Tuareg

Tuareg
Total population	Between 100,000 and 3.5 million
Regions with significant populations	Niger Mali Algeria Burkina Faso Libya Nigeria Morocco Western Sahara
Language	The Tuareg language(s) (Tamasheq, Tamajeq, Tamahaq)
Religion	Predominantly Muslim

The Tuareg (sometimes spelled Touareg in French, or Twareg in English) is a name for a group of peoples who share a Berber ethnic group loosely forming a type of indigenous nation. Tuareg is a name that was applied to them by early explorers and historians (since Leo Africanus), but they call themselves variously Kel Tamasheq, Kel Tamajaq "Speakers of Tamasheq" and Imouhar, Imuhagh, Imazaghan or Imashaghen "the Free people". The Tuareg people also identify themselves with the concept Tamust, "The Nation".

The Tuareg today are found mostly in West Africa and were once trading nomads throughout the Sahara. They have been disrupted by the post colonial division of nations that divided them between the nations of Niger, Burkina Faso, Libya, Mali and Algeria. The 1990's had much warfare and strife for them with various resolutions in the different nations.

They have a little-used but ancient script known as the tifinaɤ; its origins may lie with the Punic script.

History

Ancient

Originally farmers descended from Berbers in the region that is now Libya. The Tuareg are descendants of ancient Saharan peoples described by Herodotus, who mentions the ancient Libyan people, the Garamantes. Archaeological testimony is the ruins of Germa. With many invaders, colonists and explorers, they slowly migrated southward, into the Sahel with the promise of greater prosperity through trade.

The Tuareg adopted nomadism along with its distinctive form of social organization from camel-herding Arabs about two thousand years ago, when the camel was introduced to the Sahara from Saudi Arabia. For over two millennia, the Tuareg operated the trans-Saharan caravan trade connecting the great cities on the southern edge of the Sahara via five desert trade routes to the northern Mediterranean coast of Africa. This continued into the 20th century when the European trains and trucks took over most of the trade routes.

The five basic trade routes extend from the southern edges of the Saharan deserts to the northern Mediterranean coast of Africa where Tuareg merchants delivered their goods to be distributed throughout the world. Transportation was very difficult and there is limited space in the caravans, so the Tuareg usually traded in luxury items that they could make a large profit on while taking up little space. Tuareg were also responsible for bringing enslaved people north from west Africa to be sold to Europeans and Middle Easterners. Occasionally the Tuareg themselves took captives, and those who were not sold of both groups became assimilated into the Tuareg community. Captive servants and herdsmen formed a component of the division of labor in camel nomadism.

In the early nineteenth century, the Tuareg resisted the French invasion of their Central Saharan homelands for the purpose of colonization. Tuareg broadswords were no match for the more advanced weapons of French squadrons, and after numerous massacres, the Tuareg were subdued and required to sign treaties in Mali 1905 and Niger 1917. In southern Algeria, the French met some of the strongest resistance from the Ahaggar Tuareg. Their Amenokal, traditional chief Moussa ag Amastan, fought numerous battles in defense of the region. Finally, Tuareg territories were taken under French governance and their confederations were largely dismantled and reorganized.

Modern

Following the independence of African countries in 1960s, Tuareg territory was artificially divided into modern nations with large populations in Niger, Mali, Algeria, Libya, and Burkina Faso.

Areas where significant numbers of Tuaregs live

Political disruption and economic constraints followed French colonization, and generally tight restrictions were placed on nomadization. Long-standing competition for resources in the Saheland with issues of wells, desertification and the increased firewood needs of growing cities impacted Tuareg conflicts with neighboring African groups. Native ideas of authority conflicted with the newly established national authorities and many various unresolved problems remain.

In Mali, a Tuareg uprising resurfaced in the Adrar N'Fughas mountains in the 1960s, following Mali's independence. In May 1990, in the aftermath of a clash between government soldiers and Tuareg outside a prison in Tchin-Tabaraden, Niger, Tuaregs in both Mali and Niger claimed autonomy for their traditional homeland: (Tenere, capital Agadez, in Niger and the Azawad and Kidal regions of Mali). Deadly clashes between Tuareg freedom-fighters and the military of both countries followed, with deaths numbering well into the thousands. Mali tried to involve international agencies such as Amnesty International and the government tried to highlight atrocities by the Tuareg. Although an agreement was signed in 1991, some young Tuareg were disillusioned by the hastiness and they felt the agreement was signed in an insincere way. Several dozen young Tuareg men were killed in Timbuktu, Mali by the government forces who probably preferred a military solution. Although a further conference was called in Niger, the extra-judicial deaths were not addressed and many Tourareg were further alienated.

In Niger, in 1992, more misunderstanding and more killings ensued. Various allegations of atrocity were backed up by the Working group for Indigenous Peoples a body of the United Nations/U.N.. The Tuareg were incensed that previous killings were not addressed, and many para-military groups of young Tuareg were formed under various leadership and philosophy. A national region for the Tuareg was proposed and defeated by the national conference, and more violence ensued. There was a general purge of Tuareg in northern Mali and hundreds of thousands fled the area. At the end of 1992, Niger adopted a new constitution.

Some Tuareg paramilitary groups took to discrediting the Nigerian government in 1993 as not being capable to protect the Turaeg, by committing various criminal activities and showing they could not be stopped. This led to a general public outcry against the Tuareg with various reprisals in other nations.

Further negotiations in 1994 in Niger initiated by France and Algeria were darkened by a tragedy where medical aid was refused to the Tuareg in light of violence inflicted at a celebration by unknown assailants. Yet somehow these negotiations led surprisingly to peace agreements in 1995. The agreement in Niger and the constitutional change in Mali in 1992 both called for decentralization of national power and guaranteed the integration of Tuareg resistance fighters into the countries' respective national armies. There has been some demilitarization to the north of Mali.

Major fighting between the Tuareg resistance and government security forces ended after the 1995 and 1996 agreements, but sporadic fighting continued in Niger in 2004 between government forces and groups struggling to obtain Tuareg independence.

Many Tuareg have settled into the communities with which they traded, serving as local merchants and representatives for their friends and family who continued to trade. Some Tuareg farm or herd animals on areas designated as homelands by their national governments resembling the Native American Indian Reservations in the United States. Some "settlement" areas are more like refugee camps, especially in areas with vague regulations or unresolved contention with the Tuareg. Although in 2006 the AIDS/HIV rates among the Tuareg were lower than the national populations in the countries they inhabit, workers in this field predict the increase in the occurance of the disease if their situations are not stabilized. Some have abandoned farming and herding, and sought jobs in towns and cities individually, melding in to the urban culture.

Tuareg territory

The Tuareg people inhabit a large area covering almost all the middle and western Sahara and the north-central Sahel. In Tuareg terms, the Sahara is not one desert but many, so they call it Tinariwen "the Deserts". Among the many deserts in north-west Africa there is the true desert Tenere. Then we can cite numerous deserts more and less arid, flat and mountainous: Adrar, Tagant, Tawat (Touat) Tanezruft, Adghagh n Fughas, Tamasna, Azawagh, Adar, Damargu, Tagama, Manga, Ayr, Tarramit (Termit), Kawar, Jado, Tadmait, Admer, Igharghar, Ahaggar, Tassili N'Ajjer, Tadrart, Idhan, Tanghart, Fezzan, Tibesti. Kalansho, Libyan Desert & cet.

Tuareg confederations, political centers, and leaders

At the turn of the 19th century the Tuareg country was organized into confederations, each ruled by a supreme Chief (Amenokal), along with a counsel of senior tribesmen elected to assist the chief.

• Kel Ajjer or Azjar, center Aghat (Ghat).
• Kel Ahaggar, in Ahaggar mountains
• Kel Adagh, or Kel Assuk, Kidal, and Tin Buktu
• Iwillimmidan Kel Ataram, Manaka, and Azawagh region
• Iwillimmidan Kel Denneg, In Tibaraden, Abalagh, Teliya Azawagh.
• Kel Gres, Zinder and Tanut (Tanout).
• Kel Ayr, Asode, Agadez, In Gal, Timia and Ifrwan.

The most famous Tuareg leader was a woman, Tin Hinan, heroine and spiritual leader who founded a legendary kingdom in the Ahaggar mountains. Other confederation leaders followed under the title of Amenokal (Chief); among the famous:

Karidanna, Waisimudan,Aljilani Ag Ibrahimof, Makhammad Ag Katami, Khadakhada, Alkhurer, Bazu, Makhammad Wan Ag Alkhurer, Hammed Almomin, Fihrun Ag Amansar, Khamzata Ag Mahkhammad and Busari Ag Akhmad of the Iwillimmidan; Musa Ag Amastan,Ibrahim Ag Abakkada,and Amud of Kel Azjar; Balkhu, Kel Faday, Abdurrakhman Tagama and Wan Agoda of Kel Ayr; Akhanokhan of Kel Azjar; Atisi Ag Amellal and Akhamok Ag Ihemma, Edaber Ag Makhammad and Bay Ag Akhamok of Kel Ahaggar.

Social stratification

Traditionally, Tuareg society is hierarchal, with nobility and vassals. It was divided between those who tended the land and those who did not, with farming being lower class. The work of pastoralism was specialized according to social class: imúšaɤ, warrior-aristocrats who organized group defense, livestock raids, and the long-distance caravan trade; ímɤad, vassal-herdsmen who pastured and tended most of the confederation's livestock; ìnhædˤæn, blacksmith-clients who fabricated and repaired the saddles, tools, household equipment and other material needs of the community. After the adoption of Islam, a separate class of religious clerics, the marabout, also became integral to Tuareg social structure.

The Tuareg also held èklan "slaves", who were often war prisoners darker than the generally brown-skinned Tuareg, who are also known as the Bella. Some of these slaves also came from those not sold in trading.

Before French colonization, the Tuareg were organized into loose confederations, each consisting of a dozen or so tribes. Each of the main groups had a traditional leader called Amenokal along with an assembly of tribal chiefs (imɤaran, singular amɤar). The groups were the Kel Ahaggar, Kel Ajjer, Kel Ayr, Adrar n Fughas, Iwəlləmədan and Kel Gres.

Under the older system, the farming groups would pay allegiance to locally appointed headmen, who in turn reported to nobles who considered the village their domain. As the trans-Saharan trade routes diminished in importance, and the farmers accumulated wealth, the status changed. During the colonial and post-colonial national eras, the awarding of governmental posts also altered the social strata and the social structures of modern Tuareg are varied.

Culture

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The Tuareg are matrilineal, though not matriarchal. Unlike many Muslim societies, the women do not traditionally wear the veil, whereas the men do. The most famous Tuareg symbol is the Tagelmust, their veil often blue indigo colored. The men's facial covering originates from the belief that such action wards off evil spirits, but most probably relates to protection against the harsh desert sands as well; in any event, it is a firmly established tradition (as is the wearing of amulets containing verses from the Qur'an). Men begin wearing a veil when they reach maturity which usually conceals their entire face excluding their eyes and top of nose.

Many Tuareg today are either settled agriculturalists or nomadic cattle breeders; though there are also blacksmiths and caravan leaders.

The Tuareg are sometimes called the "Blue People" because the indigo pigment in the cloth of their traditional robes and turbans stained the wearer's skin dark blue. Today, the traditional indigo turban is still preferred for celebrations, and generally Tuaregs wear clothing and turbans in a variety of colors.

Language

The Tuareg speak Tamajaq/Tamasheq/Tamahaq, a southern Berber language having several dialects among the different regions. Berber is an Afro-Asiatic language closely related to Pharaohnic Egyptian and Semitic-Canaanite languages. The language is called Tamasheq by western Tuareg in Mali, Tamahaq among Algerian and Libyan Tuareg, and Tamajaq in the Azawagh and Aïr regions, Niger. The Tamajaq writing system, tifinaɤ (also called Shifinagh), descends directly from the original Berber script used by the Numidians in pre-Roman times.

The ancient Lybico-Berber alphabet is from the Punic script, which was used in the extinct Phoenician language and was used irregularly up until the time of Augustine by various languages. Today, it survived irregular usage with the Tuareg.

The origin of the name "Tuareg" does not originate within the Berber group. The meaning of the word Twareg has been long discussed. Probably it is Twārəg, the "broken plural" of Tārgi, a Ḥassānīya Arabic word whose former meaning was "inhabitant of Targa" (the Tuareg name of the Libyan region commonly known as Fezzan; targa in Berber means "(drainage) channel"). Some say it is a derivation of the word meaning "Punic."

Religion

The Berbers were originally of indigenous religions as well as Christian and Jewish until the 7th century when there were many Islamic invasions. As the unique identity of the Tuareg developed through their migration southward they also became predominantly Muslim by the 16th century. Originating in the severe demands of their nomadic travels, requirements of Ramadan and other fasts were relaxed and generally the Tuareg are more inclined to observe feasts than fasts. Originally with a large Sufi component, today they combine Sunni Islam (specifically the Maliki madhhab, popular in North and West Africa) with certain pre-Islamic animistic beliefs, including spirits of nature (Kel Asuf) and djinns and such syncretic beliefs as divination through means of the Qur'an. Not all Islamic people regard their version of Islam as correct.

Arts

Much Tuareg art is in the form of jewelery, leather and metal saddle decorations called 'Trik', and finely crafted swords. The Inadan community makes traditional handicrafts. Among their products are: Tanaghilt or Zakkat (the 'Agadez Cross' or 'Croix d'Agadez'); the Tuareg Takoba, a nearly one meter long sword, with red leather cover; many beautiful gold and silver-made necklaces called 'Takaza'; and earrings called 'Tizabaten'.

Traditional music

Traditional Tuareg music has two major components: the moncord violin Anzad played often during night parties and a small tambour covered with goatskin called Tende, performed during camel races and horce races. and other festivities. Another popular Tuareg musical genre is Takamba, characteristic for its Afro-Berber percussions.

Tinariwen, a Tuareg band that fuses electric guitars and indigenous musical styles, was founded in the 1980s by rebel fighters. They released their first CD in 2000, and toured in Europe and the United States in 2004.

Many music groups emerged after the 1980s cultural revival. Among them Tartit, Imaran and known artists are: Abdallah Oumbadougou from Ayr, Baly Othmany of Djanet.

Ethnic classification

The Tuareg are classified as a Berber group, and are closely related to both Northwest African Berbers and West Africans , in terms of culture and race. At least some sources argue that the Tuareg are defined by language and culture, not by race, and that predominantly Middle Eastern and/or Indigenous African Tamasheq speakers qualify as "Tuareg" (and, presumably, by implication, individuals of Tuareg descent but who have assimilated into various countries and do not speak Tamasheq languages do not). (See, for example, [1]). This is probably part of the reason for the widely varying estimates of the number of Tuareg. They do not have Arabic ethnicity.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• University of Iowa's Art and Life in Africa Online: Tuareg
• Origin and History of the Tuaregs
• The Massacres at Tchin Tarabaden: 10 years later!. This press release (7 May 2000), while polemical, is useful for a pro-Tuareg view of the conflicts in Mali and Niger.
• Heath Jeffrey 2005: A Grammar of Tamashek (Tuareg of Mali). New York: Mouton de Gruyer. Mouton Grammar Library, 35. ISBN 3-11-018484-2
• Rando et al. (1998) Mitochondrial DNA analysis of northwest African populations reveals genetic exchanges with European, near-eastern, and sub-Saharan populations. Annals of Human Genetics 62(6): 531-50; Watson et al. (1996) mtDNA sequence diversity in Africa. American Journal of Human Genetics 59(2): 437-44; Salas et al. (2002) The Making of the African mtDNA Landscape. American Journal of Human Genetics 71: 1082-1111. These are good sources for information on the genetic heritage of the Tuareg and their relatedness to other populations.
• Ethnologue 14 pages for Niger, Mali, etc., used for population estimates.
• Tuareg is not an Ethnos, accessed 2 Feb 2004, available on Internet Archive at [2]. Cited for the low-end estimate of population.
• A comprehensive Tuareg chronology along with lists of amenokals from Kel Ahaggar, Kel Adagh and Kel Azawagh (in Italian).

External links

• Maps of Niger, pictures of Agadez, Tuaregs, and handcraft from Niger; also a forum (in French)

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