Difference between revisions of "Marcus Aurelius" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Marcus aurelius bust.jpg|thumb|right|250px| Marcus Aurelius]]
 
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{{Antonine dynasty}}
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'''Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus''' (April 26,121 – March 17, 180) was [[Roman Emperor]] from 161 c.e. until his death in 180 C.E...  He was the only Roman emperor who was truly devoted to the study and practice of philosphy.  While Marcus was young the [[Emperor Hadrian]] arranged his adoption by [[Antoninus Pius]], so that he would be in the direct line of succession.  After becoming Emperor, Marcus spent most of his reign in a protracted military campaign against the [[Germanic tribes]] to the north.  During this campaign he wrote a journal, ''Reflections'', which illustrated how he practiced [[Stoicism]] in his daily life.  Marcus was a wise ruler who organized his administration well and  defended the Roman Empire against numerous threats on its borders. He is considered the last of the Five Good Emperors;  the [[decline of the Roman Empire]] is thought to have begun during the reign of his son [[Commodus]].  
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'''Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus''' ([[April 26]] [[121]] – [[March 17]] [[180]]) was [[Roman Emperor]] from [[161]] to his death. He was born '''Marcus Annius Catilius Severus''', and at marriage took the name '''Marcus Annius Verus'''.  When he was named Emperor, he was given the name '''Marcus Aurelius Antoninus'''. He was the last of the [[Five Good Emperors]].
 
  
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==Life==
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''[[Historia Augusta]]'' identifies him in its heading as Marcus Antoninus Philosophus, "Marcus Antoninus the Philosopher." Toward the end of the work, the following is reported about him, "''sententia Platonis semper in ore illius fuit, florere civitates si aut philosophi imperarent aut imperantes philosopharentur''" (27.7), "Plato's judgment was always on his lips, that states flourished if philosophers ruled or rulers were philosophers."
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===Adoption by Antoninus===
 
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He was [[Antoninus Pius]]' nephew and the son of [[Hadrian]]'s brother-in-law. Therefore, on the death of Hadrian's first adopted son [[Lucius Aelius|Aelius Verus]], Hadrian made it a precondition of making Antoninus his successor that Antoninus would adopt [[Marcus Aurelius|Marcus]] (then called Marcus Annius Verus) and [[Lucius Verus]] (Aelius Verus' son), and arrange for them to be next in the line.  
 
  
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This Antoninus did, adopting and designating them as his successors on [[February 25]] [[138]], when Marcus was only seventeen years of age.
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== Life ==
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=== Early Life ===
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He was born Marcus Annius Catilius Severus on April 26, 121 C.E., to an aristocratic family of Spanish descent.  His grandfather was elected consul three times, and served the Roman Emperor Hadrian as a city prefect.  As a youth, Marcus was a serious student and received public honors at an early age.  The Emperor Hadrian took an interest in Marcus as a possible future successor, and he required Antoninus Pius, who succeeded him as Emperor, to adopt young Marcus, along with the son of another candidate who had predeceased Hadrian.  Marcus was seventeen, and [[Verus|L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus (Verus)]] was eight.  From then on, Marcus was known as Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus.
  
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==Roman emperor==
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The reign of Antoninus Pius was long and relatively peaceful; disturbances on the fringes of the [[Roman Empire]] were quickly resolved by the provincial legates. Antoninus Pius never left Italy and never exposed Marcus or Verus to military life.  Marcus Aurelius rose steadily through Roman political ranks.  He was a [[Consul]] in 140 and 145, received the ''tribunicia potestas'' in 147, and served as a magistrate and priest.  He continued his studies, and was well acquainted with [[Fronto]] (c. 95- c. 160), the distinguished rhetorician and orator, and with other thinkers such as the Athenian [[Herodes Atticus]], and [[Aelius Aristides]]. The writings of [[Epictetus]] impressed him deeply and he became a firm Stoic.
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[[Image:Marek Aureliusz Kapitol.jpg|thumb|left|Marcus Aurelius sculpture on [[Capitoline Hill]].]]
 
  
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===Joint emperorship===
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=== Marriage ===  
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Aurelius married Faustina the Younger , daughter of Emperor Hadrian, in 145. During their 30-year marriage Faustina bore thirteen children, most notably, his son Commodus who would later become Emperor, and his daughter Lucilla, who was first wed to Lucius Verus to solidify his alliance with Marcus Aurelius, and after Verus’s death to Claudius Pompeianus Quintianus of Antioch, an important associate of her father’s.  Faustina was often the subject of gossip, accused of employing poison and of murdering people, as well as being free with her favors.  Marcus defended her vigorously. She accompanied him several times to the battlefield and was honored with the title ''mater castrorum''. In 175 she died in an accident  while with him at a camp at Halala in southern [[Cappadocia]]. Marcus dedicated a temple to her honor and renamed the town Faustinopolis.
  
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When Antoninus died on [[March 7]] [[161]], Marcus accepted the throne on the condition that he and Verus were made joint emperors (''[[Augustus|Augusti]]''), with Verus partly subordinate. This was partly because the two were Antoninus' joint heirs.
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=== Roman Emperor ===
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In 161, Emperor Antoninus Pius died after indicating to the Roman senate that he wished Marcus Aurelius to be his successor.  Marcus accepted on the condition that he and L. Commodus Verus be made joint emperors, as Hadrian had intended. Almost immediately there was a threat to the Roman Empire from [[Parthia]], to the east.  Taking advantage of the uncertainty brought about by the death of Antoninus Pius, the Parthian monarch, Vologaeses III, put one of his henchmen on the throne of [[Armenia]], which acted as a buffer state between Rome and Parthia; and rebuffed the Roman forces who tried to obstruct him.  As a symbol of Roman imperial prestige, Marcus decided to send his adopted half-brother to the front, surrounded by some of the best Roman generals.  The campaign was very successful; a number of  Parthian cities were destroyed, Parthia capitulated and a Roman king was placed on the Armenian throne.  Lucius Commodus Verus returned to Italy victorious and was awarded a triumph, unusual because the parade included Verus, Marcus Aurelius, their sons and unmarried daughters. However, the returning Roman troops brought with them a terrible plague which had a devastating effect on all the Roman provinces.
  
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The joint succession may have also been motivated by military exigences, since, during his reign, Marcus Aurelius was almost constantly at war with various peoples outside the empire. A highly authoritative figure was needed to command the troops, yet the emperor himself could not defend both the German and Parthian fronts at the same time. Neither could he simply appoint a general to lead the [[Roman legion|legions]]; earlier popular military leaders like [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Vespasian]] had used the military to overthrow the existing government and install themselves as supreme leaders. Marcus Aurelius solved the problem by sending Verus to command the legions in the east.  He was authoritative enough to command the full loyalty of the troops, but already powerful enough that he had little incentive to overthrow Marcus. The plan succeeded—Verus remained loyal until his death on campaign in [[169]].  
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=== The Germanic Wars ===
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Early in 169, Germanic tribes launched an invasion of Italy from the north. The [[Marcomanni]] and [[Quadi]] crossed the [[Danube]], penetrated the intervening provinces, and entered [[Italy]]. Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus quickly mobilized a large  force and went north to defend Italy.  Verus soon died on campaign, and Marcus brought his body back to Rome and gave him full honors.  He then returned to the northern frontier, where he was to spend most of his remaining years.
  
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This joint emperorship was faintly reminiscent of the political system of the [[Roman Republic]], which functioned according to the principle of [[collegiality]] and did not allow a single person to hold supreme power. Joint rule was revived by [[Diocletian]]'s establishment of the [[Tetrarchy]] in the late [[3rd century]].
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The Roman strategy was to drive the Germanic tribes out of Italy and back across the Danube.  This was to be accomplished by isolating each tribe and defeating each one individually.  The strategy was successful but required time and resources.  Two new legions were recruited and many new camps and fortresses had to be constructed.  One by one the tribes were defeated and brought under Rome’s dominion.  In 175, the distinguished general [[Avidius Cassius]], governor of [[Syria]], attempted to claim the Roman Empire, and Marcus Aurelius traveled to the East. Avidius died before he arrived.  Marcus spent some time in Athens and was initiated into the [[Eleusinian mysteries]].  He then returned to the northern front, taking his sixteen-year-old son and intended successor Commodus.  
  
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=== Aurelius' wars===
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=== Death ===  
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====Germany and the Danube====
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In 180, while on campaign with Commodus in the north, Marcus became ill.  He refused food or drink, and died a few days later, on March 17, in the city of Vindobona.  His ashes were brought back to Rome to rest in [[Hadrian's mausoleum]] (modern Castel Sant'Angelo).  The military campaigns against the Germanic tribes were succeeding, and Marcus had advised Commodus that one more year of warfare was necessary in order to attain complete victory and fully establish Roman dominion.  Instead, Commodus chose to withdraw from the campaign, a decision which later proved disastrous to the Roman Empire. Marcus Aurelius' death is said by many hisorians to have been the end of the [[''Pax Romana'']].  
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[[Germanic tribes]] and many people had launched many raids along the [[limes Germanicus|Northern border]], particularly into [[Gaul]] and across the [[Danube#Human history|Danube]]— Germans, in turn, may have been under attack from more warlike tribes farther east. His campaigns against them are commemorated on the [[Column of Marcus Aurelius]].
 
  
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====Parthia====
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Marcus Aurelius’s reputation as an exemplary ruler has survived until present times, partly because of the ''Meditations'', which testify to his integrity and personal devotion to duty.  The life he chose was one of self-sacrifice and public service, and much of his time as Emperor was spent in military camps, in an effort to establish the peace and security of the Roman empire.
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In [[Asia Province|Asia]], a revitalized [[Parthia|Parthian Empire]] renewed its assault. Marcus Aurelius sent his joint emperor Verus to command the legions in the east to face this threat. On the return from the victorious campaign, Verus was awarded with a [[Roman triumph|triumph]]; the parade was unusual because it included Verus, Marcus Aurelius, their sons and unmarried daughters as a big family celebration.
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== Administration and Policy Towards Religion ==
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Marcus Aurelius was an able administrator, who selected capable men for important posts and knew how to make the best use of their abilities.  He continued the system of social mobility established by his predecessors, which allowed men from the provinces to advance into the Roman aristocracy. He centralized his government, and placed judicial matters  in the hands of ''iuridici'', who spoke with the authority of the Emperor.  
  
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===Writings===
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Marcus was a thinker and a student of philosophy, but he also served as a [[priest]] and gave full respect to the [[state religion]].  He acknowledged the validity of other people's beliefs, and accommodated the variety of religions that existed throughout the Roman empire. [[Christianity]] was not restricted by any official policy and the influence of the early church became widespread during his reign.  However, he did not interfere when local governments incited violence against Christians.
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While on campaign between 170 and 180, Aurelius wrote his ''[[Meditations]]'' as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. He had been a priest at the sacrificial altars of Roman service and was an eager patriot. He had a logical mind though his notes were representative of [[Stoicism|Stoic]] philosophy and spirituality. ''[[Meditations]]'' is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. It has been praised for its "exquisite accent and its infinite tenderness" and "saintliness" being called the "gospel of his life." They have been compared by [[John Stuart Mill]] in his ''[[Utility of Religion]]'' to the [[Sermon on the Mount]].
 
  
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The book itself was first published in 1558 in Zurich, from a manuscript copy that is now lost. The only other surviving complete copy of the manuscript is in the Vatican library.
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[[Image:Marek Aureliusz Kapitol.jpg|thumb|left|Marcus Aurelius sculpture on [[Capitoline Hill]].]]
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===Contacts with China===
 
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{{Main|Roman commerce#China}}
 
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===Death===
 
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Marcus Aurelius died on [[March 17]] [[180]] during the expedition against the [[Marcomanni]] and [[Quadi]] in the city of Vindobona (modern [[Vienna]]). His ashes were returned to [[Rome]] and rest in [[Hadrian]]'s [[mausoleum]] (modern [[Castel Sant'Angelo]]). He was also commemorated by a [[Column of Marcus Aurelius|column]] in [[Rome]].
 
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===Succession and historical legacy===
 
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He was able to secure the succession for his son [[Commodus]], whom he made co-emperor in his own lifetime (in [[177]]), though the choice may have been unknowingly unfortunate. Commodus was a political and military outsider, as well as an extreme egotist.  Many historians believe that the decline of Rome began under Commodus. For this reason, Aurelius' death is often held to have been the end of the ''[[Pax Romana]]''.
 
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==Depictions in art and modern popular culture==
 
  
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===Ancient art===
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== Meditations ==
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Marcus Aurelius was the last great Stoic author.  While on campaign between 170 and 180, Aurelius wrote his ''Meditations'' , twelve books of private reflections, written in Greek, on the meaning of  life and death, the cosmos, duty and public life.  The books are not organized in any particular order, and appear to be written for his own guidance and self-improvement.  The books illustrate how Stoic thought could be applied by someone at the height of power.  Marcus was deeply influenced by the teachings of Epictetus and showed great interest in the psychology of moral improvement.  He also remained firmly committed to the Stoic concept of [[natural order]] and man’s place in it, and exhibited a religious sensitivity and a sense of man’s insignificance in the cosmos.  He reflected often on the duties inherent in being part of the social order.
 +
 
 +
The book itself was first published in 1558 in [[Zurich]], from a manuscript copy that is now lost. The only other surviving complete copy of the manuscript is in the Vatican library.  It is available in numerous translations and is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. It has been praised for its "exquisite accent and its infinite tenderness" and "saintliness," being called the "gospel of his life."
  
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== Monuments and Sculpture ==
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Marcus Aurelius erected only a few monuments during his reign, possibly because so many resources were needed for military campaigns.  Marcus and Verus erected a column in honor of the deceased Antoninus Pius, the base of which is now on display in the [[Vatican Museum]].  Three arches were raised to commemorate their military successes, one for Verus and two for Marcus Aurelius.  Sections from one of these are now preserved on the [[Arch of Constantine]], and three refliefs from another are in the [[Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini|Conservatori Museum]] on the [[Capitoline Hill]].  The most well-known monument is a column in the [[Piazza Colonna ]] which commemorates Marcus’s campaigns in 172-175.
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A well-preserved bronze [[equestrian sculpture]] of Marcus Aurelius, which, during the [[Middle Ages]], had stood in the [[Lateran Palace]] in Rome, was relocated in 1538 to the Piazza del Campidoglio (Capitoline Hill). Currently, the original is on display in an exhibition room designed especially for this purpose in the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini, while a copy has replaced it in the square. It escaped destruction, following Rome's conversion to Christianity, because it was mistaken for a statue of [[Emperor Constantine]].  According to medieval accounts, a small figure of a bound barbarian chieftain once crouched underneath the horse's front right leg.
 
[[Image:50ec_ita.png|thumb|right|Italian Euro coin depicting Marcus Aurelius sculpture on Capitoline Hill.]]
 
[[Image:50ec_ita.png|thumb|right|Italian Euro coin depicting Marcus Aurelius sculpture on Capitoline Hill.]]
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A well preserved [[bronze]] [[equestrian sculpture]] of Marcus Aurelius, which, during the [[Middle Ages]], had stood in the [[Lateran Palace]] in Rome, was relocated in [[1538]] to the [[Piazza del Campidoglio]] ([[Capitoline Hill]]). Currently, the original is on display in an exhibition room designed especially for this purpose in the [[Palazzo dei Conservatori]] of the [[Musei Capitolini]], while a copy has replaced it in the square.  
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This statue is the subject of a €0.50 [[Italian euro coins|Italian euro coin]] designed by [[Roberto Mauri]].
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It was standard practice to melt down bronze statues for reuse as coin or new sculptures
 
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(eg in the late empire, following Rome's conversion to Christianity, to make new statues for the new [[Christianity |Christian]] [[church]]es), and that is why so few bronze statues, let alone statues of emperors, survive.  The reason this one was not melted down was that, when in late antiquity or the early medieval period its turn came, it was incorrectly thought to portray the 'christianising' Emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]]. Indeed, it is the only fully surviving bronze statue of a pre-Christian Roman emperor and so survived.
 
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According to accounts from [[medieval]] times, a small figure of a bound [[barbarian]] chieftain once crouched underneath the horse's front right leg. In addition, it was one of the few Roman statues to remain on public view during the Middle Ages. Such an image was meant to portray the Emperor as an always victorious all-conquering lord of the earth. However, shown without weapons or armor, Marcus Aurelius seems to be a bringer of peace rather than a military hero, for this is how he saw himself and his reign.
 
  
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This statue is such a trademark image that it is the subject of a €0.50 [[Italian euro coins|Italian euro coin]] designed by [[Roberto Mauri]].
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== References ==
  
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===Appearances in modern literature===
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== Marcus Aurelius in Modern Literature ==
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[[Image:Memoirs of Hadrian.jpg|thumb|right|''Memoirs of Hadrian'', by [[Marguerite Yourcenar]].]]
 
 
* ''[[Mémoires d'Hadrien]]'' ([[1951]]), a fictitious but plausible [[autobiography]] (in form of a series of letters directed to his adoptive grandson "Marcus") of one of his predecessors, [[Hadrian]], by [[Marguerite Yourcenar]]. It is one of the best-selling European novels of the [[20th century]].
 
* ''[[Mémoires d'Hadrien]]'' ([[1951]]), a fictitious but plausible [[autobiography]] (in form of a series of letters directed to his adoptive grandson "Marcus") of one of his predecessors, [[Hadrian]], by [[Marguerite Yourcenar]]. It is one of the best-selling European novels of the [[20th century]].
 
* ''[[Household Gods]]'' ([[1999]] novel), by [[Judith Tarr]] and [[Harry Turtledove]].  (ISBN 0613351479)
 
* ''[[Household Gods]]'' ([[1999]] novel), by [[Judith Tarr]] and [[Harry Turtledove]].  (ISBN 0613351479)
  
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===Film===
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== Marcus Aurelius in Film ==
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* ''[[The Fall of the Roman Empire (film)|The Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' ([[1964]] film), played by [[Alec Guinness]]
 
* ''[[The Fall of the Roman Empire (film)|The Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' ([[1964]] film), played by [[Alec Guinness]]
 
* ''[[Gladiator (film)|Gladiator]]'' ([[2000]] film), played by [[Richard Harris (actor)|Richard Harris]]
 
* ''[[Gladiator (film)|Gladiator]]'' ([[2000]] film), played by [[Richard Harris (actor)|Richard Harris]]
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* The movie ''[[The Silence of the Lambs]]'' publicized Marcus Aurelius' principle, from ''Meditations'': "For any particular thing, ask, 'What is it in itself? What is its nature?'".
 
  
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<gallery>
 
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Image:AlecGuinessMarcusAurelius.jpg|[[Alec Guinness]] as Marcus Aurelius
 
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Image:rharris.jpg|Richard Harris as Marcus Aurelius in ''Gladiator''
 
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</gallery>
 
  
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==Marriage and issue==
 
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Aurelius married [[Faustina the Younger]] in [[145]]. During their 30-year marriage Faustina bore thirteen children, most notably, his son [[Commodus]] who would become later Emperor, and his daughter [[Lucilla]], who was wed to Lucius Verus to solidify his alliance with Marcus Aurelius.
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==

Revision as of 01:57, 30 May 2006

Marcus Aurelius

Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (April 26,121 – March 17, 180) was Roman Emperor from 161 C.E. until his death in 180 c.e.. He was the only Roman emperor who was truly devoted to the study and practice of philosphy. While Marcus was young the Emperor Hadrian arranged his adoption by Antoninus Pius, so that he would be in the direct line of succession. After becoming Emperor, Marcus spent most of his reign in a protracted military campaign against the Germanic tribes to the north. During this campaign he wrote a journal, Reflections, which illustrated how he practiced Stoicism in his daily life. Marcus was a wise ruler who organized his administration well and defended the Roman Empire against numerous threats on its borders. He is considered the last of the Five Good Emperors; the decline of the Roman Empire is thought to have begun during the reign of his son Commodus.

Historia Augusta identifies him in its heading as Marcus Antoninus Philosophus, "Marcus Antoninus the Philosopher." Toward the end of the work, the following is reported about him, "sententia Platonis semper in ore illius fuit, florere civitates si aut philosophi imperarent aut imperantes philosopharentur" (27.7), "Plato's judgment was always on his lips, that states flourished if philosophers ruled or rulers were philosophers."

Life

Early Life

He was born Marcus Annius Catilius Severus on April 26, 121 C.E., to an aristocratic family of Spanish descent. His grandfather was elected consul three times, and served the Roman Emperor Hadrian as a city prefect. As a youth, Marcus was a serious student and received public honors at an early age. The Emperor Hadrian took an interest in Marcus as a possible future successor, and he required Antoninus Pius, who succeeded him as Emperor, to adopt young Marcus, along with the son of another candidate who had predeceased Hadrian. Marcus was seventeen, and L. Aelius Aurelius Commodus (Verus) was eight. From then on, Marcus was known as Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus.

The reign of Antoninus Pius was long and relatively peaceful; disturbances on the fringes of the Roman Empire were quickly resolved by the provincial legates. Antoninus Pius never left Italy and never exposed Marcus or Verus to military life. Marcus Aurelius rose steadily through Roman political ranks. He was a Consul in 140 and 145, received the tribunicia potestas in 147, and served as a magistrate and priest. He continued his studies, and was well acquainted with Fronto (c. 95- c. 160), the distinguished rhetorician and orator, and with other thinkers such as the Athenian Herodes Atticus, and Aelius Aristides. The writings of Epictetus impressed him deeply and he became a firm Stoic.

Marriage

Aurelius married Faustina the Younger , daughter of Emperor Hadrian, in 145. During their 30-year marriage Faustina bore thirteen children, most notably, his son Commodus who would later become Emperor, and his daughter Lucilla, who was first wed to Lucius Verus to solidify his alliance with Marcus Aurelius, and after Verus’s death to Claudius Pompeianus Quintianus of Antioch, an important associate of her father’s. Faustina was often the subject of gossip, accused of employing poison and of murdering people, as well as being free with her favors. Marcus defended her vigorously. She accompanied him several times to the battlefield and was honored with the title mater castrorum. In 175 she died in an accident while with him at a camp at Halala in southern Cappadocia. Marcus dedicated a temple to her honor and renamed the town Faustinopolis.

Roman Emperor

In 161, Emperor Antoninus Pius died after indicating to the Roman senate that he wished Marcus Aurelius to be his successor. Marcus accepted on the condition that he and L. Commodus Verus be made joint emperors, as Hadrian had intended. Almost immediately there was a threat to the Roman Empire from Parthia, to the east. Taking advantage of the uncertainty brought about by the death of Antoninus Pius, the Parthian monarch, Vologaeses III, put one of his henchmen on the throne of Armenia, which acted as a buffer state between Rome and Parthia; and rebuffed the Roman forces who tried to obstruct him. As a symbol of Roman imperial prestige, Marcus decided to send his adopted half-brother to the front, surrounded by some of the best Roman generals. The campaign was very successful; a number of Parthian cities were destroyed, Parthia capitulated and a Roman king was placed on the Armenian throne. Lucius Commodus Verus returned to Italy victorious and was awarded a triumph, unusual because the parade included Verus, Marcus Aurelius, their sons and unmarried daughters. However, the returning Roman troops brought with them a terrible plague which had a devastating effect on all the Roman provinces.

The Germanic Wars

Early in 169, Germanic tribes launched an invasion of Italy from the north. The Marcomanni and Quadi crossed the Danube, penetrated the intervening provinces, and entered Italy. Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus quickly mobilized a large force and went north to defend Italy. Verus soon died on campaign, and Marcus brought his body back to Rome and gave him full honors. He then returned to the northern frontier, where he was to spend most of his remaining years.

The Roman strategy was to drive the Germanic tribes out of Italy and back across the Danube. This was to be accomplished by isolating each tribe and defeating each one individually. The strategy was successful but required time and resources. Two new legions were recruited and many new camps and fortresses had to be constructed. One by one the tribes were defeated and brought under Rome’s dominion. In 175, the distinguished general Avidius Cassius, governor of Syria, attempted to claim the Roman Empire, and Marcus Aurelius traveled to the East. Avidius died before he arrived. Marcus spent some time in Athens and was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries. He then returned to the northern front, taking his sixteen-year-old son and intended successor Commodus.

Death

In 180, while on campaign with Commodus in the north, Marcus became ill. He refused food or drink, and died a few days later, on March 17, in the city of Vindobona. His ashes were brought back to Rome to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum (modern Castel Sant'Angelo). The military campaigns against the Germanic tribes were succeeding, and Marcus had advised Commodus that one more year of warfare was necessary in order to attain complete victory and fully establish Roman dominion. Instead, Commodus chose to withdraw from the campaign, a decision which later proved disastrous to the Roman Empire. Marcus Aurelius' death is said by many hisorians to have been the end of the ''Pax Romana''.

Marcus Aurelius’s reputation as an exemplary ruler has survived until present times, partly because of the Meditations, which testify to his integrity and personal devotion to duty. The life he chose was one of self-sacrifice and public service, and much of his time as Emperor was spent in military camps, in an effort to establish the peace and security of the Roman empire.

Administration and Policy Towards Religion

Marcus Aurelius was an able administrator, who selected capable men for important posts and knew how to make the best use of their abilities. He continued the system of social mobility established by his predecessors, which allowed men from the provinces to advance into the Roman aristocracy. He centralized his government, and placed judicial matters in the hands of iuridici, who spoke with the authority of the Emperor.

Marcus was a thinker and a student of philosophy, but he also served as a priest and gave full respect to the state religion. He acknowledged the validity of other people's beliefs, and accommodated the variety of religions that existed throughout the Roman empire. Christianity was not restricted by any official policy and the influence of the early church became widespread during his reign. However, he did not interfere when local governments incited violence against Christians.

Marcus Aurelius sculpture on Capitoline Hill.

Meditations

Marcus Aurelius was the last great Stoic author. While on campaign between 170 and 180, Aurelius wrote his Meditations , twelve books of private reflections, written in Greek, on the meaning of life and death, the cosmos, duty and public life. The books are not organized in any particular order, and appear to be written for his own guidance and self-improvement. The books illustrate how Stoic thought could be applied by someone at the height of power. Marcus was deeply influenced by the teachings of Epictetus and showed great interest in the psychology of moral improvement. He also remained firmly committed to the Stoic concept of natural order and man’s place in it, and exhibited a religious sensitivity and a sense of man’s insignificance in the cosmos. He reflected often on the duties inherent in being part of the social order.

The book itself was first published in 1558 in Zurich, from a manuscript copy that is now lost. The only other surviving complete copy of the manuscript is in the Vatican library. It is available in numerous translations and is still revered as a literary monument to a government of service and duty. It has been praised for its "exquisite accent and its infinite tenderness" and "saintliness," being called the "gospel of his life."

Monuments and Sculpture

Marcus Aurelius erected only a few monuments during his reign, possibly because so many resources were needed for military campaigns. Marcus and Verus erected a column in honor of the deceased Antoninus Pius, the base of which is now on display in the Vatican Museum. Three arches were raised to commemorate their military successes, one for Verus and two for Marcus Aurelius. Sections from one of these are now preserved on the Arch of Constantine, and three refliefs from another are in the Conservatori Museum on the Capitoline Hill. The most well-known monument is a column in the Piazza Colonna which commemorates Marcus’s campaigns in 172-175.

A well-preserved bronze equestrian sculpture of Marcus Aurelius, which, during the Middle Ages, had stood in the Lateran Palace in Rome, was relocated in 1538 to the Piazza del Campidoglio (Capitoline Hill). Currently, the original is on display in an exhibition room designed especially for this purpose in the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini, while a copy has replaced it in the square. It escaped destruction, following Rome's conversion to Christianity, because it was mistaken for a statue of Emperor Constantine. According to medieval accounts, a small figure of a bound barbarian chieftain once crouched underneath the horse's front right leg.

Italian Euro coin depicting Marcus Aurelius sculpture on Capitoline Hill.

This statue is the subject of a €0.50 Italian euro coin designed by Roberto Mauri.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Marcus Aurelius in Modern Literature

  • Mémoires d'Hadrien (1951), a fictitious but plausible autobiography (in form of a series of letters directed to his adoptive grandson "Marcus") of one of his predecessors, Hadrian, by Marguerite Yourcenar. It is one of the best-selling European novels of the 20th century.
  • Household Gods (1999 novel), by Judith Tarr and Harry Turtledove. (ISBN 0613351479)

Marcus Aurelius in Film

  • The Fall of the Roman Empire (1964 film), played by Alec Guinness
  • Gladiator (2000 film), played by Richard Harris


External links

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Preceded by:
Antoninus Pius 		Roman Emperor
161–180
(with Lucius Verus 161–169) 		Succeeded by: Commodus
Antonine Dynasty
96–192
Nervan-Antonian Dynasty
96–192
Preceded by:
Antoninus Pius 		Five Good Emperors
96–180 		Succeeded by:
(none)


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