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| − | '''Dualism'' the view that two fundamental concepts exist, which often oppose each other, such as [[good and evil]], light and dark, or male and female. The word's origin is the [[Latin]] ''dualis'', meaning "two" (as an adjective). | + | The term 'dualism' can be used for any theory according to which two entities, properties or types of facts are given equal status - that is, neither is taken as completely reducible or explicable in terms of the other. In contemporary philosophy, it refers to a certain view in the [[philosophy of mind]]. According to this view, whose clearest proponent is [[Descartes]], mental entities or properties are parts of the universe which are just as fundamental as physical entities or properties. Descartes accepted a form of dualism often called ''substance dualism'', according to which the mind is a special sort of substance, one which could, in principle continue to exist even if all physical substances (e.g. particles) were destroyed. In the past century, substance dualism has enjoyed relatively little popularity, but ''property dualism'' has established a substantial following. According to property dualism, there may be no special mental entities that are capable of existing independently of all physical things, but some entities have certain mental properties (e.g. consciousness) that cannot be reduced to their physical properties (e.g. size and shape). |
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| − | ==Moral dualism==
| + | This article will survey the major dualist positions, and consider some of the main arguments for and against dualism. |
| − | Moral dualism is the belief of the coexistence (in eastern and naturalistic religions) or conflict (in western religions) between the "benevolent" and the "malignant". Most religious systems have some form of moral dualism - in western religions, for instance, a conflict between [[good and evil]].
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| − | Like ditheism/bitheism (see below), moral dualism does not imply the absence of [[monist]] or [[monotheistic]] principles. Moral dualism simply implies that there are two moral opposites at work, independent of any interpretation of what might be "moral" and - unlike ditheism/bitheism - independent of how these may be represented.
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| − | ==Ditheism/Bitheism== | + | ==Descartes' Arguments for Dualism== |
| − | In [[theology]], 'dualism' may also refer to 'bitheism', 'duotheism' or 'ditheism'. Although ditheism/bitheism imply moral dualism, they are not equivalent: ditheism/bitheism implies (at least) two gods, while moral dualism does not imply any ''-theism'' ([[god (word)|theos = god]]) whatsoever.
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| − | Both 'bitheism' and 'ditheism' imply a belief in two equally powerful gods with complementary properties. However, while bitheism implies harmony, ditheism implies rivality and opposition, such as between Good and Evil. For example, a ditheistic system would be one in which one god is creative, the other is destructive (cf. [[theodicy]]). In a bitheistic system, one god could be male and the other female (cf. [[duotheism]]). However, bitheistic and ditheistic principles are not always so easily contrastable, for instance in a system where one god is the representative of summer and drought and the other of winter and rain/fertility. (cf. the mythology of [[Persephone]])
| + | ===The Conceivability Argument=== |
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| − | The 'di-'/'bi-' ('two') prefix in 'ditheism' and 'bitheism' does not imply that such a religious system cannot also be [[monism|monist]]. [[Zurvanism]] (Zurvanite Zoroastrianism), [[Manichaeism]] and [[Mandaeanism]], all three of which are representative of dualistic philosophies, are also monist religions since each has a supreme and transcendental First Principle from which the two equal-but-opposite entities then emanate. This is also true for the lesser-known Christian [[Gnosticism|gnostic]] religions, such as [[Bogomils]], [[Cathar]]ism, etc. These may then be contrasted with [[Marcionism]], which held that the Old and New Testaments were the work of two opposing gods with neither having a superior instance (both were First Principles, but of different religions). More complex forms of monist dualism also exist, for instance in [[Hermeticism]], where ''[[The All#Nous|Nous]]'' "thought" - that is described to have created man - brings forth both good and evil, depending on whether it receives input from God or from the demons. | + | ===The Divisibility Argument=== |
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| − | ===In Eastern mysticism=== | + | ==Objections to Dualism== |
| − | [[Image:Yin yang.svg|right|100px|thumb|The [[Taijitu]] symbolizes the duality in nature and all things in the Taoist religion.]]
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| − | Alternatively, ''dualism'' can mean the tendency of humans to perceive and understand the world as being divided into two overarching [[categorization|categories]]. In this sense, it is dualistic when one perceives a tree as a thing separate from everything surrounding it, or when one perceives a "self" that is distinct from the rest of the world. In [[mysticism|mystic]] traditions such as [[Zen]], a key to enlightenment is "overcoming" this sort of dualism, without merely substituting it with [[monism]] or [[Pluralism (metaphysics)|pluralism]].
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| − | The opposition and combination of the universe's two basic principles of [[Yin Yang|Yin and Yang]] is a large part of [[Taoism|Taoist]] religion. Some of the common associations with Yang and Yin, respectively, are: male and female, [[light]] and [[darkness|dark]], active and passive, motion and stillness. Although, these interpretations are just the common concepts which are some aspects derived from the greater concepts of Yin and Yang. The Tai-Chi in actuality has very little to do with Western dualism, instead it represents the Eastern dualism philosophy of balance, where two opposites co-exist in harmony and are able to transmute into each other.
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| − | The complementary aspects of [[masculinity]] and [[femininity]] are revered by certain [[Neo-pagan]] religions.
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| − | ==Mind/Matter and Mind/Body dualism==
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| − | ===In philosophy of mind===
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| − | {{main|Dualism (philosophy of mind)}}
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| − | In [[philosophy of mind]], dualism is any of a narrow variety of views about the relationship between mind and matter, which claims that mind and matter are two ontologically separate categories. In particular, mind-body dualism claims that neither the mind nor matter can be reduced to each other in any way, and thus is opposed to [[materialism]] in general, and [[reductive materialism]] in particular. Mind-body dualism can exist as [[substance dualism]] which claims that the mind and the body are composed of a distinct substance, and as [[property dualism]] which claims that there may not be a distinction in substance, but that mental and physical properties are still categorically distinct, and not reducible to each other. This type of dualism is sometimes referred to as "''mind and body''" and stands in contrast to philosophical [[monism]], which views mind and matter as being ultimately the same kind of thing. See also [[Cartesian dualism]], [[substance dualism]], [[epiphenomenalism]].
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| − | The belief in possessing both a body and a spirit as two separate entities was first documented in approximately 1000 B.C.E. by [[Zoroastrianism]], and has become a very common view in the present day.
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| − | ===In Samkhya philosophy===
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| − | Correctly distinguishing between Self (Spirit/Consciousness [[Purusha]]) and Matter/Nature ([[Prakriti]]) is of central importance to [[Samkhya]] Philosophy. Samkhya Philosophy elaborates a fundamental dualism between such aware Selves and all the phenomena that is presented to such Selves by Matter/Nature. Such phenomena of Matter/Nature includes reflections of the intellect, the faculty that makes things personal (the I-Maker/Ahamkara), the instinctual mind (manas), the capacities to perceive sense data, the capacities to act, the principles of the elements of sense perception, and the gross elements. These arise when Prakriti is in the presence of a Purusha, and they become enmeshed and entangled when there is mis-identification between Prakriti and Purusha. False confusion between the Self and what is not the Self is considered the fundamental ignorance that perpetuates bondage in this world. Liberation is sought by becoming aware of such distinctions on a very deep level of personal knowledge, so that one may eventually use the great faculty of the mind — intellectual reflection (Buddhi/Mahat) — without mistakenly identifying it with the Purusha, and then the effects of such entanglement will unravel and one will no longer be bound by incarnations or confused by Prakriti.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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| − | {{Expert-subject|philosophy}}
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| − | ===In Vedanta philosophy===
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| − | The Vedanta philosophy is divided into [[dvaita]] (dualistic) and [[advaita]] (non-dualistic). Neither propose dualism in mind and matter. While the dvaita philosophy distinguishes between [[atman]] and [[brahman]], the advaita philosophy looks at everything as [[Brahman]].
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| − | ===In Buddhist philosophy===
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| − | During the classical era of [[Buddhist philosophy|Buddhist philosophy in India]], philosophers such as [[Dharmakirti]] argue for a dualism between states of consciousness and [[Buddhist atomism|Buddhist atoms]] (Buddhist atoms are merely the basic building blocks that make up reality), according to "the standard interpretation" of Dharmakirti's [[Buddhist metaphysics]].<ref>See Georges B.J. Dreyfus, ''Recognizing Reality'', SUNY Press, for more information.</ref> Typically, in [[Western philosophy]], dualism is considered to be a dualism between mind (nonphysical) and brain (physical), which ultimately involves mind interacting with pieces of tissue in the brain, and therefore, also interacting, in some sense, with the micro-particles (basic building blocks) that make up the brain tissue. Buddhist dualism, in Dharmakirti’s sense, is different in that it is a dualism between not the mind and brain which is made of particles, but rather, between states of consciousness (nonphysical) and basic building blocks (according to the Buddhist atomism of Dharmakirti, Buddhist atoms are also nonphysical: they are unstructured points of energy). Like so many Buddhists from 600-1000 C.E., Dharmakirti’s philosophy involved [[mereological nihilism]], meaning that other than states of consciousness, the only things that exist are momentary quantum particles, much like the particles of [[quantum physics]] ([[quarks]], [[electrons]], etc.).
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| − | === Soul dualism ===
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| − | {{Main|Soul dualism}}
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| − | In some cultures, people (or also other beings) are believed to have two (or more) kinds of [[soul]]. In several cases, one of these souls is associated with body functions (and is sometimes thought to disappear after death), and the other one is able to leave the body (e.g. a [[Shamanism|shaman]]'s ''free-soul'' may be held to be able to undertake a spirit journey). The plethora of soul types may be even more complex.
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| − | ==In philosophy of science==
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| − | In [[philosophy of science]], ''dualism'' often refers to the dichotomy between the "subject" (the observer) and the "object" (the observed). Some critics of Western science see this kind of dualism as a fatal flaw in science. In part, this has something to do with potentially complicated interactions between the subject and the object, of the sort discussed in the [[social construction]] literature.
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| − | ==In contemporary feminist theory==
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| − | A theory relating to dualism and a contemporary feminist world view is presented by [[Susan Bordo]]. Bordo contends that dualism has shaped Western culture since the time of [[Plato]], through [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and [[Descartes]], up to the present day.
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| − | All three of these philosophers provide instructions, rules or models as to how to gain control over the body, with the ultimate aim of learning to live without it. The mind is superior to the body, and strength comes from disregarding the body's existence to reach an elevated spiritual level.
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| − | Bordo believes that the influx of various patterns of disordered eating, particularly the overwhelming rise in [[anorexia nervosa]] and [[bulimia nervosa]], is the most telling and compelling argument that dualism is central to modern thinking. Furthermore, Western dualism is an adulterated form of historical philosophical dualism, an artificial mode of hegmonic power regulations. To cognitively and practically adopt the mode of Western dualisms is often a dangerous and oppressive way of looking at the world. For example, those who are [[anorexic]] seek to gain ultimate control, and depriving oneself of food makes one a master of one's own body, which creates a sense of purity and perfection. Again, Bordo contends that this stems from dualism, the mythological separation of the mind and body.
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| − | Ecofeminist philosopher [[Val Plumwood]] argues in ''Feminism and the Mastery of Nature'' that a logical thought process inherent in the dualistic relationship is necessary to justify exploitation and oppression of the other. The formation process of these ideologies is apparent within the five characteristics of dualisms. They are:
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| − | (1) Backgrounding—The master denies the essentialness of and dependency on the other.
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| − | (2) Radical Exclusion/ Hyperseparation—All differences between the groups are made to have positive and negative connotations. Continuities between the master and the other are denied. (3) Incorporation—The master creates the norm, and the other is seen as substandard. The other cannot be independently identified, but is dependent on the master for its specification. (4) Instrumentalism—The other is objectified and made an instrument or resource to the master. The other must set aside its own welfare to serve the master.
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| − | (5) Homogenization/Stereotyping—This is necessary within each of the two groups to reinforce and naturalize the differences between the groups.
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| − | ==In recent religious and philosophical movements==
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| − | In recent years, after European Imperialism, the distinction between "eastern" and "western" philosophy has been less significant than in previous times. In the wake of these changes new religious and philosophical movements have drawn freely upon many of the world's religions to attract new initiates. Dualism is often cited within these groups, along with ideas of [[oneness (concept)|oneness]], [[:Category:Holism|wholeness]] and [[theory of multiple intelligences|theories of multiple intelligences]].
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| − | In the [[Emin Society]] (printed in their archives) Dualism is presented as the Law of Two, which is said to have [[Octave|seven levels]]:
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| − | * First level: Apparent Opposites
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| − | * Second level: The apparent opposites are actually two ends of the same bar (or the North-South [[vector (spatial)|vector]] is split by the East-West vector) (or the law of things adjacent)
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| − | * Third level: [[Pitching]] and [[Yaw]]ing, (or [[Basque bargaining]])
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| − | * Fourth level: [[Balance]] and [[Motion (physics)|Movement]]
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| − | * Fifth level: [[Solution|Solve]] and [[Coagulation|Coagulate]]
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| − | * Sixth level: Over and Under [[Compensation]]
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| − | * Seventh level: Apparent movement between two poles (or [[heat|hot and cold]])
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| − | == See also ==
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| − | {|width=100%
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| − | * [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)]]
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| − | * [[Advaita]]
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| − | * [[Dialectic]]
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| − | * [[Duality (song)]]
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| − | * [[Didache#The Two Ways|Didache – The Two Ways]]
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| − | * [[False dichotomy]]
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| − | * [[Manicheism]] (moral dualism)
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| − | |width=50%|
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| − | * [[Monism]]
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| − | * [[Nondualism]]
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| − | * [[Pluralism (metaphysics)]]
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| − | * [[Reductionism]]
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| − | * [[Rhizome (philosophy)]]
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| − | |}
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| − | ==Notes==
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| − | <references/>
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| − | == External links ==
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| − | * [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-05 ''Dictionary of the History of ideas'':] Dualism in Philosophy and Religion
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| − | * [http://www.cogwriter.com/two.htm Binitarian View: One God, Two Beings from Before the Beginning] Discusses the biblical and historical belief of the nature of God
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| − | * [http://www.renneslechateaubooks.info/languedocdualism/index.htm Books on (Religious) Dualism] Recommendations and Reviews
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| − | * [http://www.kolahstudio.com/Underground/?p=153 A very good gallery of images about Dualiti and twins symbols from the book Twins and doubles]
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| | [[Category:Dualism| ]] | | [[Category:Dualism| ]] |
| | [[Category:Philosophy]] | | [[Category:Philosophy]] |
| − | [[Category:Philosophy articles needing attention]]
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| | {{Credit|136069738}} | | {{Credit|136069738}} |
