Difference between revisions of "Rape" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
Line 1: Line 1:
 
[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
[[Category:Law]]
 
[[Category:Law]]
−
 
 
{{otheruses}}
 
{{otheruses}}
 
{{unreferenced}}
 
{{unreferenced}}
Line 17: Line 16:
  
 
== Definitions of rape ==
 
== Definitions of rape ==
 +
[[Image:Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[The Rape of the Sabine Women]], a 1582 sculpture by [[Giambologna]].]]
 
'''Rape''' is, in most jurisdictions, a crime defined as sexual intercourse or penetration without valid consent by both parties. In some jurisdictions, rape is defined by penetration of the [[anus]] or the vagina by a penis, while in other jurisdictions, the penetration of either the vagina or the anus need not be by a penis, but can be by other objects such as a finger or a hand-held object, or the forcing of a penis into a vagina by a female (male rape). Some jurisdictions expand the definition of rape further to include other sexual acts without valid consent, including [[oral sex|oral copulation]] and [[masturbation]]. The lack of valid consent does not necessarily mean that the victim explicitly refused to give consent; generally, where consent was obtained by physical force, threat of injury, or other duress, or where consent was given by a person whose age was below the [[age of consent]], a person who was intoxicated by drugs or alcohol, or a person who was mentally impaired by illness or [[developmental disability]], the consent is considered invalid.  (When the sexual activity involved a person whose age was below the age of consent, the crime defined is often known as "statutory rape," although a number of jurisdictions use terms such as "unlawful sexual intercourse" to avoid the forcible connotation of the word "rape.") In addition to common forms of physical rape, there are also other phenomena that can be classified as rape despite a lack of physical abuse.{{fact}}
 
'''Rape''' is, in most jurisdictions, a crime defined as sexual intercourse or penetration without valid consent by both parties. In some jurisdictions, rape is defined by penetration of the [[anus]] or the vagina by a penis, while in other jurisdictions, the penetration of either the vagina or the anus need not be by a penis, but can be by other objects such as a finger or a hand-held object, or the forcing of a penis into a vagina by a female (male rape). Some jurisdictions expand the definition of rape further to include other sexual acts without valid consent, including [[oral sex|oral copulation]] and [[masturbation]]. The lack of valid consent does not necessarily mean that the victim explicitly refused to give consent; generally, where consent was obtained by physical force, threat of injury, or other duress, or where consent was given by a person whose age was below the [[age of consent]], a person who was intoxicated by drugs or alcohol, or a person who was mentally impaired by illness or [[developmental disability]], the consent is considered invalid.  (When the sexual activity involved a person whose age was below the age of consent, the crime defined is often known as "statutory rape," although a number of jurisdictions use terms such as "unlawful sexual intercourse" to avoid the forcible connotation of the word "rape.") In addition to common forms of physical rape, there are also other phenomena that can be classified as rape despite a lack of physical abuse.{{fact}}
  
Line 25: Line 25:
 
{{main|Sociobiological theories of rape}}
 
{{main|Sociobiological theories of rape}}
  
−
Some animals appear to exhibit behaviors that resemble rape in humans, in particular combining sexual intercourse with violent assault, such as are observed in [[duck]]s, [[geese]], and certain species of [[dolphin]]s.{{fact}} It is difficult to determine to what extent the idea of rape can be extended to intercourse in animal species, as the defining attribute of rape in humans is the lack of [[informed consent]], which is difficult to determine in animals. ''See also: [[Non-human animal sexuality]].''
+
Some animals appear to exhibit behaviors that resemble rape in humans, in particular combining sexual intercourse with violent assault, such as are observed in [[duck]]s, [[geese]], dragonflies, and certain species of [[dolphin]]s.{{fact}} It is difficult to determine to what extent the idea of rape can be extended to intercourse in animal species, as the defining attribute of rape in humans is the lack of [[informed consent]], which is difficult to determine in animals. ''See also: [[Non-human animal sexuality]].''
  
 
Some [[sociobiology|sociobiologists]] argue that our ability to understand rape, and thereby prevent and treat it, is severely compromised because its basis in human [[evolution]] has been ignored.{{fact}} They argue that rape, as a [[reproduction|reproductive]] strategy, is encountered in many instances in the [[animal kingdom]], including among the [[great apes]], and presumably also among early humans. Some studies indicate that it is an evolutionary strategy for certain males who lack the ability to persuade the female by non-violent means to pass on their genes. (Thornhill & Thornhill, [[1983]]).
 
Some [[sociobiology|sociobiologists]] argue that our ability to understand rape, and thereby prevent and treat it, is severely compromised because its basis in human [[evolution]] has been ignored.{{fact}} They argue that rape, as a [[reproduction|reproductive]] strategy, is encountered in many instances in the [[animal kingdom]], including among the [[great apes]], and presumably also among early humans. Some studies indicate that it is an evolutionary strategy for certain males who lack the ability to persuade the female by non-violent means to pass on their genes. (Thornhill & Thornhill, [[1983]]).
Line 314: Line 314:
  
 
<!-- interwiki —>
 
<!-- interwiki —>
−
+
 
−
{{Credit1|Rape|86458370|}}
+
{{Credit1|Rape|86641334|}}

Revision as of 18:13, 9 November 2006

For other uses, see Rape (disambiguation).
This article or section does not cite its references or sources.
You can help this encyclopedia by introducing appropriate citations.
Template:Abuse
Template:CrimLaw

Rape is the act of forcing penetrative sexual acts, against another's will through violence, force, threat of injury, or other duress, or where the victim is unable to decline, due to the effects of drugs or alcohol. Rape is generally considered one of the most serious sex crimes.

The related term statutory rape is where a sexual act is automatically considered rape by the law, regardless of whether it was coercive or consensual. Such laws are common. They exist in order to prevent adults from having sex with minors, who are more easily influenced and therefore are protected by being automatically deemed unable to give legally effective informed consent. Forcible or non-consensual acts that do not meet the criterion for rape in a jurisdiction (in most cases because they are not penetrative) are often called sexual assault instead.

The word originates from the Latin verb rapere: to seize or take by force. The Latin term for the act of rape itself is raptus. The term in its original meaning has no sexual connotation in particular, and is still used in its generic sense in literary English, see rape (word)

Definitions of rape

The Rape of the Sabine Women, a 1582 sculpture by Giambologna.

Rape is, in most jurisdictions, a crime defined as sexual intercourse or penetration without valid consent by both parties. In some jurisdictions, rape is defined by penetration of the anus or the vagina by a penis, while in other jurisdictions, the penetration of either the vagina or the anus need not be by a penis, but can be by other objects such as a finger or a hand-held object, or the forcing of a penis into a vagina by a female (male rape). Some jurisdictions expand the definition of rape further to include other sexual acts without valid consent, including oral copulation and masturbation. The lack of valid consent does not necessarily mean that the victim explicitly refused to give consent; generally, where consent was obtained by physical force, threat of injury, or other duress, or where consent was given by a person whose age was below the age of consent, a person who was intoxicated by drugs or alcohol, or a person who was mentally impaired by illness or developmental disability, the consent is considered invalid. (When the sexual activity involved a person whose age was below the age of consent, the crime defined is often known as "statutory rape," although a number of jurisdictions use terms such as "unlawful sexual intercourse" to avoid the forcible connotation of the word "rape.") In addition to common forms of physical rape, there are also other phenomena that can be classified as rape despite a lack of physical abuse.[citation needed]

Rape and human rights

Probably for much of human history, rape, violence, and war have often occurred in connection with one another. In the twentieth century, the use of rape as a "weapon of war" has been well documented and addressed by NGOs as well as the United Nations [1] and national governments. If the victim is under 18 the rapist may be charged with child abuse.

Sociobiological analysis of rape

Some animals appear to exhibit behaviors that resemble rape in humans, in particular combining sexual intercourse with violent assault, such as are observed in ducks, geese, dragonflies, and certain species of dolphins.[citation needed] It is difficult to determine to what extent the idea of rape can be extended to intercourse in animal species, as the defining attribute of rape in humans is the lack of informed consent, which is difficult to determine in animals. See also: Non-human animal sexuality.

Some sociobiologists argue that our ability to understand rape, and thereby prevent and treat it, is severely compromised because its basis in human evolution has been ignored.[citation needed] They argue that rape, as a reproductive strategy, is encountered in many instances in the animal kingdom, including among the great apes, and presumably also among early humans. Some studies indicate that it is an evolutionary strategy for certain males who lack the ability to persuade the female by non-violent means to pass on their genes. (Thornhill & Thornhill, 1983). Camille Paglia and some sociobiologists have argued that victim-blaming should not be totally dismissed in all cases, because some sociobiological models suggest that it may be genetically-inbuilt for a certain proportion of men and women to act in ways that would tend to raise the chances of rape occurring, and that this may be a biological feature of the species. This, however, is a very controversial view.

The role of control and loss of privacy in rape

Rape has been regarded as "a crime of violence and control" since the 1970s. According to psychological analysis literature, "control" is a key feature in most definitions of privacy:

  • "Privacy is not the absence of other people from one's presence, but the control over the contact one has with them." (Pedersen, D. 1997).
  • "Selective control of access to the self." (Margulis, 2003)

Control is important in providing:

  • what we need for normal psychological functioning;
  • stable interpersonal relationships; and
  • personal development. (Pedersen, D. 1997)

Violation of privacy or "control" comes in many forms, with sexual assault and the resulting psychological traumas being one of the most explicit forms. Many victims of sexual assault suffer from eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia, which also center around control issues. Therefore, some argue that it makes more sense to look at the issue of sexual assault as an invasion of privacy (Mclean, D. 1995):

The more comfortable a person is with talking about invasion of privacy and in insisting that he or she has privacy that deserves respect, the clearer that person’s understanding of rape will be…

Consequently, it is important to be aware of the approach of this subject of rape through the concept of privacy because of the historical background and the need to bypass certain stigmas.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees


See also

  • Aggression
  • Anti-rape female condom
  • Causes of rape
  • Child molestation
  • Clergy abuse
  • Effects of rape and aftermath
  • Gendercide
  • History of rape
  • Incest
  • Laws about rape
  • Quotes relating to rape
  • Rape on college campuses
  • Rape culture
  • Rape by gender
  • Rape pornography
  • Rape and punishment
  • Rape reporting
  • Rape (word)
  • Rapists
  • Sexual assault
  • Sexual harassment
  • Sydney gang rapes
  • Trafficking in human beings
  • Violence against women
  • Violence against men
  • Types of rape

Case of Rape with Media Attention

  • 2006 Duke University lacrosse team scandal
  • There is an ongoing problem with sexual assault in the U.S. military which has resulted in a series of scandals that have received extensive media coverage.

Further reading

Academic and reference books

Reference books

  • Smith, M. D. (2004). Encyclopedia of Rape. USA: Greenwood Press.
  • Macdonals, John (1993). World Book Encyclopedia. United States of America: World Book Inc.
  • Kahn, Ada. (1992). The A-Z of women's sexuality : a concise encyclopedia. Alameda, Calif.: Hunter House.
  • The Columbia encyclopedia. Sixth edition, 2001-04.
  • Leonard, Arthur S. (1993). Sexuality and the law : an encyclopedia of major legal cases. New York : Garland Pub
  • Kazdin, Alan E. (2000). Encyclopedia of psychology. Washington, D.C. : American Psychological Association ; Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press
  • Sedney, Mary Anne, "rape (crime)." Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Scholastic Library Publishing, 2006 <http://gme.grolier.com>
  • Kittleson, M., Harper, J., & Hilgenkamp, K. (2005). The Truth About Rape. USA: Facts on File
  • Medical Foundation for the Care of Victims of Torture (2004) Rape as a Method of Torture Edited by Dr Michael Peel

Secondary victimization and victim blame

  • Lamb, Sharon, The Trouble with Blame: Victims, Perpetrators and Responsibility, Harvard Univ Press, 1999.
  • Madigan, L. and Gamble, N. (1991). The Second Rape: Society's Continued Betrayal of the Victim. New York: Lexington Books.
  • Murray JD, Spadafore JA, McIntosh WD. (2005) Belief in a just world and social perception: evidence for automatic activation. J Soc Psychol. Feb;145(1):35-47.
  • Frese, B., Moya, M., & Megius, J. L. (2004). Social Perception of Rape: How Rape Myth Acceptance Modulates the Influence of Situational Factors. Journal-of-Interpersonal-Violence, 19(2), 143-161.
  • Pauwels, B. (2002). Blaming the victim of rape: The culpable control model perspective. Dissertation-Abstracts-International:-Section-B:-The-Sciences-and-Engineering, 63(5-B)
  • Blumberg, M. & Lester, D. (1991). High school and college students' attitudes toward rape. Adolescence, 26(103), 727-729.
  • Shaver, . (2002). Attribution of rape blame as a function of victim gender and sexuality, and perceived similarity to the victim. Journal of Homosexuality, 43(2)
  • Anderson , K. J. & Accomando, C. (1999). Madcap Misogyny and Romanticized Victim-Blaming: Discourses of Stalking in There's Something About Mary. Women & Language, 1, 24-28.
  • The effect of participant sex, victim dress, and traditional attitudes on causal judgments for marital rape victims. (Author Abstract). Mark A. Whatley. Journal of Family Violence 20.3 (June 2005): p191(10).
  • Kay, Aaron C., Jost, John T. & Young, Sean (2005) Victim Derogation and Victim Enhancement as Alternate Routes to System Justification. Psychological Science 16 (3), 240-246.

Self blame

  • Tangney, June Price and Dearing, Ronda L., Shame and Guilt, The Guilford Press, 2002
  • Matsushita-Arao, Yoshiko. (1997). Self-blame and depression among forcible rape survivors. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. 57(9-B). pp. 5925.
  • Branscombe, Nyla R.; Wohl, Michael J. A.; Owen, Susan; Allison, Julie A.; N'gbala, Ahogni. (2003). Counterfactual Thinking, Blame Assignment, and Well-Being in Rape Victims. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 25 (4). p265, 9p.
  • Frazier, Patricia A.; Mortensen, Heather; Steward, Jason. (2005). Coping Strategies as Mediators of the Relations Among Perceived Control and Distress in Sexual Assault Survivors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, Jul2005, Vol. 52 Issue 3, p267-278

Causes of multiple victimization

  • Follette et. al., (1996). Cumulative trauma: the impact of child sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, and spouse abuse. J Trauma Stress.9(1):25-35.
  • Sarkar, N. N.; Sarkar, Rina, (2005). Sexual Assault on a Woman: Its Impact on Her Life and Living in Society. Sexual & Relationship Therapy. 20 (4), 407-419
  • Parillo, K., Robert C. Freeman, & Paul Young. (2003) Association Between Child Sexual Abuse and Sexual Revictimization in Adulthood Among Women Sex Partners of Injection Drug Users. Violence and Victims. 18(4): 473-484.
  • Shields, N. & Hanneke, C. (1988). Multiple Sexual Victimization: The Case of Incest and Marital Rape. In G. Hotaling, D. Finkelhor, J. Kirkpatrick, & M. Strauss (Eds), Family abuse and its consequences: New directions in research. (pp. 255-269). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
  • Sorenson SB, Siegel JM, Golding JM, Stein JA. (1991). Repeated sexual victimization.

Violence Vict. Winter;6(4):299-308.

Male victims

  • Dorais, Michel, Don't Tell: The Sexual Abuse of Boys, McGill-Queen Univ Press, 2002.
  • Mezey, Gillian, and King, Michael, Male Victims of Sexual Assault, Oxford, 2000.

Theories

  • Anderson, Peter and Struckman-Johnson Cindy, Sexually Aggressive Women: Current Perspectives and Controversies, Guilford, 1998.
  • Harris, Grant, et al, The Causes of Rape: Understanding Individual Differences in Male Propensity for Sexual Aggression, American Psychological Association, 2005.
  • "Psychosexual Disorders." Section 15, Chapter 192 in The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy , edited by Mark H. Beers, MD, and Robert Berkow, MD. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck Research Laboratories, 2002.
  • Brownmiller, Susan: Against Our Will : Men, Women, and Rape, Ballantine Books, 1975.
  • Gavey, Nicola, Just Sex: The Cultural Scaffolding of Rape, Routledge, 2005.
  • Scruton, Roger, Sexual Desire: A Moral Philoshopy of the Erotic, Free, 1986.
  • Ellis, Lee, Theories of Rape: Inquiries Into the Causes of Rape, Hemisphere, 1989.
  • McDonald, John, Rape: Controversial Issues: Criminal Profiles, Date Rape, False Reports, and False Memories, Charles C Thomas, 1995.
  • Cothran, Helen, Sexual Violence: Opposing Viewpoints, Thompson Gale, 2003.
  • Holmes, Ronald and Steven, Current Perspectives on Sex Crimes, Sage, 2002.
  • Emilie Buchwald, Pamela Fletcher, Martha Roth (ed.), Transforming a Rape Culture, Milkweed Editions, 2005.
  • Kanin, Eugene J. (1994). False Rape Allegations. Archives of Sexual Behavior.
  • Sarah Projansky, Watching Rape: Film and Television in Postfeminist Culture, New York University Press 2001
  • Thornhill, Randy and Palmer, Craig T. A Natural History of Rape: Biological Bases of Sexual Coercion. MIT Press, 2001.
  • Roussel, D.E. and R. Bolen. (2000). The Epidemic of Rape and Child Sexual Abuse in the United States. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
  • Mclean, D. (1995). Privacy and its invasion. CT: Praeger.
  • Margulis, Stephen T., (2003). Privacy as a social issue and behavioral concept. Journal of social issues 59(2):243-261
  • Pedersen, DM (1997) Psychological functions of privacy. Journal Of Environmental Psychology, 17:147-156

Child rape and child sexual assault

  • Levesque, Roger, Sexual Abuse of Children, Indiana Univ Press, 1999.
  • Pryor, Douglass, W. Unspeakable Acts: Why Men Sexually Abuse Children, New York University Press, 1996.

Female Sex Offenders

  • Pearson, Patricia, When She Was Bad: Violent Women and the Myth of Innocence, Viking Adult, 1997.
  • Adams, Ken, Silently Seduced: When Parents Make their Children Partners-Understanding Covert Incest, HCI, 1991.
  • Anderson, Peter B., and Struckman-Johnson Cindy, Sexually Aggressive Women: Current Perspectives and Controversies, Guilford, 1998.
  • Kierski, Werner, Female Violence: Can We Therapists Face Up to it?, Counseling and Psychotherapy Journal, 12/2002.
  • Rosencrans, Bobbie, The Last Secret: Daughters Sexually Abused by Mothers, Safer Society, 1997.
  • Miletski, Hani, Mother-Son Incest: The Unthinkable Broken Taboo, Safer Society, 1999.
  • Elliot, Michelle, Female Sexual Abuse of Children, Guilford, 1994
  • Hislop, Julia, Female Sex Offenders: What Therapists, Law Enforcement and Child Protective Services Need to Know, Issues Press, 2001.

Non-human rape

  • Gowaty, P.A. and N. Buschhaus. (1997). Functions of aggressive and forced copulations in birds: female resistance and the CODE hypothesis. American Zoologist (in press)

Marital/Intimate Partner Rape

  • Easteal, P, and McOrmond-Plummer, L, Real Rape, Real Pain: Help for Women Sexually Assaulted by Male Partners, Hybrid Publishers, 2006.
  • Russell, Diana E.H., Rape in Marriage, MacMillan Publishing Company, 1990.
  • Bergen, Raquel K., Wife Rape: Understanding the Response of Survivors and Service Providers, Sage Publications Inc., 1996.
  • Finkelhor, D. and Yllo, K., License to Rape: Sexual Abuse of Wives, The Free Press, 1985.
  • Hall, R., James, S. and Kertesz, J., The Rapist Who Pays the Rent Women Against Rape, UK.

Male Sexual Offenders

  • Shapcott, David, The Face of the Rapist, Penguin Books, Auckland, 1988.
  • Groth, Nicholas A., Men Who Rape: The Psychology of the offender, Plenum Press, New York, 1979.

Others

  • McElroy, Wendy, Sexual Correctness: The Gender-Feminist Attack on Women, McFarland, 2001.
  • Gavin de Becker. The Gift of Fear. ISBN 0-440-22619-8 , (recognising and handling dangerous people and situations)
  • Doe, Jane. The Real Story of Jane Doe. Toronto: Random House, 2003.
  • Ghiglieri, Michael P. (1999). The Dark Side of Man: Tracing the Origins of Violence. USA: Perseus Books.
  • Kipnes, Laura, "The Female Thing: Dirt, Sex, Envy, Vulnerability", ISBN 0-375-42417-2
  • Alice Sebold Lucky: A Memoir ([2002]) ISBN 0-316-09619-9 (author recounts her own rape at the age of 18)

External links

Template:Cleanup-spam

Research resources on sexual assault and rape


Statistics on sexual violence and reporting

Definitions of rape and sexual assault

Message boards for rape victims

Marital/Intimate partner rape links

Non-stereotypical sexual assault

Female-female rape links

Male-male and female-male rape links

LGBTQ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Queer)

Victim blame

Self blame

Politics of rape

Sexual assault awareness raising for victim's rights

Emerging and controversial research topics

Drugs and alcohol in rape

Miscellaneous


Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Rape&oldid=135368

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki