaa (The Women) instructs; "And do not kill yourselves, surely Allah is most Merciful to you." (4:29)
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The prohibition of suicide has also been recorded in authentic statements of [[hadith]]. For example; "……''He who commits suicide by throttling shall keep on throttling himself in the Hell-fire, and he who commits suicide by stabbing himself, he shall keep stabbing himself in the Hell-fire…''.."
 +
 +
So, what about the Moslems of all ages and genders who have become the suicidal martyr bombers, killing thousands of civilians in the process ( here we do not specifically mention the 9/11 incident in New York; we consider it just one of many).  
  
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The prohibition of suicide has also been recorded in authentic statements of [[hadith]]. For example; "He who commits suicide by throttling shall keep on throttling himself in the Hell-fire, and he who commits suicide by stabbing himself, he shall keep stabbing himself in the Hell-fire." <ref>http://www.inter-islam.org/Prohibitions/suicide.html Suicide as seen in Islam</ref>
 
  
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===Judaism===
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In his 1996 Fatwa declaring war on the US, bin Laden quotes a hadith passage ( i.e. Muhammad’s words and deeds outside of the Quran) that has the prophet describing heaven for the martyrs fallen in a holy war.  
−
[[Judaism]] has traditionally, in light of its great emphasis on the sanctity of [[life]], viewed suicide as one of the most serious of [[sin]]s. Suicide has always been forbidden by [[Jewish law]] in all cases. It is not seen as an acceptable alternative even if one is being forced to commit certain cardinal sins for which one must give up one's life rather than sin. Assisting in suicide and requesting such assistance (thereby creating an accomplice to a sinful act) is also forbidden, a minimal violation of Leviticus 19:14, "Do not put a [[stumbling block]] before the blind," for the Rabbis interpreted that verse to prohibit any type of stumbling block: theological (e.g., persuading people to believe in false doctrine), economic (e.g., giving bad financial advice) or in this case moral stumbling blocks, as well as physical ones (see Talmud Bavli (B.) Pesah.im 22b; B. Mo'ed Katan 5a, 17a; B. Bava Mezia 75b. and B. Nedarim 42b).
 
  
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The prohibition against suicide is not specifically recorded in the [[Talmud]]. The post-talmudic tractate Semahot (Evel Rabbati) 2:1&ndash;5 serves as the basis for most of later Jewish law on suicide, together with Genesis Rabbah 34:13, which bases the biblical prohibition on Genesis 9:5: "And surely your blood of your lives will I require." Cf. M.T. Laws of Murder 2:3; Babylonian Talmud tractate Laws of Courts (Sanhedrin) 18:6; S.A. Yoreh De'ah (Code of Jewish Law) 345:1ff.
+
The first moment blood gushes, they are guaranteed Islamic heaven. They receive crowns, jewels, and seventy-two dark-eyed houris or beautiful maidens, for each martyr. Similar Fatwa came later from Iranian Islamic leader Khamenei.
  
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According to [[Chassidic]] philosophy, a soul descends into this world to perform a mission, which cannot be performed in the "spiritual worlds." This is the Chassidic interpretation of the Talmudic statement "One second in the World-to-Come [meaning both the afterlife and the world of Messianic Era] is more pleasurable than the whole life in this world. But one good deed in this world is more important than the whole eternity of the World-to-Come" (Ethics of Our Fathers, Mishna). According to Chabad school of Chassidism, although spiritual beings (souls and angels living in spiritual worlds) have access to knowledge of God's existence, they have no access to God's Essence. During performance of Torah's Commandments, a person's body and soul gain access to the Creator's Essence (since Torah represents God's will, which is one with his essence) and purify both the body and the soul, as well as the physical world. The purification of the physical world through performance of Commandments leads eventually to Messianic Era, which is the goal and purpose of Creation. Therefore, life in the physical world presents a person's soul a unique opportunity, and to consciously and willfully break away from this opportunity is regarded as a gravest sin.
 
  
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The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standard]]s, the body of scholars of [[halakha|Jewish law]] in [[Conservative Judaism]], has published a ''[[teshuva]]'' on suicide and assisted suicide in the Summer 1998 issue of ''Conservative Judaism,'' Vol. L, No. 4. It affirms the prohibition, then addresses the growing trend of Americans and Europeans to seek assistance with suicide. The Conservative ''teshuva'' notes that while many people get sick, often with terminal illnesses, most people do not try to kill themselves. The committee believes we are obliged to determine why some seek help with suicide and to ameliorate those circumstances.
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This hadith source that bin Laden cites puts together different Quranic passages describing Islamic heaven, complete with beautiful virgins (Suras 44:51-56; 52:17-29; 55:46-78), with those describing the immediate reward of heaven for jihadist martyrs (Suras 61:10-12; 4:74; 9:111).  
  
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The [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] response states:
+
 +
Where does this doctrine of suicide-cum-martyrdom in a battle come from? The answer to the question is that, both, Khamenei and bin Laden are not the deepest sources of inspiration for martyrdom bombers. They get their inspiration from the Quran itself. Islam, at its core, is not the religion of peace; violence sits in the origins of Islam.
  
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: "... those who commit suicide and those who aid others in doing so act out of a plethora of motives. Some of these reasons are less than noble, involving, for example, children's desires to see Mom or Dad die with dispatch so as not to squander their inheritance on 'futile' health care, or the desire of insurance companies to spend as little money as possible on the terminally ill."
+
====Short explanation of a most cited Sura ( 61:10 -12 )====
  
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The paper says the proper response to severe [[Pain and nociception|pain]] is not suicide, but better pain control and more pain [[medication]]. Many doctors, it asserts, are deliberately keeping such patients in pain by refusing to administer sufficient pain medications: some out of ignorance; others to avoid possible drug addiction; others from a misguided sense of stoicism. Conservative Judaism holds that such forms of reasoning are "bizarre" and cruel, that with today's medications there is no reason for people to be in perpetual torture.  
+
In this passage, the Arabic word "''jihad''" (root is j-h-d) is the means or currency to trade in this life for the life to come.
  
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It then investigates the psychological roots of hopelessness felt by some patients, and asserts:
 
  
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: "Physicians or others asked to assist in dying should recognize that people contemplating suicide are often alone, without anyone taking an interest in their continued living. Rather than assist the patient in dying, the proper response to such circumstances is to provide the patient with a group of people who clearly and repeatedly reaffirm their interest in the patient's continued life ... Requests to die, then, must be evaluated in the terms of degree of social support the patient has, for such requests are often withdrawn as soon as someone shows an interest in the patient staying alive. In this age of individualism and broken and scattered families, and in the antiseptic environment of hospitals where dying people usually find themselves, the mitzvah of visiting the sick (''[[bikkur Holim]]'') becomes all the more crucial in sustaining the will to live."
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'''61:10''': “……… ''You who believe, shall I show you a bargain that will save you from painful punishment? …….11…. Have faith in God and His Messenger and struggle [j-h-d] for His cause with your possessions and your persons—that is better for you, if only you knew—…….12… and He will forgive your sins, admit you into Gardens graced with flowing streams, into pleasant dwellings in the Gardens of Eternity. That is the supreme triumph''…….” (Haleem, 2004).
  
  
 +
To sum up the essence of Sura 61:10-12 ---  Suras 4:74, and 9:111 are suggesting the same bargain: life now for the life after --- the doctrine of Islamic martyrdom has been placed in economic terms in the historical context of aggressive warfare.
  
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==Philosophical debate over suicide==
+
A Muslim sells his life through martyrdom in a holy war in a bargain with Allah. In return, the believer gets the guaranteed reward of Islamic heaven. For the deity’s part, he uses the surrender to spread his true religion around the world. Allah will establish Islam and get the ultimate victory.
  
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[[Image:Euthanasia machine (Australia).JPG|thumb|A euthanasia machine.]]
 
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Some see suicide as a legitimate matter of personal choice and a human right (colloquially known as the [[right to die]] movement), and maintain that no one should be forced to suffer against their will, particularly from conditions such as incurable disease, mental illness, and old age that have no possibility of improvement.  Proponents of this view reject the belief that suicide is always irrational, arguing instead that it can be a valid, albeit drastic, last resort for those enduring major pain or trauma.  This perspective is most popular in Continental Europe[http://www.time.com/time/europe/magazine/article/0,13005,901050404-1042414,00.html], where euthanasia and other such topics are commonly discussed in parliament, although it has a good deal of support in the United States as well.
 
  
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A narrower segment of this group considers suicide a sacrosanct right for anyone (even a young and healthy person) who believes they have rationally and conscientiously come to the decision to end their own lives. Notable supporters of this school of thought include German pessimist philosopher [[Arthur Schopenhauer]][http://comp.uark.edu/~mpianal/schopenhauer.htm].  Adherents of this view often advocate the abrogation of statutes that restrict the liberties of people known to be suicidal, e.g. laws permitting their involuntary commitment to mental hospitals. Critics may argue that suicidal impulses are inherently products of mental illness and therefore not a valid exercise of rational self-interest, and that because of the gravity and irreversibility of the decision to take one's life it is more prudent for society to err on the side of caution and protect suicidal individuals from themselves.
+
It could be assumed that many of the Muslim suicidal martyrs may be socially and economically very hard up and cognitively and, perhaps even, mentally troubled, but surely some of them act with level heads. But they all follow a simple, rational equation:
  
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In [[ethics]] and other branches of [[philosophy]], [[suicide]] poses a difficult question, answered differently by philosophers from different times and traditions.
+
'''Total surrender ( of their life) = martyrdom in a holy war = Islamic heaven'''.
  
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=== Arguments against suicide ===
 
  
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There have been many philosophical arguments made that contend that suicide is immoral and unethical. One popular argument is that many of the reasons for committing [[suicide]], such as [[clinical depression|depression]], emotional pain or economic hardship, are transitory and treatable through therapy and lifestyle changes. A common [[adage]] in the discourse surrounding [[suicide prevention]] sums up this view: ''Suicide is a permanent solution to a temporary problem''. Ken Baldwin, a depressed 28 year-old who attempted suicide by jumping off the [[Golden Gate Bridge]], recalls his first thoughts after he jumped: "I instantly realized that everything in my life that I’d thought was unfixable was totally fixable — except for having just jumped".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/?031013fa_fact|title=www.newyorker.com/fact/content/?031013fa_fact<!-- INSERT TITLE —>|accessdate=2007-01-21}}</ref> However, the argument against this is that while emotional pain may seem transitory to most people, and in many cases it is, in many other cases it may be extremely difficult or even impossible to resolve, even through counseling or lifestyle change, depending on the severity of the case and the persons ability to cope with their pain. Examples of this are incurable disease or severe, lifelong mental illness.
 
  
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==== [[Classical Liberalism]] ====
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===Hinduism===
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[[John Stuart Mill]] argued in his influential essay ''[[On Liberty]]'' that since the ''[[sine qua non]]'' of liberty is the power of the individual to make choices; any choice that one might make that would deprive him or her of the ability to make further choices should be prevented. Thus, for Mill, selling oneself into [[slavery]] or killing oneself should be prevented, in order to avoid precluding the ability to make further choices. Concerning these matters, Mill writes in ''On Liberty'':
 
−
 
 
−
: '' Not only persons are not held to engagements which violate the rights of third parties, but it is sometimes considered a sufficient reason for releasing them from an engagement, that it is injurious to themselves. In this and most other civilized countries, for example, an engagement by which a person should sell himself, or allow himself to be sold, as a slave, would be null and void; neither enforced by law nor by opinion. The ground for thus limiting his power of voluntarily disposing of his own lot in life, is apparent, and is very clearly seen in this extreme case. The reason for not interfering, unless for the sake of others, with a person's voluntary acts, is consideration for his liberty. His voluntary choice is evidence that what he so chooses is desirable, or at the least endurable, to him, and his good is on the whole best provided for by allowing him to take his own means of pursuing it. But by selling himself for a slave, he abdicates his liberty; he forgoes any future use of it, beyond that single act. He therefore defeats, in his own case, the very purpose which is the justification of allowing him to dispose of himself. He is no longer free; but is thenceforth in a position which has no longer the presumption in its favor, that would be afforded by his voluntarily remaining in it. The principle of freedom cannot require that he should be free not to be free. It is not freedom, to be allowed to alienate his freedom.
 
−
 
 
−
''
 
−
 
 
−
Yet at the same time Mill believes the individual to be the best guardian of their own interests. Mill uses the example of a man about to cross a broken bridge: we can forcibly stop him and warn him of the danger he faces if he continues but ultimately we should not prevent him from crossing the bridge; for only he knows the worth of his life balanced against the danger of crossing the bridge. Thus, if an individual views their life as unlivable it would appear well within their rights to end it.
 
−
 
 
−
==== [[Utilitarianism]] ====
 
−
 
 
−
[[William Godwin]] showed his extreme [[optimism]] by stating that suicide was almost always a mistake, as more pleasure is to be gained by living. As he was a [[Utilitarianism|utilitarian]], who saw moral judgments as based on the pleasure and pain they produced, he thus thought suicide to be immoral.
 
−
 
 
−
==== [[Deontologism]] ====
 
−
 
 
−
[[Immanuel Kant]], considered by many to be the father of deontologism, argues against suicide in Fundamental Principles of The Metaphysic of Morals. In accordance with the second formulation of his [[categorical imperative]], Kant states that "''He who contemplates suicide should ask himself whether his action can be consistent with the idea of humanity as an end in itself.''" Kant's theory looked at the action and not the outcomes and consquenses. You would then have to think whether you would be willing to universalise the act. Kant then argues that if the person chooses to commit suicide that he/she is using themselves as a mean to satisfy him/herself. But a person can not be used "''merely as means, but must in all his actions be always considered as an end in himself.''" Therefore, it would be unethical to commit suicide to satisfy oneself.
 
−
 
 
−
Yet a criticism of this rebuke of suicide can be found in Kant's view of sexuality. The reason that sex in marriage is acceptable (and in Kant's eyes, this is the only acceptable place for it) is because there is no other person to use as a means, so it is impossible to take advantage of a non-existent person, and it is not capable to take advantage of oneself. Thus it would seem that suicide to satisfy oneself must be unacceptable to Kant on other grounds than self-satisfaction.
 
−
 
 
−
==== [[Existentialism]] ====
 
−
 
 
−
The [[France|French]] [[Existentialism|existentialist]] philosopher [[Albert Camus|Camus]] saw the goal of existentialism in establishing whether suicide was necessary in a world without God. For Camus, suicide was the rejection of freedom. He thought that fleeing from the absurdity of reality into [[illusion]]s, [[religion]] or [[death]] was not the way out. Instead of fleeing the [[Albert Camus#Camus.27 ideas on the Absurd|absurd]] meaninglessness of life, we should embrace life passionately.
 
−
Fellow existentialist [[Sartre]] described the position of [[Meursault]] the protagonist of Camus' [[The Stranger (novel)|L'Etranger]], who is condemned to death in the following way:
 
−
"''The absurd man will not commit suicide; he wants to live, without relinquishing any of his certainty, without a future, without hope, without illusions [[...]] and without resignation either. He stares at death with passionate attention and this fascination liberates him. He experiences the 'divine irresponsibility' of the condemned man".<ref>Sartre analysis of Mersault, in Literary and Philosophical Essays, 1943</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
==== [[Social Contract]] ====
 
−
 
 
−
Social Contract, according to [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], argues that every man has ''"a right to risk his own life in order to preserve it."''
 
−
 
 
−
[[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]] and [[John Locke|Locke]], reject the right of individuals to take their own life. Hobbes claims in his ''[[Leviathan (book)|Leviathan]]'' that natural law forbids every man "''to do, that which is destructive of his life, or take away the means of preserving the same''." Breaking this natural law is irrational and immoral. Hobbes also states that it is intuitively rational for men to want felicity and to fear death most.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Other arguments ====
 
−
 
 
−
The writer [[Dorothy Parker]], who attempted suicide several times, wrote a famous [[Black comedy|blackly comic]] poem contemplating and
 
−
ultimately rejecting suicide, entitled ''Résumé''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Dorothy_Parker#Sourced|title="Résumé"|accessdate=2007-01-21}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
=== Arguments for suicide ===
 
−
 
 
−
There are arguments in favor of allowing an individual to choose between life and suicide. This view sees suicide as a valid option.
 
−
 
 
−
This line rejects the thought that suicide is always or usually irrational, but is instead a solution to real problems; a line of last resort that can legitimately be taken when the alternative is considered worse. No being should be made to suffer unnecessarily, and suicide provides an escape from suffering.
 
−
 
 
−
From an actuarial standpoint, the probability of serious pain and suffering to people and their families and friends increases exponentially as one lives, even with full health and mental facilities, after age 85. It would seem, sans the teachings of our society to date, that it becomes increasingly sensible to take control and end one's life as this probability approaches some point, e.g. 95%. While this interferes with the "natural" process of life, why can't our actions be deemed "natural." Why is more, as in more years, the bottom line criteria? Why not define more as enjoying non-pain and suffering vs. increasing one's chance of experiencing them and compromising the totality of one's life?
 
−
 
 
−
==== [[Idealism]] ====
 
−
 
 
−
Some thinkers have had positive or at least neutral views on suicide. Some pessimist philosophers, such as [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] and [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], view suicide as the greatest comfort in life.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Herodotus]] wrote: "When life is so burdensome, death has become for man a sought after refuge." Schopenhauer affirmed: "They tell us that suicide is the greatest piece of cowardice... that suicide is wrong; when it is quite obvious that there is nothing in the world to which every man has a more unassailable title than to his own life and person."
 
−
 
 
−
[[Arthur Schopenhauer]] would be expected to take the subject seriously, due to his bleak view of life. His main work - [[The World as Will and Representation]] - constantly uses the act in its examples. He denied that suicide was immoral and saw it as one's right to take their life. In an interesting allegory, he compared ending one's life, when under great suffering, to waking up from sleep, when experiencing a terrible nightmare. However, most suicides were seen as an act of the [[Will (philosophy)|will]], as it takes place when one denies life's pains and is thus different from ascetic renunciation of the will, which denies life's pleasures. His ideas become confused when he talks about ascetic suicides; in one part, he claims that ascetic suicide can only occur through starvation, whilst, in another part, he talks of how ascetics have fed themselves to crocodiles and been buried alive. This seems somewhat contradictory - but it is clear that, all in all, [[Schopenhauer]] had a lot of sympathy for those who commit suicide.
 
−
 
 
−
In the late 18th century, [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe's]] ''Die Leiden des jungen Werthers'', ("[[The Sorrows of Young Werther]]"), the romantic story of a young man who kills himself because his love proves unattainable, was reputed to have caused a wave of suicides in [[Germany]].
 
−
 
 
−
==== [[Liberalism]] ====
 
−
 
 
−
[[Liberalism]] asserts that a person's life belongs only to him or her, and no other person has the right to force their own ideals that life must be lived. Rather, only the individual involved can make such decision, and whatever decision he or she does make, should be respected.
 
−
 
 
−
Philosopher and psychiatrist [[Thomas Szasz]] goes further, arguing that suicide is the most basic right of all. If freedom is self-ownership, ownership over one's own life and body, then the right to end that life is the most basic of all. If others can force you to live, you do not own yourself and belong to them.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Jean Amery|Jean Améry]], in his book ''On Suicide: a Discourse on Voluntary Death'' (originally published in German in 1976), provides a moving insight into the suicidal mind. He argues forcefully and almost romantically that suicide represents the ultimate freedom of humanity, attempting to justify the act with phrases such as "we only arrive at ourselves in a freely chosen death," lamenting the "ridiculously everyday life and its alienation." He killed himself in 1978.
 
−
 
 
−
Philosophical thinking in the 19th and 20th century has led, in some cases, beyond thinking in terms of pro-choice, to the point that suicide is no longer a last resort, or even something that one must justify, but something that one must justify not doing. Many forms of Existentialist thinking essentially begin with the premise that life is objectively meaningless and proceeds to the question of why one should "not just kill his or her self?." It then proceeds to answer this by suggesting the individual has the power to give personal meaning.
 
−
 
 
−
=== Neutral and Situational stands ===
 
−
 
 
−
====[[Utilitarianism]]====
 
−
 
 
−
[[Utilitarianism]] can be used as a justification or an argument against suicide. Although the death of a depressed person negates his or her sadness, the person's family and friends may grieve. The [[Church of Euthanasia]] says that people should kill themselves in order to reduce mankind's stress on the environment.
 
−
 
 
−
==== [[Nihilism]] ====
 
−
 
 
−
Nihilist thinkers reject this emphasis on the power of the individual to create meaning and acknowledge that all things are equally meaningless, including suicide.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Other Arguments ====
 
−
 
 
−
Those who support [[Right to die]] argue that suicide is acceptable under certain circumstances, such as incurable disease and old age. The idea is that although life is in general good, people who face irreversible suffering should not be forced to continue suffering.
 
−
 
 
−
== Suicide as a crime ==
 
−
In some jurisdictions, an act or failed act of suicide is considered to be a crime. Some places consider failure to be attempted murder, with the victim being oneself, and will prosecute such offenders for attempted murder.{{fact}}
 
−
 
 
−
More commonly, a surviving party member who assisted in the suicide attempt will face criminal charges.
 
−
 
 
−
In [[Brazil]], suicide is not a crime, but willfully instigating or assisting in its completion is. If the help is directed to a minor, the crime is viewed as a homicide.
 
−
 
 
−
In [[Italy]] and [[Canada]], instigating another to commit suicide is also a criminal offence.
 
−
 
 
−
Suicide has historically been treated as a criminal matter in many parts of the world. Ironically, the punishment for attempted suicide in some jurisdictions has been [[death penalty|death]].{{fact|date=February 2007}} Although a person who has successfully committed suicide might be thought to be beyond the reach of the law, there could still be legal consequences.
 
−
 
 
−
In ancient [[Athens]], for example, a person who had committed suicide (without the approval of the state) was denied the honors of a normal burial. The person would be buried alone, on the outskirts of the city, without a headstone or marker.<ref>[[Plato]]. ''Laws'', [http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/laws.9.ix.html Book IX]</ref> A criminal ordinance issued by [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] in 1670 was far more severe in its punishment: the dead person's body was drawn through the streets, face down, and then hung or thrown on a garbage heap. Additionally, all of the person's property was confiscated.<ref>[[Émile Durkheim|Durkheim, Émile]]  (1897). ''[[Suicide (book)|Suicide]]''. New York: The Free Press (reprint, 1997), 327. ISBN 0684836327.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Even in modern times, legal penalties for committing suicide have not been uncommon. Prior to 1961, for example, suicide in the [[United Kingdom]] resulted in forfeiture of estate.  The United Kingdom decriminalized suicide and attempted suicide in the [[Suicide Act 1961]]. Increasingly, the term ''commit suicide'' is being consciously avoided, as it implies that suicide is a crime by equating it with other acts that are ''committed'', such as [[murder]] or [[burglary]].
 
−
 
 
−
In the United States, suicide has never been punished as a crime nor penalized by property forfeiture or ignominious burial.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}  Historically, various states listed the act as a felony, but all were reluctant to enforce it. By 1963, six states still considered attempted suicide a crime (North and South Dakota, Washington, New Jersey, Nevada, and Oklahoma).  By the early 1990s only two [[United States|US]] states still listed suicide as a crime, and these have since removed that classification.  In some U.S. states, suicide is still considered an unwritten "[[common law]] crime," that is, a crime based on the law of old England as stated in [[Blackstone's Commentaries]]. (So held the Virginia Supreme Court in Wackwitz v. Roy in 1992.) As a common law crime, suicide can bar recovery for the family of the suicidal person in a lawsuit unless the suicidal person can be proven to have been "of unsound mind." That is, the suicide must be proven to have been an involuntary, not voluntary, act of the victim in order for the family to be awarded money damages by the court. This can occur when the family of the deceased sues the caregiver (perhaps a jail or hospital) for negligence in failing to provide appropriate care. (Article: "On Sound and Unsound Mind: The Role of Suicide in Tort and Insurance Litigation" http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/content/full/33/2/176.) See [[standard of care]], [[tort]], [[negligence]].
 
−
 
 
−
In many [[jurisdictions]] it is a [[crime]] to assist others, directly or indirectly, to take their own life, or, in some juristictions, to even encourage them to do so. Sometimes an exception applies for physician assisted suicide (PAS), under strict conditions; see [[Euthanasia]].
 
−
 
 
−
In the [[Australia]]n state of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], while suicide itself is no longer a crime, a survivor of a [[suicide pact]] can be charged with [[manslaughter]]. Also, it is a crime to counsel, [[incitement|incite]], or aid and abet another to attempt or commit suicide, and the law explicitly allows any person to use "such force as may reasonably be necessary" to prevent another from committing suicide.
 
−
 
 
−
In the [[Netherlands]], being present and giving moral support during someone's suicide is not a crime; neither is supplying general information on suicide techniques. However, it is a crime to participate in the preparation for or execution of a suicide, including supplying lethal means or instruction in their use. (Euthanasia
 
−
may be an exception. See [[Euthanasia in the Netherlands]].)
 
−
 
 
−
In many jurisdictions medical facilities are empowered or required to commit anyone whom they believe to be suicidal for evaluation and treatment.  See [[Code 5150]] for example.
 
  
 +
Suicide is in Hindu scripture called  Pranatyaga ( "Abandoning life force") and generally means intentionally ending one's own life through poisoning, drowning, burning, jumping, shooting, etc.
  
 +
Suicide has traditionally been condemned in Hindu scripture because, being an abrupt escape from life, it creates unseemly karma to face in the future. However, in cases of terminal disease or great disability, religious self-willed death through fasting - prayopavesa - is permitted. The person making such a decision declares it publicly, which allows for community regulation and distinguishes the act from suicide performed privately in traumatic emotional states of anguish and despair. Ancient lawgivers cite various stipulations: 1) inability to perform normal bodily purification; 2) death appears imminent or the condition is so bad that life's pleasures are nil; 3) the action must be done under community regulation ( Subramuniyaswami, 1992 )
  
 +
==Bibliography and References==
  
 +
*Brandt, R., "The Morality and Rationality of Suicide", in: A Handbook for the Study of Suicide, S. Perlin (ed.),Oxford University Press Oxford, 1975
 +
*Cicero, c. 2nd century B.C.E., De Finibus, trans. H. Rackham.
 +
*Coser, L., Masters of Sociological Thought, 1977 , pp.132-136 and 143-44.
 +
*d'Holbach, Baron , The System of Nature, or Laws of the Moral and Physical World, v. 1 (Robinson, trans.),  Burt Franklin, New York, 1970
 +
*Durkheim, E., , Le Suicide, Paris  1897 ; Durkheim on Suicide ( 1911 ) in: Coser ( 1977 ) and in Joines ( 1986 )
 +
*Durkheim, É., Suicide,  The Free Press New York (1897) , (reprint, 1997), ISBN 0684836327
 +
*Frey, R.G., "Suicide and Self-Inflicted Death", Philosophy, vol. 56, 1981, pp. 193-202
 +
*Haleem, M.A.S. Abdel, The Qur'an, Oxford University Press, 2004
 +
*Hesse, Hermann, Der Steppenwolf, Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 1961, p. 11
 +
*Joines, Robert A., Emile Durkheim: An Introduction to Four Major Works. Beverly Hills. CA: Sage Publications, Inc. 1986, pp. 82-114
 +
*John Paul II, Encyclical letter,  1995
 +
*Kupfer, Joseph, 1990, "Suicide: Its Nature and Moral Evaluation", Journal of Value Inquiry, 24, pp. 67-68
 +
*Lamotte, E. "Religious Suicide in Early Buddhism," Buddhist Studies Review, vol. 4, 1987,  pp. 105-126 (first published in French in 1965)
 +
*Nietzsche, Friedrich, Human, All Too Human, section  80, The University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1984, p. 60
 +
*Rakoff, Vivian M., “Nietzsche and the romantic construction of adolescence”, Adolescent Psychiatry, 1998
 +
*Stoff, D.M. and Mann, J.J., ( Eds. ), The Neurobiology of Suicide, Vol.  836, Annals of NY Academy of Sciences, New York, 1997
 +
*Tolhurst, W.E., "Suicide, Self-sacrifice, and Coercion", Southern Journal of Philosophy, vol. 21, 1983, pp. 109-121
 +
*Wiltshire, Martin G. (1983) "The 'Suicide' Problem in the Paali Canon," Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 6, pp. 124-140
 +
*Subramuniyaswami, Sivaya,  “Let's Talk About Suicide”, Himalayan Academy, December 1992
  
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== References ==
 
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<div class="references-small">
 
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<references/>
 
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</div>
 
  
 
== Further reading ==
 
== Further reading ==
Line 564: Line 271:
 
* Smith, R. M. Adolescent Suicide and Intervention in Perspective. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Council on Family Relations, Boston, MA, August, 1979. ED 184 017.
 
* Smith, R. M. Adolescent Suicide and Intervention in Perspective. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Council on Family Relations, Boston, MA, August, 1979. ED 184 017.
  
−
===Nonfiction books===
 
−
* Bongar, B. <cite>The Suicidal Patient: Clinical and Legal Standards of Care</cite>. Washington, D.C.: APA. 2002. ISBN 1-55798-761-0
 
−
*{{cite book | author=[[Kay Redfield Jamison|Jamison, Kay Redfield]]  | title=Night Falls Fast: Understanding Suicide | publisher=Vintage  | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0-375-70147-8}}
 
−
* Stone, Geo. ''Suicide and Attempted Suicide: Methods and Consequences''. New York: Carroll & Graf, 2001. ISBN 0-7867-0940-5
 
−
* [[Derek Humphry|Humphry, Derek]]. ''[[Final Exit|Final Exit: The Practicalities of Self-Deliverance and Assisted Suicide for the Dying]]''. Dell. 1997.
 
−
* Maguire, Maureen, ''Uncomfortably Numb. A Prison Requiem''. Luath Press 2001. ISBN 1-84282-001-X  (A factual documentation of suicide in prison)
 
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==

Revision as of 20:59, 31 July 2007


Suicide (from Latin sui caedere, to kill oneself) is the act of wilfully ending one's own life. It can also refer to the individual who has committed or attempted the act. Suicide is neither an illness nor a condition. Rather, it's a complex set of behaviors that exists on a continuum, from ideas to actions.


Types of suicidal behavior

Suicidal behavior: Some people engage in acts intended to bring death or acts unlikely to result in death but that indicate self-destructive or suicidal thoughts. These acts include overdosing, reckless driving or excessive drinking. This is called suicidal behavior.

Suicidal ideation

A common medical term for thoughts about suicide, which may be as detailed as a formulated plan, without the suicidal act itself. Although most people who undergo suicidal ideation do not commit suicide, some go on to make suicide attempts or take their own lives

The range of suicidal ideation varies greatly from fleeting to detailed planning, role playing and unsuccessful attempts, which may be deliberately constructed to fail or be discovered or may be fully intended to succeed but not actually do so.

Attempted suicide

Attempted suicide generally refers to an act that was intended to cause death but didn't.

Parasuicide

Not all seemingly self-destructive behavior is suicidal behavior. Acts that may resemble suicidal behavior but aren't intended to lead to death, such as deliberately injuring yourself, are known as parasuicide. Some people engage in this type of behavior as a way of soothing themselves. People who engage in self-injurious behavior, such as cutting, however, are at higher risk of suicide.

In some cases, people who engage in suicidal behavior or parasuicide kill themselves accidentally —they hadn't intended the act to progress to a lethal outcome. For instance, they make take an overdose and expect to be discovered in time to be rescued.

Completed suicide

Completed suicide means taking your own life. It's impossible to know absolutely why someone did this, or even if they intended to. In the case of an attempted suicide, the only way to understand your friend or loved one's intent is to talk about it. That, of course, isn't an option after completed suicide, although conversations before the act and notes left behind may provide clues.

Questions about the phenomenon: suicide vs. death by accident or by proxy

One, rather classic, definition of the situation leading to suicide reads :“….Suicide is not chosen; it happens when pain exceeds resources for coping with pain…….”


That said, it is clear nevertheless that suicide is far more enigmatic and disconcerting phenomenon. Because of others' inability to directly occupy the mental world of the suicidal, suicide appears to elude easy explanation.


Among the questions, we have been challenged for millenia, are: What makes a person's behavior suicidal? What motivates such behavior? Is suicide morally permissible, or even morally required in some extraordinary circumstances? Is suicidal behavior rational? How to try to minimize such a behaviour? In the following text, we shall present some philosophical, behavioural, medical, and sociolological notions about these questions.

Besides there are cases resulting in death that are either not suicide in legal terms or in technical terms.

Technical obstacles to the definition of siucide

While it is tempting to say that suicide is any self-caused death, this account is vulnerable to obvious counterexamples. An individual who knows the health risks of smoking or of skydiving, but willfully engages in these behaviors and dies as a result, could be said to be causally responsible for her own death but not to have committed suicide. Similarly, an individual who takes a swig of hydrochloric acid, believing it to be lemonade, and subsequently dies causes her own death but does not engage in suicidal behavior.

Legal obstacles to the definition od suicide

Sometimes, not only are there self-caused deaths that are not suicides, but there are behaviors that result in death and are arguably suicidal in which the agent is not the cause of her own death or is so only at one remove. This can occur when an individual arranges the circumstances for her death. A terminally ill patient who requests that another person inject her with a lethal dose of tranquilizers has, intuitively, committed suicide. Though she is not immediately causally responsible for her death, she appears morally responsible for her death, since she initiates a sequence of events which she intended to culminate in her death, a sequence which cannot be explained without reference to her beliefs and desires. (Such a case might also be an example of a voluntary euthanasia.)

Likewise, those who commit ‘suicide by cop,’ where an armed crime is committed in order to provoke police into shooting its perpetrator, are responsible for their own deaths despite not being the causes of their deaths. In these kinds of cases, such agents would not die, or would not be at an elevated risk for death, were it not for their initiating such causal sequences. (See Brandt 1975, Tolhurst 1983, Frey 1981, but for a possible objection see Kupfer 1990).

Philosophy of suicide

Undoubtedly, the challenge of simply fathoming suicide accounts for the vast array of attitudes toward suicide found in the history of Western civilization: bafflement, dismissal, heroic glorification, sympathy, anger, moral or religious condemnation. Suicide is now an object of multidisciplinary scientific study, with sociology, anthropology, psychology, and psychiatry each providing important insights into suicide. Particularly promising are the significant advances being made in our scientific understanding of the neurological basis of suicidal behavior (Stoff and Mann 1997) and the mental conditions associated with it. Nonetheless, certain questions about suicide seem to fall at least partially outside the domain of science, and indeed, suicide has been a focus of philosophical examination in the West since at least the time of Plato. Suicide has always aroused deep passions in humanity. Suicide is a threat whether religious, existential, political, or emotional. It has been represented as the ultimate irrationality and evil, pure selfishness, a dangerous precedent, madness, and pathology. Conceptions of suicide clearly are framed within and effected by the cultures they are born out of. Yet suicide isn’t merely a matter of navigating cultural norms, or the product of emergent social structures (though of course these play a role). There is a normative element to the question, there is a philosophy and an deontology of suicide.

Nearly all the great philosophers had positions on suicide. Kant made suicide a special example in his moral philosophy, and was troubled by the challenges it posed. Plato laid out specific instances where suicide was or was not deviant. Spinoza regarded the will to self-preservation as fundamental and key to value, and likewise suicide as true irrationality and wrong. Some philosophers have indeed killed themselves. The most famous philosopher suicide though was Seneca. Seneca had earlier argued for the reason as well as virtue of suicide, that is before Nero’s wrath descended upon him forcing him to take his own life. Yet Seneca turns the question on its head. Common discourse, and philosophical writings with it, regard the question as well suicide is right or wrong, what harm it does, etc. With clarity he writes “Living is not the good, but living well”. The question of death then should be the question of life. Life is justified not by nature as Spinoza would have it, or reason as Kant would have it, but by the living. “The dirtiest death is preferable to the daintiest slavery” (Seneca).

To make a sense of some of it, we start with three excerpts:


“….If the covenant which unites man to society be considered, it will be obvious that every contract is conditional, must be reciprocal; that is to say, supposes mutual advantages between the contracting parties. The citizen cannot be bound to his country, to his associates, but by the bonds of happiness. Are these bonds cut asunder? He is restored to liberty. Society, or those who represent it, do they use him with harshness, do they treat him with injustice, do they render his existence painful?… Chagrin, remorse, melancholy, despair, have they disfigured to him the spectacle of the universe? In short, for whatever cause it may be, if he is not able to support his evils, let him quit a world which from thenceforth is for him only a frightful desert….”(d'Holbach 1970, pp.136-137).


“……When a man's circumstances contain a preponderance of things in accordance with nature, it is appropriate for him to remain alive; when he possesses or sees in prospect a majority of the contrary things, it is appropriate for him to depart from life…. Even for the foolish, who are also miserable, it is appropriate for them to remain alive if they possess a predominance of those things which we pronounce to be in accordance with nature. …..”(Cicero, III, 60-61).


“……One may well ask why, aside from the demands of religion, it is more praiseworthy for a man grown old, who feels his powers decrease, to await his slow exhaustion and disintegration, rather than to put a term to his life with complete consciousness? In this case, suicide is quite natural, obvious, and should by rights awaken respect for the triumph of reason. This it did in those times when the leading Greek philosophers and the doughtiest Roman patriots used to die by suicide. Conversely, the compulsion to prolong life from day to day, anxiously consulting doctors and accepting the most painful, humiliating conditions, without the strength to come nearer the actual goal of one’s life: that is far less worthy of respect. Religions provide abundant excuses to escape the need to kill oneself: this is how they insinuate themselves into those who are in love with life……..”Nietzsche ( 1984, p. 60 ).


From this, a list --- althouhg not nearly complete, of a “basic” reasons to suicide --- emerges.

Reasons and causes for suicide

For these causes the following excerpts are trying to illuminate them:

“…..But I’m curious to see just how much a man can endure! And if I reach the limit of the endurable, well, then I can just open the door and leave…….” (Hesse, 1961, p.11)


“……When Durkheim wrote his great treatise on suicide in 1911 and identified anomic suicide, he emphasised that poverty and deprivation are less likely to cause self-murder than a debilitating disatisfaction with what is. A constant devaluing of the given in the present and a yearning for an ever more glowing future is a profoundly destabilizing force in individual lives…..” ( Rakoff, 1998 )

Lastly, largely thanks to the work of sociologists such as Durkheim ( 1987 ) and Laplace, suicide was increasingly viewed as a social ill reflecting widespread alienation and other attitudinal byproducts of modernity. In many European nations, the rise in suicide rates was thought to signal a cultural decline. The next two causes are typical:

  • Curiosity (e.g. The need to know what comes after life.)
  • Boredom (e.g. The dissatisfaction with life has resulted in more calculated and planned suicides)

In fact, in some cases, suicide may be honorable. Suicides that are clearly other-regarding, aiming at protecting the lives or well-being of others, or at political protest, may fall into this category (Kupfer 1990, pp. 73-74) Examples of this might include the grenade-jumping solider mentioned earlier, or the spy who takes his life in order not to be subjected to torture that will lead to his revealing vital military secrets.

  • To avoid shame or dishonour (e.g. Under the Bushido ideal, if a samurai failed to uphold his honour, he could regain it by performing seppuku.)
  • Suicide as a form of defiance and protest

Heroic suicide, for the greater good of others, is often celebrated. For instance, Mahatma Gandhi went on a hunger strike to prevent fighting between Hindus and Muslims, and, although he was stopped before dying, it appeared he would have willingly succumbed to starvation. This attracted attention to Gandhi's cause, and generated a great deal of respect for him as a spiritual leader. During the Cold War in Eastern Europe, the death of Jan Palach by self-immolation, following the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, brought a lot of international attention to the, obviously, illegal act against a state.

And finally, there are the religiously, nationalistic and/or politically motivated suicides.

  • Terrorism can also be a motive for suicide, especially when related to the following:
  • Religion (e.g., suicide bombings, Heaven's Gate)
  • Extreme nationalism (e.g., the Kamikaze, Selbstopfer, and Kaiten suicide weapons)

Risk factors of suicide

Regardless of what specifically motivates someone to attempt suicide or complete suicide, a number of medical, biological, psychological and social risk factors are often involved. Those factors can vary based on age, gender and ethnic group, and they can change over time. Some factors consistently increase a person's risk of suicide and attempted suicide. The factors that put people at higher risk include:


  • A prior suicide attempt(s)
  • Having a psychiatric disorder, such as depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia or personality disorders
  • Alcohol or substance abuse
  • A family history of mental disorders or substance abuse
  • A family history of suicide
  • Family violence, including physical or sexual abuse
  • Firearms in the home
  • A significant medical illness, such as cancer or chronic pain


Medical views of suicide

Modern medicine treats suicide as a mental health issue. Treatment, often including medication and psychotherapy, is directed at the underlying causes of suicidal thinking. Clinical depression is the most common treatable cause, with alcohol or drug abuse being the next major categories. Other psychiatric disorders associated with suicidal thinking include bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, Borderline personality disorder, Gender identity disorder and eating disorders. Suicidal thoughts provoked by crises will generally settle with time and counseling. Severe depression can continue throughout life even with treatment and repetitive suicide attempts or suicidal ideation can be the result.

Overwhelmingly, suicidal thoughts are considered a medical emergency. Medical professionals advise that people who have expressed plans to kill themselves be encouraged to seek medical attention immediately. This is especially important if the means (weapons, drugs, or other methods) are available, or if the patient has crafted a detailed plan for executing the suicide. Special consideration is given to trained personnel to look for suicidal signs in patients. Depressive people are considered a high-risk group for suicidal behavior. Suicide hotlines are widely available for people seeking help. However, the negative and often too clinical reception that many suicidal people receive after relating their feelings to health professionals (threats of institutionalization, simply increasing dosages of medication, the stigmatization of suicide as a topic of discussion, etc), often causes them to keep their suicidal thoughts to themselves.


Potential warning signs of suicide

You may notice possible indications that a friend or loved one is thinking about suicide. Here are some typical warning signs:

  • Talking about suicide, including making such statements as "I'm going to kill myself," "I wish I were dead," or "I wish I hadn't been born"
  • Withdrawing from social contact and having an increased desire to be left alone
  • Wide mood swings, such as being emotionally high one day but deeply discouraged the next
  • Preoccupation with death and dying or violence
  • Changes in routine, including eating or sleeping patterns
  • Personality changes, such as becoming very outgoing after being shy
  • Risky or self-destructive behavior, such as drug use or unsafe driving
  • Giving away belongings or getting affairs in order
  • Saying goodbye to people as if they won't be seen again

Possible treatment

Recently, an unexpected and very positive result in treating the depression as a main cause of suicidal atttempts, were published in 2007 issue of American Journal of Psychiatry ( AJP ). Patients with depression treated in two independent health care systems experienced overall drops in suicide attempts between the month prior to starting treatment with antidepressant medications and the month after treatment began.

The findings are based on records from a large prepaid health plan and from Veterans Health Administration ( VHA ) , Washington state and Idaho databases, reflecting the clinical care of more than 500, 000 patients.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) were the most commonly prescribed antidepressants, and the rate of suicide attempts for patients taking SSRIs fell from 221 per 100, 000 patients before treatment, to 123 per 100,000 after treatment began. The rate also fell after the beginning of treatment with medications known as non-serotonergic and tricyclic antidepressants.

( AJP Editor in Chief, Robert Freedman M. D., stated “….These studies of treatment in actual clinical practice find a decrease in suicide attempts after treatment, regardless of whether the treatment is psychotherapy or drug therapy. Patients and their doctors are concerned because of the FDA’s black-box warning that antidepressants can cause suicide attempts…. The studies in this issue provide more evidence that this side effect is rare, compared to the overall decrease in suicide attempts that occurs when treatment is initiated. Furthermore, suicide attempts in the first month of treatment occur regardless of whether the treatment is psychotherapy or drug therapy, which suggests that these attempts are part of the natural evolution of symptoms in depression itself…….”)

Religious views of suicide

Buddhism

For Buddhists, since the first precept is to refrain from the destruction of life, including oneself, suicide should be clearly considered a negative form of action. Despite this view, an ancient Asian ideology similar to seppuku (hara-kiri) continues to influence oppressed Buddhists to choose the act of honor suicide. Many questions arise from the ambiguity in defining suicide. From a Buddhist perspective these include questions such as whether nirvana is a kind of suicide. Thus, suicide is justified in the persons of the Noble Ones who have already cut off desire and by so doing neutralised their actions by making them incapable of producing further fruit. From the point of view of early Buddhism, suicide is a normal matter in the case of the Noble Ones who, having completed their work, sever their last link with the world and voluntarily pass into Nirvaa.na, thus definitively escaping from the world of rebirths ( Lamotte, 1965:106f).The significant distinction then, is that the Arhat ( Noble One ) acts without desire whereas the unenlightened person does not.

Judaism

Judaism has traditionally, in light of its great emphasis on the sanctity of life, viewed suicide as one of the most serious of sins. Suicide has always been forbidden by Jewish law in all cases. It is not seen as an acceptable alternative even if one is being forced to commit certain cardinal sins for which one must give up one's life rather than sin. The views on suicide have shifted lately, however.

In the past, the bodies of Jewish people who committed suicide traditionally were buried on the outskirts of a Jewish cemetery, but that is no longer necessarily the case either. Raymond Perlman of Sinai Mortuary in Phoenix says that suicide deaths today usually are dealt with the same as others.

"….To put (those bodies) in a corner or on the side is really additional punishment for the survivors…." Perlman says, "………..So we would just classify (the suicide) as another death. Unfortunately, a suicide death in most cases punishes the living………….."

Jewish teachings suggest that those who commit suicide would not face God's punishment, Sherwin says. "….Our teachings tell us that when we are in pain, God cries with us…." Sherwin says…."…….If God doesn't judge and condemn, then how can we?........"


Christianity

Early Christianity was attracted to death as martyrdom and something they felt called upon by their faith to permit. Even the death of Jesus can be considered a kind of suicide, by some, such as Tertullian.

Of the seven or so suicides reported in Scripture, most familiar are Saul, Samson, and Judas. Saul apparently committed suicide to avoid dishonor and suffering at the hands of the Philistines. He is rewarded by the Israelites with a war hero's burial, there being no apparent disapproval of his suicide (1 Samuel 31:1-6). And while there is no hero's burial for Judas Iscariot (Matthew 27:5-7), Scripture is once more silent on the morality of this suicide of remorse.

The suicide of Samson has posed a greater problem for Christian theologians. Both Saint Augustine and Saint Thomas Aquinas wrestled with the case and concluded that Samson's suicide was justified as an act of obedience to a direct command of God.

Objections to suicide have a long history in the church. But the idea that suicide is an unforgivable sin is less easily traced. Among the church fathers, Saint Augustine was the most prominent and influential opponent of suicide.

The most notable pro-suicide group was the Donatists, who believed that by killing themselves they could attain martyrdom and go to heaven. They jumped off cliffs, burned themselves in large numbers, and stopped travellers, either offering to pay them or threatening them with death to encourage them to kill the supposed Donatist martyr.[citation needed] They were eventually declared heretics.

Modern Catholicism

“……….Suicide is always as morally objectionable as murder. The Church's tradition has always rejected it as a gravely evil choice. Even though a certain psychological, cultural and social conditioning may induce a person to carry out an action which so radically contradicts the innate inclination to life, thus lessening or removing subjective responsibility, suicide, when viewed objectively, is a gravely immoral act. In fact, it involves the rejection of love of self and the renunciation of the obligation of justice and charity towards one's neighbour, towards the communities to which one belongs, and towards society as a whole. In its deepest reality, suicide represents a rejection of God's absolute sovereignty over life and death, as proclaimed in the prayer of the ancient sage of Israel: 'You have power over life and death; you lead men down to the gates of Hades and back again'(Wis 16:13; cf. Tob 13:2)...……. ”( John Paul II, 1995 )

Some of the Anglicans’ objections

The 1996 Statement by the House of Bishops of the Anglican Church in America says:

“…..The Episcopal Diocese of Newark has entered a growing national debate by proposing quite irresponsibly:

  • That self-killing (suicide) is a "moral choice" for the terminally ill, and for those living in persistent and/or progressive pain (i.e., with severely reduced "quality of life");
  • because "nowhere in the Bible does it say that there is a value to suffering simply for the sake of suffering;"
  • and that therefore we need to "redefine" what we mean by "life" (assumedly to provide a rationale for destroying what now should be held to have no value). …….”, which, on the face of the argument, are similar to the ambiguities in the development of, both, Judaism and Buddhism that we mentioned above.

Suicide martyrs-cum-bombers in Islam

Islam, like other Abrahamic religions, views suicide as sinful and highly detrimental to one's spiritual journey. For those who formerly believed, but ultimately rejected belief in God, the result seems unambiguously negative. A verse in the fourth chapter of the Quran, An-Nisaa (The Women) instructs; "….And do not kill yourselves, surely Allah is most Merciful to you….." (4:29)


The prohibition of suicide has also been recorded in authentic statements of hadith. For example; "……He who commits suicide by throttling shall keep on throttling himself in the Hell-fire, and he who commits suicide by stabbing himself, he shall keep stabbing himself in the Hell-fire….."

So, what about the Moslems of all ages and genders who have become the suicidal martyr bombers, killing thousands of civilians in the process ( here we do not specifically mention the 9/11 incident in New York; we consider it just one of many).


In his 1996 Fatwa declaring war on the US, bin Laden quotes a hadith passage ( i.e. Muhammad’s words and deeds outside of the Quran) that has the prophet describing heaven for the martyrs fallen in a holy war.

The first moment blood gushes, they are guaranteed Islamic heaven. They receive crowns, jewels, and seventy-two dark-eyed houris or beautiful maidens, for each martyr. Similar Fatwa came later from Iranian Islamic leader Khamenei.


This hadith source that bin Laden cites puts together different Quranic passages describing Islamic heaven, complete with beautiful virgins (Suras 44:51-56; 52:17-29; 55:46-78), with those describing the immediate reward of heaven for jihadist martyrs (Suras 61:10-12; 4:74; 9:111).


Where does this doctrine of suicide-cum-martyrdom in a battle come from? The answer to the question is that, both, Khamenei and bin Laden are not the deepest sources of inspiration for martyrdom bombers. They get their inspiration from the Quran itself. Islam, at its core, is not the religion of peace; violence sits in the origins of Islam.

Short explanation of a most cited Sura ( 61:10 -12 )

In this passage, the Arabic word "jihad" (root is j-h-d) is the means or currency to trade in this life for the life to come.


61:10: “……… You who believe, shall I show you a bargain that will save you from painful punishment? …….11…. Have faith in God and His Messenger and struggle [j-h-d] for His cause with your possessions and your persons—that is better for you, if only you knew—…….12… and He will forgive your sins, admit you into Gardens graced with flowing streams, into pleasant dwellings in the Gardens of Eternity. That is the supreme triumph…….” (Haleem, 2004).


To sum up the essence of Sura 61:10-12 --- Suras 4:74, and 9:111 are suggesting the same bargain: life now for the life after --- the doctrine of Islamic martyrdom has been placed in economic terms in the historical context of aggressive warfare.

A Muslim sells his life through martyrdom in a holy war in a bargain with Allah. In return, the believer gets the guaranteed reward of Islamic heaven. For the deity’s part, he uses the surrender to spread his true religion around the world. Allah will establish Islam and get the ultimate victory.


It could be assumed that many of the Muslim suicidal martyrs may be socially and economically very hard up and cognitively and, perhaps even, mentally troubled, but surely some of them act with level heads. But they all follow a simple, rational equation:

Total surrender ( of their life) = martyrdom in a holy war = Islamic heaven.


Hinduism

Suicide is in Hindu scripture called Pranatyaga ( "Abandoning life force") and generally means intentionally ending one's own life through poisoning, drowning, burning, jumping, shooting, etc.

Suicide has traditionally been condemned in Hindu scripture because, being an abrupt escape from life, it creates unseemly karma to face in the future. However, in cases of terminal disease or great disability, religious self-willed death through fasting - prayopavesa - is permitted. The person making such a decision declares it publicly, which allows for community regulation and distinguishes the act from suicide performed privately in traumatic emotional states of anguish and despair. Ancient lawgivers cite various stipulations: 1) inability to perform normal bodily purification; 2) death appears imminent or the condition is so bad that life's pleasures are nil; 3) the action must be done under community regulation ( Subramuniyaswami, 1992 )

Bibliography and References

  • Brandt, R., "The Morality and Rationality of Suicide", in: A Handbook for the Study of Suicide, S. Perlin (ed.),Oxford University Press Oxford, 1975
  • Cicero, c. 2nd century B.C.E., De Finibus, trans. H. Rackham.
  • Coser, L., Masters of Sociological Thought, 1977 , pp.132-136 and 143-44.
  • d'Holbach, Baron , The System of Nature, or Laws of the Moral and Physical World, v. 1 (Robinson, trans.), Burt Franklin, New York, 1970
  • Durkheim, E., , Le Suicide, Paris 1897 ; Durkheim on Suicide ( 1911 ) in: Coser ( 1977 ) and in Joines ( 1986 )
  • Durkheim, É., Suicide, The Free Press New York (1897) , (reprint, 1997), ISBN 0684836327
  • Frey, R.G., "Suicide and Self-Inflicted Death", Philosophy, vol. 56, 1981, pp. 193-202
  • Haleem, M.A.S. Abdel, The Qur'an, Oxford University Press, 2004
  • Hesse, Hermann, Der Steppenwolf, Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 1961, p. 11
  • Joines, Robert A., Emile Durkheim: An Introduction to Four Major Works. Beverly Hills. CA: Sage Publications, Inc. 1986, pp. 82-114
  • John Paul II, Encyclical letter, 1995
  • Kupfer, Joseph, 1990, "Suicide: Its Nature and Moral Evaluation", Journal of Value Inquiry, 24, pp. 67-68
  • Lamotte, E. "Religious Suicide in Early Buddhism," Buddhist Studies Review, vol. 4, 1987, pp. 105-126 (first published in French in 1965)
  • Nietzsche, Friedrich, Human, All Too Human, section 80, The University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1984, p. 60
  • Rakoff, Vivian M., “Nietzsche and the romantic construction of adolescence”, Adolescent Psychiatry, 1998
  • Stoff, D.M. and Mann, J.J., ( Eds. ), The Neurobiology of Suicide, Vol. 836, Annals of NY Academy of Sciences, New York, 1997
  • Tolhurst, W.E., "Suicide, Self-sacrifice, and Coercion", Southern Journal of Philosophy, vol. 21, 1983, pp. 109-121
  • Wiltshire, Martin G. (1983) "The 'Suicide' Problem in the Paali Canon," Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 6, pp. 124-140
  • Subramuniyaswami, Sivaya, “Let's Talk About Suicide”, Himalayan Academy, December 1992


Further reading

Documents and periodicals

  • Frederick, C. J. Trends in Mental Health: Self-destructive Behavior Among Younger Age Groups. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse. 1976. ED 132 782.
  • Lipsitz, J. S., Making It the Hard Way: Adolescents in the 1980s. Testimony presented to the Crisis Intervention Task Force of the House Select Committee on Children, Youth, and Families. 1983. ED 248 002.
  • McBrien, R. J. "Are You Thinking of Killing Yourself? Confronting Suicidal Thoughts." SCHOOL COUNSELOR 31 (1983): 75–82.
  • Ray, L. Y. "Adolescent Suicide." Personnel and Guidance Journal 62 (1983): 131–35.
  • Rosenkrantz, A. L. "A Note on Adolescent Suicide: Incidence, Dynamics and Some Suggestions for Treatment." ADOLESCENCE 13 (l978): 209–14.
  • Suicide Among School Age Youth. Albany, NY: The State Education Department of the University of the State of New York, 1984. ED 253 819.
  • Suicide and Attempted Suicide in Young People. Report on a Conference. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1974. ED 162 204.
  • Teenagers in Crisis: Issues and Programs. Hearing Before the Select Committee on Children, Youth, and Families. House of Representatives Ninety-eighth Congress, First Session. Washington, DC: Congress of the U. S., October, 1983. ED 248 445.
  • Smith, R. M. Adolescent Suicide and Intervention in Perspective. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Council on Family Relations, Boston, MA, August, 1979. ED 184 017.


External links

Support groups

Support groups for survivors

Suicide prevention

Other links



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