Difference between revisions of "Shinto" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Shinto''' ([[Kanji]]: 神道 ''Shintō'') (sometimes called '''Shintoism''') is a native [[religion]] of [[Japan]] and was once its [[state religion]].  It involves the worship of ''[[kami]]'', which can be translated to mean "sacred spirits which take the form of things and concepts important to life, such as wind, rain, mountains, trees, rivers and fertility". Some kami are local and can be regarded as the [[spiritual being|spirit]] or [[genius (mythology)|genius]] of a particular place, but others represent major natural objects and processes, for example, [[Amaterasu]], the [[Sun goddess]]. The word Shinto was created by combining two [[kanji]]: "神" ''shin'', meaning gods or spirits (the character can also be read as "kami" in Japanese), and "道" ''tō'' meaning  "way" or "path" in a [[philosophical]] sense (the same character is used for the Chinese word [[Dao]]). As such, Shinto is commonly translated as "the Way of the Gods".  
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'''Shinto''' ([[Kanji]]: 神道 ''Shintō'') (sometimes called '''Shintoism''') is a native [[religion]] of [[Japan]] and was once its [[state religion]].  It involves the worship of ''[[kami]]'', which can be translated to mean "sacred spirits which take the form of things and concepts important to life, such as wind, rain, mountains, trees, rivers and fertility." Some kami are local and can be regarded as the [[spiritual being|spirit]] or [[genius (mythology)|genius]] of a particular place, but others represent major natural objects and processes, for example, [[Amaterasu]], the [[Sun Goddess]]. The word Shinto was created by combining two kanji: "神" ''shin'', meaning gods or spirits (the character can also be read as "kami" in Japanese), and "道" ''tō'' meaning  "way" or "path" in a [[philosophical]] sense (the same character is used for the Chinese word [[Dao]]). As such, Shinto is commonly translated as "the Way of the Gods".  
  
 
[[Image:Itsukushima torii angle.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[torii]] at [[Itsukushima Shrine]]]]
 
[[Image:Itsukushima torii angle.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[torii]] at [[Itsukushima Shrine]]]]
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After [[World War II]], Shinto lost its status of [[state religion]]; some Shinto practices and teachings, once given a great deal of prominence during the war, are no longer taught nor practiced today, and others remain largely as everyday activities, like [[omikuji]] (a form of [[drawing lots]]) and [[Japanese New Year]], that few identify with religious connotations.
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After [[World War II]], Shinto lost its status of state religion; some Shinto practices and teachings, once given a great deal of prominence, are no longer taught nor practiced today, and others remain largely as everyday activities, like [[omikuji]] (a form of [[drawing lots]]) and [[Japanese New Year]].
  
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==History==
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== History ==
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===Early history===
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=== Primitive Religions in Japan ===
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A number of theories exist about the ancestors of today's Japanese. Most scholars accept there was migration from [[central Asia]] and to a lesser extent from [[Indonesia]], though there Shinto first developed. Nationalists claim that it has always existed, back into the mists of the [[Jomon]] age.  Others maintain that it came about in the [[Yayoi]] age as the result of immigrants from China and Korea, who brought agricultural rites and shamanic ceremonies from the continent which took on Japanese forms in the new environment.  Some modern scholars now claim that "Shinto" as it is presently understood did not exist in this age at all and should be more properly referred to as 'kami worship'.
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Archeological evidences indicates that Stone Age people lived in the Japanese Archipelago between 33,000 and 21,000 years ago during the Paleolithic period. Japan was then connected to mainland Asia by land bridges, and nomadic hunter-gatherers crossed over from the Korean Peninsula and Siberia. They left flint tools, but no evidence of permanent settlements.  On the islands of Japan there were various natural phenomena, such as volcanic activity, severe earthquakes, and major typhoons. These natural forces were named “mono.” Gradually it was postulated that there were some kind of spiritual beings, called “kami,” behind these natural forces.  Some historians maintain that these beliefs in spiritual beings developed during the Yayoi (800 B.C.E. - 300 C.E.) period because immigrants from China and Korea brought agricultural rites (centered upon the cultivation of rice) and shamanic ceremonies from the continent. These took on Japanese forms in the new environment. The inhabitants of Japan started to be conscious of their ancestors’ spirits, named “tama,” as spiritual beings who could influence the prosperity and productivity of their communities. The ”mono” was a being with no personality, expressed in mere natural forces,  but ”tama” and “kami” were beings with some kind of personality or human-like characteristics. Eventually “tama” and “kami” became enshrined for worship by people who expected them to control natural circumstances and protect their lives. Gradually these enshrined  “tama” and “kami” came to be regarded as “gods” or “deities” with stronger and clearer personalities. These religious forms can be called a primitive or early religion. Primitive religions can be classified in two groups. One is  Animatism,  religion worshipping the power of  beings without personality. The other is Animism, a religion with spiritual beings that have human-like personalities. According to this classification, the worship of  “mono” is Animatism and the worship of “tama” and ”kami” is Animism. Many  religious styles of Animatism and Animism can be observed all over the world.
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In order to grasp the character of the indigenous religious beliefs and practices of Japan, we should first understand that there is a continuation of the concept of “tama” and “kami,” even though these terms changed to “gods” or “deities.”  These mixed religious concepts are the basic and original religion in Japan.
  
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In the early centuries B.C.E., each tribe and area had its own collection of gods with no formal relationship between them.  However, following the ascendency of the [[Yamato]] Kingdom around the third to fifth centuries, the ancestral deities of its [[Emperor of Japan|Imperial family]] were given prominence over others and a narrative made up to justify it.  The result was the mythologising of [[Kojiki]] (712) in which it was claimed that the imperial line descended directly from the sun-goddess Herself.  Another important kingdom, [[Izumo]], was dealt with in a separate cycle within the mythology and its deities incorporated into
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== Origin of Shinto ==
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service of [[Amaterasu]]'s descendants.  A more objective and historical version of events appeared in [[Nihon Shoki]] (720), where alternative versions of the same story are given.
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Shinto's kami are collectively called Yaoyorozu no Kami (八百万の神), a traditional expression literally meaning "eight million kami." The arcane name of eight million, Yaoyorozu, is not an exact number, but an expression indicating that there is a great variety of polytheistic forms.  These gods were the figures that Animistic beings had be having  stronger and clear personarities.
  
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Early ceremonies are thought to have been held outside before copses or sacred rocks ([[Iwakura (Shinto)|iwakura]]). There was no representation of the kami, for they were conceived as formless and pure.  After the arrival of Buddhism in the sixth century, the idea of building 'houses' for the kami arose and shrines were built for the first time. The earliest examples are thought to have been at Izumo (659) and [[Ise]] (690).
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During the early Nara period, the Kojiki ( 712 C.E.) and the Nihon shoki (The Chronicles of Japan, 720 C.E.) were written by compiling existing myths and legends into unified accounts. Kojiki, the older text, focused on establishing the identity of the Imperial family as descendants of a divine being. Kojiki, together with Nihonshoki, became a primary sacred text of Shintoism.  In Kojiki we can see the process of the creation of the nation and the genealogy of gods. There were descriptions of the god of the mountain and the god of the fields. The god of the mountain was named “oyamatsumi no kami”and the god of the fields was named “kayanohime gami”. This description shows that the Animistic kami changed to gods with names who had clearer and stronger personalities .The period during which the “kami” emerged as “gods” coincided with the appearance of the first nation of Japan, ruled by an emperor.
  
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An important development was the introduction of the [[Ritsuryo]] System in the late seventh and early eighth centuries, based on the Chinese system.  This established in law the supremacy of the emperor and great nobles, as well as formalising their relationship to major shrines and festivals.
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Around this time, in each rice-cultivating agricultural community, agricultural rites were celebrated seasonally and communal religious activities were performed centered upon kami-nature. Gradually each kami was associated with local ruling clan (uji) and the kami was named ujigami. The leaders of the strongest clan in the Yamato region (near present-day Nara) came to be regarded as descendants of the universally recognized chief kami, the sun goddess Amaterasu. She was born from the left eye of Izanagi as he purified himself in a river, and went on to become the ruler of the Higher Celestial plane (Takamagahara).  She was also considered to be directly linked in lineage to the Imperial Household of Japan and the Emperor, who were considered Descendants of the Kami themselves. As a descendant of Amaterasu, Jimmu Tenno became the first emperor.
  
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Even before the arrival of [[Buddhism]], the rituals involved in kami worship had borrowed from Chinese [[Taoism]] and [[Confucianism]].  Though clan rivalry led to friction and fighting during the introduction of Buddhism, the worship of kami and the teachings of the Buddha soon settled down into coexistence.  In fact syncretism between Buddhism and Shinto (神仏集合 shinbutsushūgō, Shinto-Buddhism synthesis) was to become the dominant feature of Japanese religion as a whole.
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After the emergence of Japan as a unified nation-state, centered on Yamato, Shinto festivals and ceremonies (matsuri) became a combination of religious celebrations with  governmental functions.  These combined religious rites and state functions were called “matsuri-goto”meaning “affairs of religious festivals.” This term has maintained its meaning in the modern Japanese language as “the administration of government.”
  
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===Shinto and Buddhism===
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=== Shinto and Buddhism ===
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The introductions of writing in the 5th century and Buddhism in the 6th century had a profound impact on the development of a unified system of Shinto beliefs. Within a brief period of time, in the early [[Nara period]], the ''[[Kojiki]]'' (The Record of Ancient Things, [[712]]) and the ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' (The Chronicles of Japan, [[720]]) were written by compiling existing myths and legends into a unified account (''see: [[Japanese mythology]]''). These accounts were written with two purposes in mind. First, the introduction of [[Tao]]ist, [[Confucianism|Confucian]], and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] themes into Japanese religion. Second, to shore up support for the legitimacy of the Imperial house, based on its lineage from the Sun Goddess Amaterasu. Much of the area of modern Japan was under only fragmentary control by the Imperial family, and rival ethnic groups (including, perhaps, the ancestors of the [[Ainu people|Ainu]]) continued to war against the encroachment of the Japanese. The mythological anthologies, along with other poetry anthologies like the [[Manyoshu]] and others, were all meant to impress others with the worthiness of the Imperial family and their divine mandate to rule.
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In 538 C.E. Buddhism was introduced into Japan. Many Yamato courtiers accepted Buddhism, although in a Shintoistic way, worshipping the Buddha and the sutras as a “kami” of power. Though clan rivalry led to friction and fighting during the introduction of Buddhism, the worship of “kami” and the teachings of the Buddha soon settled into coexistence. In fact, syncretism between Buddhism and Shinto (神仏集合 shinbutsushūgō, Shinto-Buddhism synthesis) was to become the dominant feature of Japanese religion as a whole.  In 592 c.e. Prince Shotoku declared Buddhism the official religion of the Imperial Court. However, Shintoism and Buddhism continued to coexist  among the general Japanese population. With  Buddhism, which possessed highly logical and systematic doctrines, as a catalyst, Shinto began to clarify its own identity. Shinbutsu Shugo (神仏習合; the kanji stands for “Shinto, Buddhism, learn, join together”) is called the Japanese fusion of Buddhism and Shinto. Temples were attached to many shrines and became devoted to both Shinto deities and Buddha.  
  
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With the introduction of Buddhism and its rapid adoption by the court, it was necessary to explain the apparent differences between native Japanese beliefs and Buddhist teachings. Indeed, Shinto did not have a name until it became necessary to distinguish it from Buddhism. One explanation saw the Japanese [[kami]] as supernatural beings still caught in the cycle of birth and rebirth. The kami are born, live, die, and are reborn like all other beings in the karmic cycle. However, the kami played a special role in protecting Buddhism and allowing its teachings of compassion to flourish. This explanation was later challenged by [[Kukai]], who saw the kami as different embodiments of the Buddhas themselves. For example, he famously linked Amaterasu, Sun Goddess and ancestor of the Imperial family, with [[Dainichi Nyorai]], a central manifestation of the Buddha, whose name is literally "Great Sun Buddha". In his view, the kami were just Buddhas by another name.  
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Hachiman (Japanese, 八幡神 –shin; also can be read as Yawata no kami) is the Shinto god of war, and divine protector of Japan and the Japanese people. The name means god of eight banderoles.” His symbolic animal and messenger is the dove.  From ancient times Hachiman had been worshipped by peasants as the god of  agriculture and by fishermen who hoped he would fill their nets with fish. In the Shinto religion, he became identified by legend as the deified Emperor Ōjin, son of Empress Consort Jingū, from the 3rd - 4th century C.E.. However, after the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, Hachiman became a syncretistic deity, a harmonization of the native Shinto religion with Buddhism. In the Buddhist pantheon during the 8th century C.E., he became associated with the great bodhisattva Daibosatsu.
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During the 8th century c.e.(the beginning of the Heian era), the theory of “Honchi Suijyaku” emerged. This theory explained that the Shinto gods were merely manifestations (gongen) of Buddha and Bodhisattva, their true identity in India . Conversely, during the Kamakura era(1192-1336C.E.), a theory emerged that Buddha was merely a manifestation of Shinto’s kami.
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One explanation saw the Japanese kami as supernatural beings still caught in the cycle of birth and rebirth. The kami are born, live, die, and are reborn like all other beings in the karmic cycle. However, the kami played a special role in protecting Buddhism and allowing its teachings of compassion to flourish. This explanation was later challenged by Kukai, who saw the kami as different embodiments of the Buddhas themselves. For example, he famously linked Amaterasu, Sun Goddess and ancestor of the Imperial family, with Dainichi Nyorai, a central manifestation of the Buddha, whose name is literally "Great Sun Buddha". In his view, the kami were just Buddhas by another name.
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Buddhism and Shinto coexisted and were amalgamated in the Shinbutsu Shugo, and Kukai's syncretic view held wide sway up until the end of the Edo period. At that time, there was a renewed interest in "Japanese studies" (Kokugaku), perhaps as a result of the closed country policy.  During the 18th century.c.e., various Japanese scholars, in particular Motoori Norinaga (1730–1801), led a revival of interest in the Kojiki, the Nihonshoki and other ancient Shinto texts, and tried to separate the "real" Shinto from various foreign influences.
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=== State Shinto ===
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Hirata Atsutane (1776-1843.c.e.) was a follower of Motoori Norinaga.  In many of his books, Hirata characterized  Japan as the “Land of the Gods.”  During the Tokugawa shogunate (1603-1867.c.e.) the government’s international policy was to deliberately close the country to foreign influences. However, Western ideas continued to trickle into Japan via Dejima (出島, literally 'protruding island'), a fan-shaped artificial island in the bay of Nagasaki that was a Dutch trading post during Japan's self-imposed isolation of the Edo period, from 1641 until 1853.c.e.. Drawing on his knowledge of Dutch  and Chinese ideas, Hirata concluded that it was Shinto and its gods that set Japan apart from other nations.  He asserted that the Japanese people were descended from the kami who populate the Kojiki and the Nihonshoki.  Japan was the homeland of the gods and therefore especially blessed.  Hirata’s writings inspired his followers and sympathizers to promote these ideas and the Shinto Revival (1770s-1870s C.E.) occurred.  This revival helped to lay the foundation for the emergence of “State Shinto.”  Following the Meiji Restoration, Shinto was made the official religion of Japan, and in 1868 its combination with Buddhism was outlawed. During this period, numerous scholars of kokugaku felt that Shinto was needed in order to unify the country around the Emperor, as the process of modernization was undertaken with all possible speed. The psychological shock of the Western "Black Ships" and the subsequent collapse of the shogunate convinced many that the nation needed to band together if it was going to resist being colonized by outside forces. As a result, Shinto was used as a tool for promoting Emperor (and Empire) worship, and Shinto was exported into conquered territories like Hokkaido and Korea.
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In 1871, a Ministry of Divinities was formed and Shinto shrines were divided into twelve levels with the Ise Shrine (dedicated to Amaterasu, and thus symbolic of the legitimacy of the Imperial family) at the peak and the small sanctuaries of humble towns at the base. The following year, the ministry was replaced with a new Ministry of Religion, charged with leading instruction in "shushin" (moral courses). This was a major reverse from the Edo period, in which families were registered with Buddhist temples, rather than Shinto shrines. Priests were officially nominated and organized by the state, and they instructed the youth in a form of Shinto theology based on the official history of the divinity of Japan's national origins and its Emperor.  Children were taught in school that the Emperor was a direct descendant of Amaterasu, the Sun Godess, and that that the nation’s history began in 660 B.C.E. with the legendary Emperor Jimmu Tenno.
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As time went on, Shinto was increasingly used in the advertisement of nationalists' popular sentiments. The "Imperial Rescript on Education" (教育勅語 Kyôiku Chokugo) was signed by Emperor Meiji of Japan on October 30, 1890.  It was distributed to every school in the Japanese Empire, along with a portrait of the Emperor that was to be kept hidden from view.  The Rescript pushed traditional ideals of Confucianism, and students were required to ritually recite its oath to "offer yourselves courageously to the State" as well as to protect the Imperial family. The practice of Emperor worship was also further spread by distributing imperial portraits for esoteric veneration. All of these practices were used to fortify national solidarity through patriotic centralized observances at shrines. This use of Shinto gave to Japanese patriotism a special tint of mysticism and cultural introversion, which became more pronounced as time went on.  This process continued until the Showa Period, before coming to an abrupt halt in August 1945.
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=== Post-war ===
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The era of State Shinto came to an abrupt close with the end of World War II. It appeared that the kami had failed to provide a Divine Wind (kamikaze) to turn back the foreign invaders. Soon after the war, the Emperor issued a statement renouncing his claims to the status of "living god."  During the post-war period, numerous "New Religions" cropped up, many of them ostensibly based on Shinto, but on the whole, Japanese religiosity may have declined. The concept of religion in Japan is a complex one. A survey conducted in the mid-70's indicated that of those participants who claimed not to believe in religion, one-third had a Buddhist or Shinto altar in their home, and about one quarter carried an o-mamori (an amulet to gain protection by kami) on their person.  (O-mamori are sacred talismans used to contain prayers and invocations that ensure the wearer’s general good fortune.) Following World War II, Shinto has, for the most part, persisted with less importance placed on mythology and the divine mandate of the Imperial family. Instead, shrines tend to focus on helping ordinary people gain better fortune for themselves through maintaining good relations with their ancestors and other kami. Post-war, the number of Japanese citizens identifying their religious beliefs as Shinto has declined a considerably, yet the general practice of Shinto rituals has not decreased.  Many practices have persisted as general cultural beliefs (such as ancestor worship, which is still very popular), superstitions, and community matsuri（祭）, focusing more on religious practices and items than principles.  By far the important Shinto ritual is the annual local matsuri（祭）,  held in almost every town and village centered on the local shrine to the Shinto kami. The explanation generally given for this anomaly is that, following the demise of State Shinto, Shinto has reverted to its more traditional position as a folk religion which is culturally ingrained, rather than enforced.  In any case, Shinto and its values continue to be an important component of the Japanese cultural mindset.
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== Types ==
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In order to distinguish between the different points of emphasis within Shinto, many feel it is important to separate Shinto into four related types of Shinto expression.
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• Shrine Shinto is the oldest and most prevalent of the Shinto types. It has always been a part of Japan's history and constitutes the main current of Shinto tradition.
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• Sect Shinto is comprised of thirteen groups formed during the 19th century. They do not have shrines, but conduct religious activities in meeting halls. Shinto sects include the mountain-worship sects, who focus on worshipping mountains like Mt. Fuji, faith-healing sects, purification sects, Confucian sects, and Revival Shinto sects. Konkokyo, Tenrikyo, Kurozumikyo, although operating separately from modern Shinto, are considered to be a form of Sect Shinto.
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• Folk Shinto includes the numerous but fragmented folk beliefs in deities and spirits. Practices include divination, spirit possession, and shamanic healing. Some of these practices come from Taoism, Buddhism, or Confucianism, and some come from ancient local traditions.
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• State Shinto was the result of the Meiji dynasty's restoration and the downfall of the shogunate. The Meiji attempted to purify Shinto by abolishing many Buddhist and Confucian ideals; also, the Emperor was once again considered divine. After Japan's defeat in World War II, State Shinto was abolished and the Emperor was forced to renounce his divine right.  
  
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Buddhism and Shinto coexisted and were amalgamated in the [[Shinbutsu Shugo]] and Kukai's [[Syncretism|syncretic]] view held wide sway up until the end of the [[Edo period]]. At that time, there was a renewed interest in "Japanese studies" ([[kokugaku]]), perhaps as a result of the closed country policy. In the 18th century, various Japanese scholars, in particular [[Motoori Norinaga]] ([[1730]]–[[1801]]), tried to tease apart the "real" Shinto from various foreign influences. The attempt was largely unsuccessful; since as early as the ''Nihonshoki'', parts of the mythology were explicitly borrowed from Chinese doctrines. (For example, the co-creator deities [[Izanami]] and [[Izanagi]] are explicitly compared to [[yin and yang]].) However, the attempt did set the stage for the arrival of state Shinto, following the [[Meiji Restoration]], when Shinto and Buddhism were separated ([[Shinbutsu Bunri|Shinbutsu bunri]]).
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== Major Shinto Terms ==
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Wa (kind and beneficial harmony)
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One of the most important moral and ethical traditions propagated by Shinto is that group solidarity takes precedence over individual behavior. Many people are apt to think that the Japanese rely solely on Buddhist teachings for their ethical and moral codes, but rigorous examination shows that this is not true.  An essential point of Shinto is the idea that “wa” (kind ,benign and harmless harmony) is inherent in nature and social relationships.  This value existed in Japan before the arrival of Buddhism. Some scholars believe that the Japanese belief that the individual is less important than the group is a result of the culture of rice cultivations which was brought from the continent during the Yayoi period (ca. 800 B.C.E.-300 C.E.). While agricultural societies were being established in the several locations, primitive religions became a primitive form of Shinto, center on the rites of agriculture and rice cultivation.  Relationships of mutual assistance, harmony and good understanding were crucial for the cultivation of rice. The highest moral and ethical behaviors gave priority to the survival of the agricultural community. In such a  community, benign harmony in the community was a matter of life or death; if someone took independent action, solidarity would be broken . There are many agricultural societies in Asia, but  in the case of Japanese rice cultivators, society was deeply connected to religious rites. The concept of  “kami” arose in the Japanese agricultural society from the need for protection and prosperity. Throughout Japanese history, until the present, Shinto rites are mostly the connected with rice cultivation. The “niname” rice harvest festival was the most important Shinto festival.  During the period of the ancient nation state, according to Nihonshoki, a Niname Festival was conducted by the first Emperor Jimmu, who performed a ceremony for the pacification of spirits on the previous night. Until the present time, the Emperor’s family has continued to conduct this annual ceremony.
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== Sense of Awe ==
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Shinto is such an ancient tradition that its shrines, or jinja, reflect the natural landscape. The earliest jinja were a simple carved rock or tree. As time passed, the sacred areas were enclosed, and buildings resembling the store houses of the Yayoi culture (ca.800 B.C.E.- 300C.E.) were constructed. Many of the enclosed shrines were used for the veneration of rice deities. Two of the most ancient Shinto shrines are the shrines of Ise and Izumo. Ise Shrine is dedicated to the Sun Goddess Amaterasu.  Izumo shrine is for the worship of  the “Great Lord of the Country,” Okuninushi.
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Lafcadio Hearn, also known as Koizumi Yakumo, who lived in Japan during the Meiji Period (1868-1912), was the first Westerner to be granted the privilege of access to the inner sanctum of the Great Shrine of Izumo. Hearn explained the Shinto sense of the divine, and its recognition of gods in many natural phenomena: "The sense that there is something in the air itself, that some god-like presence can be faintly discerned in the mist-shrouded mountains or in the bright clear light that pours down on the uncannily blue surface of the lake - is this the way Shinto perceives the gods?" According to Hearn, the Shinto sense "some godlike presence" in the air, in the light of the sun, in the water, the sea, the mountains, the forest and the wind. Shinto is a tradition of prayer and celebrations that arose from a feeling of awe and reverence towards the natural entities which the Japanese feared and respected as "gods.”
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=== Afterlife ===
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Unlike many religions, one does not need to publicly profess belief in Shinto to be a Shintoist.  Whenever a child is born in Japan, a local [[Jinja (Shinto)|Shinto shrine]] adds the child's name to a list kept at the shrine and declares him or her "Ujiko", literally ''named child''.  After death an "Ujiko" becomes an "Ujigami"; literally, named kami.  One may choose to have one's name added to another list when moving and then be listed at both places. Names can be added to the list without consent and regardless of the beliefs of the person added to the list. However, this is not considered an imposition of belief, but a sign of the welcome of the area kami, with the promise of addition to the pantheon of kami after death.  Those children who die before addition to the list are called "Mizuko", literally ''water child'', and believed to cause troubles and plagues.  "Mizuko" are often worshipped in a Shinto shrine dedicated to stilling their anger and sadness. These shrines have become more popular with the growth of [[abortion]] in modern Japan.
  
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===State Shinto===
 
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Following the [[Meiji Restoration]], Shinto was made the official religion of Japan, and in [[1868]] its combination with Buddhism was outlawed. During this period, it was felt by numerous scholars of [[kokugaku]] that Shinto was needed in order to unify the country around the Emperor as the process of modernization was undertaken with all possible speed. The psychological shock of the Western "[[Black Ships]]" and the subsequent collapse of the [[shogunate]] convinced many that the nation needed to band together if it was going to resist being colonized by outside forces. As a result, Shinto was used as a tool for promoting Emperor (and Empire) worship, and Shinto was exported into conquered territories like [[Hokkaido]] and [[Korea]].
 
  
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In [[1871]], a Ministry of Divinities was formed and Shinto shrines were divided into twelve levels with the [[Grand Shrine of Ise|Ise Shrine]] (dedicated to Amaterasu, and thus symbolic of the legitimacy of the Imperial family) at the peak and small sanctuaries of humble towns at the base. The following year, the ministry was replaced with a new Ministry of Religion, charged with leading instruction in "[[shushin]]" (moral courses). This was a major reverse from the [[Edo period]], in which families were registered with Buddhist temples, rather than Shinto shrines. Priests were officially nominated and organized by the state, and they instructed the youth in a form of Shinto theology based on the official history of divinity of Japan's national origins and its Emperor.
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[[Image:ItsukushimaTorii.jpg|thumbnail|250px|left|Torii at Itsukushima Shrine]]
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As time went on, Shinto was increasingly used in the advertising of [[nationalists|nationalists']] popular sentiments. In [[1890]], the "[[Imperial Rescript on Education]]" was passed, and students were required to ritually recite its oath to "offer yourselves courageously to the State" as well as protect the Imperial family. The practice of Emperor worship was also further spread by distributing imperial portraits for esoteric veneration. All of these practices were used to fortify national solidarity through [[patriotic]] centralized observance at shrines. This use of Shinto gave to Japanese patriotism a special tint of [[mysticism]] and cultural introversion, which became more pronounced as time went on.
 
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Such processes continued deepening until the [[Showa Period]], before coming to an abrupt halt in August [[1945]].
 
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===Post-war===
 
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The era of State Shinto came to an abrupt close with the end of [[World War II]]. It appeared that the kami had failed to provide a Divine Wind ([[kamikaze|''kamikaze'']]) to turn back the foreign invaders. Soon after the war, the Emperor issued a statement renouncing his claims to the status of "living god." In the aftermath of the war, most Japanese came to believe that the hubris of Empire had led to their downfall. Lust for foreign territory blinded their leaders to the importance of their homeland. In the post-war period, numerous "[[Shinshukyo|New Religions]]" cropped up, many of them ostensibly based on Shinto, but on the whole, Japanese [[religiosity]] may have decreased. However, the concept of [[religion]] in Japan is a complex one. A survey conducted in the mid-70's indicated that of those participants who claimed not to believe in religion, one-third had a [[Japanese Buddhism|Buddhist]] or Shinto altar in their home, and about one quarter carried an [[o-mamori]] (an [[amulet]] to gain protection by [[kami]]) on their person.
 
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Following the war, Shinto has, for the most part, persisted with less importance placed on mythology or the divine mandate of the Imperial family. Instead, shrines tend to focus on helping ordinary people gain better fortunes for themselves through maintaining good relations with their ancestors and other [[kami]]. Post-war, the number of Japanese citizens identifying their religious beliefs as Shinto has declined a good deal, yet the general practice of Shinto rituals has not decreased accordingly, and many practices have persisted as general cultural beliefs (such as ancestor worship, which is still very popular), superstitions, and community [[matsuri]]（祭） - focusing more on religious practices and items than principles. The explanation generally given for this anomaly is that, following the demise of State Shinto, Shinto has reverted to its more traditional position as a folk religion which is culturally ingrained, rather than enforced. In any case, Shinto and its values continue to be an important component of the Japanese cultural mindset.
 
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==Definition==
 
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Shinto can be seen as a form of [[animism]] and may be regarded as a variety of [[shamanism|shamanist religion]].  Shinto beliefs and ways of thinking are deeply embedded in the subconscious fabric of modern Japanese society. The [[afterlife]] is not a primary concern in Shinto, and much more emphasis is placed on fitting into this world, instead of preparing for the next.  Shinto has no binding set of [[dogma]], no holiest place for worshippers, no person or [[kami]] deemed holiest, and no defined set of [[prayer]]s.  Instead, Shinto is a collection of rituals and methods meant to mediate the relations of living humans to kami.  These practices have originated organically in Japan over a span of many centuries and have been influenced by Japan's contact with the religions of other nations, especially China. Notice, for example, that the word Shinto is itself of Chinese origin and that much of the codification of Shinto mythology was done with the explicit aim of answering Chinese cultural influence. Conversely, Shinto had and continues to have an impact on the practice of other religions within Japan. In particular, one could even make a case for discussing it under the heading of [[Japanese Buddhism]], since these two religions have exercised a profound influence on each other throughout Japanese history.  Further, the Japanese "[[Religions of Japan#New Religions|New religions]]" that have emerged since the end of the Second World War have also shown a clear Shinto influence.
 
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Some feel Shinto was used as a legitimising ideology during the militaristic phase of [[History of Japan|Japanese history]] following the [[Meiji Restoration]]. Because Shinto has no absolute source of authority, some feel what was a natural expression of the beliefs of the people was hijacked by radical [[Nationalist]]s, who desired to unify the Japanese people against the "inferior" people in other nations. Others wonder if the emphasis Shinto places on Japanese [[exceptionalism]] made such developments inevitable. Even today, some [[far right]] factions within Japanese society want to see a greater emphasis placed on Shinto and increased reverence shown to the Emperor as part of a project to restore Japan to its "rightful place" as the leading nation of the world. However, for most Japanese, Shinto is not about expressing disdain for other nations but expressing one's own love of the natural landscape of Japan and the people and spirits that reside within it.
 
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===Types===
 
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In order to distinguish between these different focuses of emphasis within Shinto, many feel it is important to separate Shinto into four related types of Shinto expression.
 
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−
*'''Shrine Shinto''' is the oldest and most prevalent of the Shinto types.  It has always been a part of Japan's history and constitutes the main current of Shinto tradition.
 
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*'''Sect Shinto''' is comprised of thirteen groups formed during the [[19th century]]. They do not have shrines, but conduct religious activities in meeting halls. Shinto sects include the mountain-worship sects, who focus on worshipping mountains like [[Mt. Fuji]], [[faith healing|faith-healing]] sects, [[purification]] sects, [[Confucian]] sects, and [[Revival Shinto]] sects. [[Konkokyo]],[[Tenrikyo]],[[Kurozumikyo]],although operating separately from modern Shinto, is considered to be a form of Sect Shinto.
 
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*'''Folk Shinto''' includes the numerous but fragmented folk beliefs in deities and spirits. Practices include [[divination]], [[spirit possession]], and [[shaman]]ic healing. Some of their practices come from [[Taoism]], [[Buddhism]], or [[Confucianism]], but some come from ancient local traditions.
 
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*'''State Shinto''' was the result of the Meiji dynasty's restoration and the downfall of the [[shogunate]].  The Meiji attempted to purify Shinto by abolishing many Buddhist and Confucian ideals; also, the emperor was once again considered divine. After Japan's defeat in World War II, State Shinto was abolished and the emperor was forced to renounce his divine right.
 
  
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===Characteristics===
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== Shrines and the Torii (Sacred Gateway) ==
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[[Image:ItsukushimaTorii.jpg|thumbnail|250px|left|Torii at Itsukushima Shrine]]
 
  
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The most immediately striking theme in the Shinto religion is a great love and reverence for nature. Thus, a waterfall, the [[moon]], or just an oddly shaped rock might come to be regarded as a kami; so might charismatic persons or more abstract entities like growth and fertility. As time went by, the original nature-worshipping roots of the religion, while never lost entirely, became attenuated and the kami took on more reified and [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] forms, with a formidable corpus of [[Mythology|myth]] attached to them. (''See also: [[Japanese mythology]].'') The kami, though, are not transcendent deities in the usual Western and Indian sense of the word - although divine, they are close to us; they inhabit the same world as we do, make the same mistakes as we do, and feel and think the same way as we do. Those who died would automatically be added to the rank of kami regardless of their human doings. (Though it is thought that one can become a ghost under certain circumstances involving unsettled disputes in life.) Belief is not a central aspect in Shinto, and proper observation of ritual is more important than whether one "truly believes" in the ritual. Thus, even those believing other religions may be venerated as kami after death, if there are Shinto believers who wish them to be.
+
Early ceremonies are thought to have been held outside before trees or sacred rocks ([[Iwakura (Shinto)|iwakura]]).  There was no representation of the kami, for they were conceived as formless and pure. After the arrival of Buddhism in the sixth century, the idea of building 'houses' for the kami arose and shrines were built for the first time.  The earliest examples are thought to have been at Izumo (659 C.E..) and [[Ise]] (690 C.E..).
 +
The oldest Shinto shrine is thought to be Izumo Shrine.  According to the Japanese mythology in the Kojiki, Susanoo is the brother of Amaterasu, the goddess of the sun,  and of Tsukuyomi, the god of the moon. All three were spawned from Izanagi. There is a long-standing rivalry between Susanoo and his sister Amaterasu, which eventually led her, in fury and grief, to hide inside Amano-Iwato, the "heavenly rock cave", thus effectively hiding the sun for a long period of time. She was persuaded to leave the cave and Susanoo was punished by being banished from heaven. He descended to the province of Izumo, where he met an elderly couple. Seven of their eight daughters had been devoured by eight-headed serpent Yamata no Orochi and it was about to come for the eighth, Kushinada-hime. After the couple promised their daughter's hand in marriage to Susanoo, he agreed to slay Orochi. Susanoo gave it eight bowls of sake (one for each head), and decapitated the monster once it had fallen asleep.  While Amaterasu is enshrined at Ise Shrine, Susanoo is enshrined in Izumo, where he descended when banished from heaven.  In Izumo, after his marriage to the eigth daughter, Susanoo is supposed to have composed a Japanese tanka poem which was the first poem in Japanese history:
 +
“Eight clouds arise.
 +
The eightfold fence of Izumo
 +
Makes an eightfold fence
 +
For the spouses to retire within.
 +
Oh! That eightfold fence.”
 +
The number eight is a reference to the eight islands of Japan named in ancient chronicles. The Izumo Shrine is still enclosed by a fence beyond which mortals may not pass. 
 +
On the outside of every Shinto shrine are several classic Shinto gates, or torii, which stand alone.  These gates, found at every Shinto temple, are unconnected to any fence or wall, and symbolize the separation between the “inner” sanctuary and the “outer” secular world.  Passing through them is a rite of purification.  After passing under the gates, the worshipper usually enters a public worship hall and then an inner sanctuary where the priests make offerings to the gods. The kami are enshrined in a small cabinet in the sanctuary.  Worshippers clap three times, pray and toss a donation into an offering box. 
 +
The principal worship of kami is performed at public shrines, although worship at small private shrines in the home (sometimes only a high shelf with a few ritual objects) is also common. It is also possible to worship objects or people while they exist. While a few public shrines are elaborate structures, most are small buildings in the characteristic Japanese architectural style. There are well over 100,000 of these shrines in operation today, each with its retinue of Shinto priests. The main sanctuary is called a “honden.” Some shrines, such as those that have a mountain or other large natural object for a center of worship, have no sanctuary at all, just a pavilion where the worshipper can stand and gaze at it..
 +
Shinto priests often wear a ceremonial robe called a jo-e. Kami are invoked at such important ceremonies as weddings and entry into a university. The kami are commonly petitioned for earthly benefits, such as a child, a promotion, or a happier life. While one may wish ill fortune on others, this is believed to be possible only if the target has first committed  a wrong, or if one is willing to offer one's life. Shinto is popular for the occasions of daily life,  but when it comes to funerals most Japanese turn to Buddhist ceremonies, since the emphasis in Shinto is on this life and not the next.  
  
 
==Practices and teachings==
 
==Practices and teachings==
 
[[Image:KasugaTaisha2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Tying her [[omikuji]] (fortune) at [[Kasuga Shrine]]]]
 
[[Image:KasugaTaisha2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Tying her [[omikuji]] (fortune) at [[Kasuga Shrine]]]]
  
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===Afterlife===
+
== Impurity and Purification ==
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Unlike many religions, one does not need to publicly profess belief in Shinto to be a Shintoist.  Whenever a child is born in Japan, a local [[Jinja (Shinto)|Shinto shrine]] adds the child's name to a list kept at the shrine and declares him or her "Ujiko", literally ''named child''.  After death an "Ujiko" becomes an "Ujigami"; literally, named kami.  One may choose to have one's name added to another list when moving and then be listed at both places. Names can be added to the list without consent and regardless of the beliefs of the person added to the list. However, this is not considered an imposition of belief, but a sign of the welcome of the area kami, with the promise of addition to the pantheon of kami after death.  Those children who die before addition to the list are called "Mizuko", literally ''water child'', and believed to cause troubles and plagues.  "Mizuko" are often worshipped in a Shinto shrine dedicated to stilling their anger and sadness. These shrines have become more popular with the growth of [[abortion]] in modern Japan.
+
Shinto teaches that certain deeds create a kind of ritual impurity that needs to cleansed, not because it is wrong, but for one's own peace of mind and good fortune. Wrong deeds are called kegare (literally, "dirtiness"), as opposed to kiyome (purity). Normal days are called ke (day), and festive days are called hare (sunny, or simply good). The killing of living beings should be done with reverence and the attitude of taking a life in order to continue one's own.  Modern Japanese continue to place great emphasis on the importance of aisatsu, or ritual phrases and greetings. Before eating, most (though not all) Japanese say "itadakimasu" ("I will humbly receive [this food]") in order to show proper thankfulness to the preparer of the meal in particular and more generally to all those living things that lost their lives to make the meal. Failure to show proper respect can be seen as a lack of concern for others, looked down on because it is believed to create problems for all. Those who fail to take into account the feelings of other people and kami will only bring ruin on themselves. The worst expression of such an attitude is the taking of another's life for personal advancement or enjoyment. Those killed without being shown gratitude for their sacrifice will hold "urami" (a grudge) and become aragami, a powerful and evil kami that seeks revenge. This same emphasis on the need for cooperation and collaboration can be seen throughout Japanese culture today.
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+
Purification rites are a vital part of Shinto. These may serve to placate any restive kami, for instance when their shrine had to be relocated. Such ceremonies have also been adapted to modern life. For example, a ceremony was held in 1969 to hallow the Apollo 11 mission to the moon, new buildings made in Japan are frequently blessed by a Shinto priest during the groundbreaking ceremony, and many cars made in Japan have been blessed as part of the assembly process. A more personal purification rite is the purification by water. This may involve standing beneath a waterfall or performing ritual ablutions in a river-mouth or in the sea. These two forms of purification are often referred to as harae (祓). A third form of purification is avoidance, that is, the taboo placed on certain persons or acts. For example, women were not allowed to climb Mount Fuji until 1868, in the era of the Meiji Restoration. Although this aspect has decreased in recent years, religious Japanese will not use an inauspicious word like "cut" at a wedding, nor will they attend a wedding if they have recently been bereaved.
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Because Shinto has co-existed with Buddhism for well over a millennium, it is very difficult to disentangle Shinto and Buddhist beliefs about the world. One might say that where Buddhism emphasizes the afterlife and ending the [[Rebirth (Buddhism)|cycle of rebirth]]s, Shinto emphasizes this life and finding happiness within it. Though Buddhism and Shinto have very different perspectives on the world, most Japanese do not see any challenge in reconciling these two very different religions, and practice both. Thus it is common for people to practice Shinto in life yet have a Buddhist funeral. Their different perspectives on the afterlife are seen as complementing each other, and frequently the ritual practice of one will have an origin in the other.
 
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===Four affirmations===
 
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Though Shinto has no absolute commandments for its adherents outside of living "a simple and harmonious life with nature and people", there are said to be "Four Affirmations" of the Shinto spirit:
 
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*[[Tradition]] and the [[family]]: The family is seen as the main mechanism by which traditions are preserved. Their main celebrations relate to birth and marriage.
 
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*Love of [[nature]]: Nature is sacred; to be in contact with nature is to be close to the kami. Natural objects are worshipped as containing sacred spirits.
 
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*Physical cleanliness: Followers of Shinto take baths, wash their hands, and rinse out their mouth often.
 
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*"[[Matsuri]]": Any festival dedicated to the Kami, of which there are many each year.
 
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−
===Impurity===
 
−
Shinto teaches that certain deeds create a kind of [[ritual cleanliness|ritual impurity]] that one should want cleansed for one's own peace of mind and good fortune, not because impurity is wrong in and of itself. Wrong deeds are called ''kegare'' (literally, "dirtiness"), opposed to ''kiyome'' (purity). Normal days are called ''ke'' (day), and festive days are called ''hare'' (sunny, or simply good). Killing living beings should be done with reverence for taking a life to continue one's own, and should be kept to a minimum.  Modern Japanese continue to place great emphasis on the importance of ''aisatsu'', or ritual phrases and greetings. Before eating, most (though not all) Japanese say "''itadakimasu''" ("I will humbly receive [this food]") in order to show proper thankfulness to the preparer of the meal in particular and more generally to all those living things that lost their lives to make the meal. Failure to show proper respect can be seen as a lack of concern for others, looked down on because it is believed to create problems for all. Those who fail to take into account the feelings of other people and ''kami'' will only bring ruin on themselves. The worst expression of such an attitude is the taking of another's life for personal advancement or enjoyment. Those killed without being shown gratitude for their sacrifice will hold "urami" (a grudge) and become ''aragami'', a powerful and evil kami that seeks revenge. This same emphasis on the need for cooperation and collaboration can be seen throughout Japanese culture today.
 
−
 
 
−
===Purification===
 
−
[[Ritual purification|Purification]] rites are a vital part of Shinto. These may serve to placate any restive kami, for instance when their shrine had to be relocated. Such ceremonies have also been adapted to modern life. For example, a ceremony was held in 1969 to hallow the ''[[Apollo 11]]'' mission to the moon, new buildings made in Japan are frequently [[blessing|blessed]] by a Shinto priest during the groundbreaking ceremony, and many cars made in Japan have been blessed as part of the assembly process. A more personal purification rite is the purification by water. This may involve standing beneath a waterfall or performing ritual [[ablution]]s in a river-mouth or in the sea. These two forms of purification are often referred to as [[harae]] (祓). A third form of purification is avoidance, that is, the [[taboo]] placed on certain persons or acts. For example, women were not allowed to climb [[Mount Fuji]] until [[1868]], in the era of the [[Meiji Restoration]]. Although this aspect has decreased in recent years, religious Japanese will not use an inauspicious word like "cut" at a wedding, nor will they attend a wedding if they have recently been bereaved.  
 
  
 
[[Image:Shinto_shrine.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Gateway to Shinto shrine with torii gate]]
 
[[Image:Shinto_shrine.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Gateway to Shinto shrine with torii gate]]
  
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===Shrines===
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=== Ema ===
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The principal worship of kami is done at public [[jinja (Shinto)|shrines]], although home worship at small private shrines (sometimes only a high shelf with a few ritual objects) is also common. It is also possible to worship objects or people while they exist.  While a few of the public shrines are elaborate structures, most are small buildings in the characteristic Japanese architectural style. Shrines are commonly fronted by a distinctive Japanese gate (''[[torii]]'') made of two uprights and two crossbars. These gates are there as a part of the barrier to separate our living world and the world the kami live in. There are often two guardian animals placed at each side of the gate and they serve to protect the entrance.  There are well over 100,000 of these shrines in operation today, each with its retinue of Shinto priests. Shinto priests often wear a ceremonial robe called a [http://www.iz2.or.jp/english/fukusyoku/wayou/10.htm jo-e]. Kami are invoked at such important ceremonies as [[wedding]]s and entry into [[university]]. The kami are commonly petitioned for quite earthly benefits; a child, a promotion, a happier life.  While one may wish for ill bidding on others, this is believed to be possible only if the target has committed wrongs first, or if one is willing to offer one's life.  Though Shinto is popular for these occasions, when it comes to [[funeral]]s most Japanese turn to Buddhist ceremonies, since  the emphasis in Shinto is on this life and not the next. Almost all festivals (''[[matsuri]]'') in Japan are hosted by local Shinto shrines and these festivals are open to all those that wish to attend. While these could be said to be religious events, Japanese do not regard these events as religious since everyone can attend, regardless of personal beliefs.
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In medieval times, wealthy people would donate horses to shrines, especially when making a request of the god of the shrine (for example, when praying for victory in battle). For smaller favors, giving a picture of a horse became customary, and these ema (絵馬) are popular today. The visitor to a shrine purchases a wooden tablet with a likeness of a horse, or nowadays, something else (a snake, an arrow, even a portrait of Thomas Edison), writes a wish or prayer on the tablet, and hangs it at the shrine. In some cases, if the wish comes true, the person hangs another ema at the shrine in gratitude.
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[edit]
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===Gods(Kami)===
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Cultural effects
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Shinto's kami are collectively called ''Yaoyorozu no Kami'' (八百万の神), a traditional expression literally meaning "eight million kami". The arcane name of eight million, ''Yaoyorozu'', is not the exact number, but the concept of an infinite number did not exist at that time.
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Many famously Japanese practices have origins either directly or indirectly rooted in Shinto. For example, it is clear that the Shinto ideal of harmony with nature underlies such typically Japanese arts as flower-arranging (ikebana), paper-folding (origami), and traditional Japanese architecture and garden design. A link to Shinto is seen in sumo wrestling, where, even in the modern version of the sport, many Shinto-inspired ceremonies must be performed before a bout, such as purifying the wrestling arena by sprinkling it with salt. The Japanese emphasis on proper greetings and respectful phrasings can be seen as a continuation of the ancient Shinto belief in kotodama (words with a magical effect on the world).  
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The most widely worshipped of all kami is the [[Solar deity|sun-goddess]] [[Amaterasu]]. However, Japanese do not specifically worship Her or invoke her name to ask for help.  Her main shrine is the [[Grand Shrine of Ise]], but many lesser shrines are dedicated to Her. Within the shrine, She is often symbolised by a mirror. Alternatively, the inner sanctum may be empty. This emptiness does not mean non-existence; rather, it symbolizes that everything that one sees through the mirror is the embodiment of Amaterasu and every other kami.
 
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Until the end of World War II, the [[Tenno]] (Emperor) was believed to have been descended from Amaterasu and father of all Japanese, and was therefore a kami on earth (an ''ikigami'' or "living kami"); this divine status was popularized during the [[Meiji Restoration]]. This did not prevent military governors (''[[Shogun]]'') from usurping power, but the emperor was always seen as the true ruler of Japan, even when his rule was only nominal. Although [[Hirohito|Emperor Hirohito]] renounced his divine status in 1946 under American pressure (''[[Ningen-sengen]]''), the imperial family remains deeply involved in the Shinto ritual that unifies the Japanese nation symbolically.  Because Shinto doesn't require a declaration or an enforcement to be worshipped, which is actually "unharmonious" and is something to be avoided, this declaration, while serving political reasons, is religiously meaningless and merely means that the state enforcement has ended.
 
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===''Ema''===
 
 
[[Image:EmaMeijiShrine1197.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Ema at a Shinto shrine]]
 
[[Image:EmaMeijiShrine1197.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Ema at a Shinto shrine]]
 
In [[History of Japan#Feudal Japan|medieval times]], wealthy people would donate horses to shrines, especially when making a request of the god of the shrine (for example, when praying for victory in battle). For smaller favors, giving a picture of a horse became customary, and these [[Ema (Shinto)|ema]] (絵馬) are popular today. The visitor to a shrine purchases a wooden tablet with a likeness of a horse, or nowadays, something else (a snake, an arrow, even a portrait of [[Thomas Edison]]), writes a wish or prayer on the tablet, and hangs it at the shrine. In some cases, if the wish comes true, the person hangs another ema at the shrine in gratitude.
 
In [[History of Japan#Feudal Japan|medieval times]], wealthy people would donate horses to shrines, especially when making a request of the god of the shrine (for example, when praying for victory in battle). For smaller favors, giving a picture of a horse became customary, and these [[Ema (Shinto)|ema]] (絵馬) are popular today. The visitor to a shrine purchases a wooden tablet with a likeness of a horse, or nowadays, something else (a snake, an arrow, even a portrait of [[Thomas Edison]]), writes a wish or prayer on the tablet, and hangs it at the shrine. In some cases, if the wish comes true, the person hangs another ema at the shrine in gratitude.
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==Cultural effects==
 
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Shinto has been called "the religion of Japan", and the customs and values of Shinto are inseparable from those of Japanese culture prior to the influx of Chinese religious ideas that occurred in the mid [[6th century]]. Many famously Japanese practices have origins either directly or indirectly rooted in Shinto. For example, it is clear that the Shinto ideal of harmony with nature underlies such typically Japanese arts as flower-arranging (''[[ikebana]]'') and traditional Japanese [[Japanese architecture|architecture]] and [[Japanese garden|garden design]]. A more explicit link to Shinto is seen in [[sumo]] wrestling, where, even in the modern version of the sport, many Shinto-inspired ceremonies must be performed before a bout, such as purifying the wrestling arena by sprinkling it with salt. The Japanese emphasis on proper greetings and respectful phrasings can be seen as a continuation of the ancient Shinto belief in ''[[kotodama]]'' (words with a magical effect on the world). Many Japanese cultural customs, like using wooden [[chopsticks]] and removing shoes before entering a building, have their origin in Shinto beliefs and practices. Also, a number of other Japanese religions, including [[Tenrikyo]], have originated from or been influenced by Shinto.  Tenrikyo is a religion of Shinto origin with some Buddhist influence.
 
  
 
==Important shrines==
 
==Important shrines==

Revision as of 15:17, 6 June 2006

Shinto (Kanji: 神道 Shintō) (sometimes called Shintoism) is a native religion of Japan and was once its state religion. It involves the worship of kami, which can be translated to mean "sacred spirits which take the form of things and concepts important to life, such as wind, rain, mountains, trees, rivers and fertility." Some kami are local and can be regarded as the spirit or genius of a particular place, but others represent major natural objects and processes, for example, Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess. The word Shinto was created by combining two kanji: "神" shin, meaning gods or spirits (the character can also be read as "kami" in Japanese), and "道" tō meaning "way" or "path" in a philosophical sense (the same character is used for the Chinese word Dao). As such, Shinto is commonly translated as "the Way of the Gods".

A torii at Itsukushima Shrine

After World War II, Shinto lost its status of state religion; some Shinto practices and teachings, once given a great deal of prominence, are no longer taught nor practiced today, and others remain largely as everyday activities, like omikuji (a form of drawing lots) and Japanese New Year.

History

Primitive Religions in Japan

Archeological evidences indicates that Stone Age people lived in the Japanese Archipelago between 33,000 and 21,000 years ago during the Paleolithic period. Japan was then connected to mainland Asia by land bridges, and nomadic hunter-gatherers crossed over from the Korean Peninsula and Siberia. They left flint tools, but no evidence of permanent settlements. On the islands of Japan there were various natural phenomena, such as volcanic activity, severe earthquakes, and major typhoons. These natural forces were named “mono.” Gradually it was postulated that there were some kind of spiritual beings, called “kami,” behind these natural forces. Some historians maintain that these beliefs in spiritual beings developed during the Yayoi (800 B.C.E. - 300 C.E.) period because immigrants from China and Korea brought agricultural rites (centered upon the cultivation of rice) and shamanic ceremonies from the continent. These took on Japanese forms in the new environment. The inhabitants of Japan started to be conscious of their ancestors’ spirits, named “tama,” as spiritual beings who could influence the prosperity and productivity of their communities. The ”mono” was a being with no personality, expressed in mere natural forces, but ”tama” and “kami” were beings with some kind of personality or human-like characteristics. Eventually “tama” and “kami” became enshrined for worship by people who expected them to control natural circumstances and protect their lives. Gradually these enshrined “tama” and “kami” came to be regarded as “gods” or “deities” with stronger and clearer personalities. These religious forms can be called a primitive or early religion. Primitive religions can be classified in two groups. One is Animatism, religion worshipping the power of beings without personality. The other is Animism, a religion with spiritual beings that have human-like personalities. According to this classification, the worship of “mono” is Animatism and the worship of “tama” and ”kami” is Animism. Many religious styles of Animatism and Animism can be observed all over the world. In order to grasp the character of the indigenous religious beliefs and practices of Japan, we should first understand that there is a continuation of the concept of “tama” and “kami,” even though these terms changed to “gods” or “deities.” These mixed religious concepts are the basic and original religion in Japan.

Origin of Shinto

Shinto's kami are collectively called Yaoyorozu no Kami (八百万の神), a traditional expression literally meaning "eight million kami." The arcane name of eight million, Yaoyorozu, is not an exact number, but an expression indicating that there is a great variety of polytheistic forms. These gods were the figures that Animistic beings had be having stronger and clear personarities.

During the early Nara period, the Kojiki ( 712 C.E.) and the Nihon shoki (The Chronicles of Japan, 720 C.E.) were written by compiling existing myths and legends into unified accounts. Kojiki, the older text, focused on establishing the identity of the Imperial family as descendants of a divine being. Kojiki, together with Nihonshoki, became a primary sacred text of Shintoism. In Kojiki we can see the process of the creation of the nation and the genealogy of gods. There were descriptions of the god of the mountain and the god of the fields. The god of the mountain was named “oyamatsumi no kami”and the god of the fields was named “kayanohime gami”. This description shows that the Animistic kami changed to gods with names who had clearer and stronger personalities .The period during which the “kami” emerged as “gods” coincided with the appearance of the first nation of Japan, ruled by an emperor.

Around this time, in each rice-cultivating agricultural community, agricultural rites were celebrated seasonally and communal religious activities were performed centered upon kami-nature. Gradually each kami was associated with local ruling clan (uji) and the kami was named ujigami. The leaders of the strongest clan in the Yamato region (near present-day Nara) came to be regarded as descendants of the universally recognized chief kami, the sun goddess Amaterasu. She was born from the left eye of Izanagi as he purified himself in a river, and went on to become the ruler of the Higher Celestial plane (Takamagahara). She was also considered to be directly linked in lineage to the Imperial Household of Japan and the Emperor, who were considered Descendants of the Kami themselves. As a descendant of Amaterasu, Jimmu Tenno became the first emperor.

After the emergence of Japan as a unified nation-state, centered on Yamato, Shinto festivals and ceremonies (matsuri) became a combination of religious celebrations with governmental functions. These combined religious rites and state functions were called “matsuri-goto”meaning “affairs of religious festivals.” This term has maintained its meaning in the modern Japanese language as “the administration of government.”

Shinto and Buddhism

In 538 C.E. Buddhism was introduced into Japan. Many Yamato courtiers accepted Buddhism, although in a Shintoistic way, worshipping the Buddha and the sutras as a “kami” of power. Though clan rivalry led to friction and fighting during the introduction of Buddhism, the worship of “kami” and the teachings of the Buddha soon settled into coexistence. In fact, syncretism between Buddhism and Shinto (神仏集合 shinbutsushūgō, Shinto-Buddhism synthesis) was to become the dominant feature of Japanese religion as a whole. In 592 C.E. Prince Shotoku declared Buddhism the official religion of the Imperial Court. However, Shintoism and Buddhism continued to coexist among the general Japanese population. With Buddhism, which possessed highly logical and systematic doctrines, as a catalyst, Shinto began to clarify its own identity. Shinbutsu Shugo (神仏習合; the kanji stands for “Shinto, Buddhism, learn, join together”) is called the Japanese fusion of Buddhism and Shinto. Temples were attached to many shrines and became devoted to both Shinto deities and Buddha.

Hachiman (Japanese, 八幡神 –shin; also can be read as Yawata no kami) is the Shinto god of war, and divine protector of Japan and the Japanese people. The name means god of eight banderoles.” His symbolic animal and messenger is the dove. From ancient times Hachiman had been worshipped by peasants as the god of agriculture and by fishermen who hoped he would fill their nets with fish. In the Shinto religion, he became identified by legend as the deified Emperor Ōjin, son of Empress Consort Jingū, from the 3rd - 4th century C.E.. However, after the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, Hachiman became a syncretistic deity, a harmonization of the native Shinto religion with Buddhism. In the Buddhist pantheon during the 8th century C.E., he became associated with the great bodhisattva Daibosatsu. During the 8th century C.E.(the beginning of the Heian era), the theory of “Honchi Suijyaku” emerged. This theory explained that the Shinto gods were merely manifestations (gongen) of Buddha and Bodhisattva, their true identity in India . Conversely, during the Kamakura era(1192-1336C.E.), a theory emerged that Buddha was merely a manifestation of Shinto’s kami. One explanation saw the Japanese kami as supernatural beings still caught in the cycle of birth and rebirth. The kami are born, live, die, and are reborn like all other beings in the karmic cycle. However, the kami played a special role in protecting Buddhism and allowing its teachings of compassion to flourish. This explanation was later challenged by Kukai, who saw the kami as different embodiments of the Buddhas themselves. For example, he famously linked Amaterasu, Sun Goddess and ancestor of the Imperial family, with Dainichi Nyorai, a central manifestation of the Buddha, whose name is literally "Great Sun Buddha". In his view, the kami were just Buddhas by another name. Buddhism and Shinto coexisted and were amalgamated in the Shinbutsu Shugo, and Kukai's syncretic view held wide sway up until the end of the Edo period. At that time, there was a renewed interest in "Japanese studies" (Kokugaku), perhaps as a result of the closed country policy. During the 18th century.c.e., various Japanese scholars, in particular Motoori Norinaga (1730–1801), led a revival of interest in the Kojiki, the Nihonshoki and other ancient Shinto texts, and tried to separate the "real" Shinto from various foreign influences.

State Shinto

Hirata Atsutane (1776-1843.c.e.) was a follower of Motoori Norinaga. In many of his books, Hirata characterized Japan as the “Land of the Gods.” During the Tokugawa shogunate (1603-1867.c.e.) the government’s international policy was to deliberately close the country to foreign influences. However, Western ideas continued to trickle into Japan via Dejima (出島, literally 'protruding island'), a fan-shaped artificial island in the bay of Nagasaki that was a Dutch trading post during Japan's self-imposed isolation of the Edo period, from 1641 until 1853.c.e.. Drawing on his knowledge of Dutch and Chinese ideas, Hirata concluded that it was Shinto and its gods that set Japan apart from other nations. He asserted that the Japanese people were descended from the kami who populate the Kojiki and the Nihonshoki. Japan was the homeland of the gods and therefore especially blessed. Hirata’s writings inspired his followers and sympathizers to promote these ideas and the Shinto Revival (1770s-1870s C.E.) occurred. This revival helped to lay the foundation for the emergence of “State Shinto.” Following the Meiji Restoration, Shinto was made the official religion of Japan, and in 1868 its combination with Buddhism was outlawed. During this period, numerous scholars of kokugaku felt that Shinto was needed in order to unify the country around the Emperor, as the process of modernization was undertaken with all possible speed. The psychological shock of the Western "Black Ships" and the subsequent collapse of the shogunate convinced many that the nation needed to band together if it was going to resist being colonized by outside forces. As a result, Shinto was used as a tool for promoting Emperor (and Empire) worship, and Shinto was exported into conquered territories like Hokkaido and Korea. In 1871, a Ministry of Divinities was formed and Shinto shrines were divided into twelve levels with the Ise Shrine (dedicated to Amaterasu, and thus symbolic of the legitimacy of the Imperial family) at the peak and the small sanctuaries of humble towns at the base. The following year, the ministry was replaced with a new Ministry of Religion, charged with leading instruction in "shushin" (moral courses). This was a major reverse from the Edo period, in which families were registered with Buddhist temples, rather than Shinto shrines. Priests were officially nominated and organized by the state, and they instructed the youth in a form of Shinto theology based on the official history of the divinity of Japan's national origins and its Emperor. Children were taught in school that the Emperor was a direct descendant of Amaterasu, the Sun Godess, and that that the nation’s history began in 660 B.C.E. with the legendary Emperor Jimmu Tenno. As time went on, Shinto was increasingly used in the advertisement of nationalists' popular sentiments. The "Imperial Rescript on Education" (教育勅語 Kyôiku Chokugo) was signed by Emperor Meiji of Japan on October 30, 1890. It was distributed to every school in the Japanese Empire, along with a portrait of the Emperor that was to be kept hidden from view. The Rescript pushed traditional ideals of Confucianism, and students were required to ritually recite its oath to "offer yourselves courageously to the State" as well as to protect the Imperial family. The practice of Emperor worship was also further spread by distributing imperial portraits for esoteric veneration. All of these practices were used to fortify national solidarity through patriotic centralized observances at shrines. This use of Shinto gave to Japanese patriotism a special tint of mysticism and cultural introversion, which became more pronounced as time went on. This process continued until the Showa Period, before coming to an abrupt halt in August 1945.

Post-war

The era of State Shinto came to an abrupt close with the end of World War II. It appeared that the kami had failed to provide a Divine Wind (kamikaze) to turn back the foreign invaders. Soon after the war, the Emperor issued a statement renouncing his claims to the status of "living god." During the post-war period, numerous "New Religions" cropped up, many of them ostensibly based on Shinto, but on the whole, Japanese religiosity may have declined. The concept of religion in Japan is a complex one. A survey conducted in the mid-70's indicated that of those participants who claimed not to believe in religion, one-third had a Buddhist or Shinto altar in their home, and about one quarter carried an o-mamori (an amulet to gain protection by kami) on their person. (O-mamori are sacred talismans used to contain prayers and invocations that ensure the wearer’s general good fortune.) Following World War II, Shinto has, for the most part, persisted with less importance placed on mythology and the divine mandate of the Imperial family. Instead, shrines tend to focus on helping ordinary people gain better fortune for themselves through maintaining good relations with their ancestors and other kami. Post-war, the number of Japanese citizens identifying their religious beliefs as Shinto has declined a considerably, yet the general practice of Shinto rituals has not decreased. Many practices have persisted as general cultural beliefs (such as ancestor worship, which is still very popular), superstitions, and community matsuri（祭）, focusing more on religious practices and items than principles. By far the important Shinto ritual is the annual local matsuri（祭）, held in almost every town and village centered on the local shrine to the Shinto kami. The explanation generally given for this anomaly is that, following the demise of State Shinto, Shinto has reverted to its more traditional position as a folk religion which is culturally ingrained, rather than enforced. In any case, Shinto and its values continue to be an important component of the Japanese cultural mindset.

Types

In order to distinguish between the different points of emphasis within Shinto, many feel it is important to separate Shinto into four related types of Shinto expression. • Shrine Shinto is the oldest and most prevalent of the Shinto types. It has always been a part of Japan's history and constitutes the main current of Shinto tradition. • Sect Shinto is comprised of thirteen groups formed during the 19th century. They do not have shrines, but conduct religious activities in meeting halls. Shinto sects include the mountain-worship sects, who focus on worshipping mountains like Mt. Fuji, faith-healing sects, purification sects, Confucian sects, and Revival Shinto sects. Konkokyo, Tenrikyo, Kurozumikyo, although operating separately from modern Shinto, are considered to be a form of Sect Shinto. • Folk Shinto includes the numerous but fragmented folk beliefs in deities and spirits. Practices include divination, spirit possession, and shamanic healing. Some of these practices come from Taoism, Buddhism, or Confucianism, and some come from ancient local traditions. • State Shinto was the result of the Meiji dynasty's restoration and the downfall of the shogunate. The Meiji attempted to purify Shinto by abolishing many Buddhist and Confucian ideals; also, the Emperor was once again considered divine. After Japan's defeat in World War II, State Shinto was abolished and the Emperor was forced to renounce his divine right.

Major Shinto Terms

Wa (kind and beneficial harmony) One of the most important moral and ethical traditions propagated by Shinto is that group solidarity takes precedence over individual behavior. Many people are apt to think that the Japanese rely solely on Buddhist teachings for their ethical and moral codes, but rigorous examination shows that this is not true. An essential point of Shinto is the idea that “wa” (kind ,benign and harmless harmony) is inherent in nature and social relationships. This value existed in Japan before the arrival of Buddhism. Some scholars believe that the Japanese belief that the individual is less important than the group is a result of the culture of rice cultivations which was brought from the continent during the Yayoi period (ca. 800 B.C.E.-300 C.E.). While agricultural societies were being established in the several locations, primitive religions became a primitive form of Shinto, center on the rites of agriculture and rice cultivation. Relationships of mutual assistance, harmony and good understanding were crucial for the cultivation of rice. The highest moral and ethical behaviors gave priority to the survival of the agricultural community. In such a community, benign harmony in the community was a matter of life or death; if someone took independent action, solidarity would be broken . There are many agricultural societies in Asia, but in the case of Japanese rice cultivators, society was deeply connected to religious rites. The concept of “kami” arose in the Japanese agricultural society from the need for protection and prosperity. Throughout Japanese history, until the present, Shinto rites are mostly the connected with rice cultivation. The “niname” rice harvest festival was the most important Shinto festival. During the period of the ancient nation state, according to Nihonshoki, a Niname Festival was conducted by the first Emperor Jimmu, who performed a ceremony for the pacification of spirits on the previous night. Until the present time, the Emperor’s family has continued to conduct this annual ceremony.

Sense of Awe

Shinto is such an ancient tradition that its shrines, or jinja, reflect the natural landscape. The earliest jinja were a simple carved rock or tree. As time passed, the sacred areas were enclosed, and buildings resembling the store houses of the Yayoi culture (ca.800 B.C.E.- 300C.E.) were constructed. Many of the enclosed shrines were used for the veneration of rice deities. Two of the most ancient Shinto shrines are the shrines of Ise and Izumo. Ise Shrine is dedicated to the Sun Goddess Amaterasu. Izumo shrine is for the worship of the “Great Lord of the Country,” Okuninushi. 

Lafcadio Hearn, also known as Koizumi Yakumo, who lived in Japan during the Meiji Period (1868-1912), was the first Westerner to be granted the privilege of access to the inner sanctum of the Great Shrine of Izumo. Hearn explained the Shinto sense of the divine, and its recognition of gods in many natural phenomena: "The sense that there is something in the air itself, that some god-like presence can be faintly discerned in the mist-shrouded mountains or in the bright clear light that pours down on the uncannily blue surface of the lake - is this the way Shinto perceives the gods?" According to Hearn, the Shinto sense "some godlike presence" in the air, in the light of the sun, in the water, the sea, the mountains, the forest and the wind. Shinto is a tradition of prayer and celebrations that arose from a feeling of awe and reverence towards the natural entities which the Japanese feared and respected as "gods.”

Afterlife

Unlike many religions, one does not need to publicly profess belief in Shinto to be a Shintoist. Whenever a child is born in Japan, a local Shinto shrine adds the child's name to a list kept at the shrine and declares him or her "Ujiko", literally named child. After death an "Ujiko" becomes an "Ujigami"; literally, named kami. One may choose to have one's name added to another list when moving and then be listed at both places. Names can be added to the list without consent and regardless of the beliefs of the person added to the list. However, this is not considered an imposition of belief, but a sign of the welcome of the area kami, with the promise of addition to the pantheon of kami after death. Those children who die before addition to the list are called "Mizuko", literally water child, and believed to cause troubles and plagues. "Mizuko" are often worshipped in a Shinto shrine dedicated to stilling their anger and sadness. These shrines have become more popular with the growth of abortion in modern Japan.


Torii at Itsukushima Shrine

Shrines and the Torii (Sacred Gateway)

Early ceremonies are thought to have been held outside before trees or sacred rocks (iwakura). There was no representation of the kami, for they were conceived as formless and pure. After the arrival of Buddhism in the sixth century, the idea of building 'houses' for the kami arose and shrines were built for the first time. The earliest examples are thought to have been at Izumo (659 C.E.) and Ise (690 C.E.). The oldest Shinto shrine is thought to be Izumo Shrine. According to the Japanese mythology in the Kojiki, Susanoo is the brother of Amaterasu, the goddess of the sun, and of Tsukuyomi, the god of the moon. All three were spawned from Izanagi. There is a long-standing rivalry between Susanoo and his sister Amaterasu, which eventually led her, in fury and grief, to hide inside Amano-Iwato, the "heavenly rock cave", thus effectively hiding the sun for a long period of time. She was persuaded to leave the cave and Susanoo was punished by being banished from heaven. He descended to the province of Izumo, where he met an elderly couple. Seven of their eight daughters had been devoured by eight-headed serpent Yamata no Orochi and it was about to come for the eighth, Kushinada-hime. After the couple promised their daughter's hand in marriage to Susanoo, he agreed to slay Orochi. Susanoo gave it eight bowls of sake (one for each head), and decapitated the monster once it had fallen asleep. While Amaterasu is enshrined at Ise Shrine, Susanoo is enshrined in Izumo, where he descended when banished from heaven. In Izumo, after his marriage to the eigth daughter, Susanoo is supposed to have composed a Japanese tanka poem which was the first poem in Japanese history: 

“Eight clouds arise.

The eightfold fence of Izumo Makes an eightfold fence For the spouses to retire within. Oh! That eightfold fence.” The number eight is a reference to the eight islands of Japan named in ancient chronicles. The Izumo Shrine is still enclosed by a fence beyond which mortals may not pass. On the outside of every Shinto shrine are several classic Shinto gates, or torii, which stand alone. These gates, found at every Shinto temple, are unconnected to any fence or wall, and symbolize the separation between the “inner” sanctuary and the “outer” secular world. Passing through them is a rite of purification. After passing under the gates, the worshipper usually enters a public worship hall and then an inner sanctuary where the priests make offerings to the gods. The kami are enshrined in a small cabinet in the sanctuary. Worshippers clap three times, pray and toss a donation into an offering box. The principal worship of kami is performed at public shrines, although worship at small private shrines in the home (sometimes only a high shelf with a few ritual objects) is also common. It is also possible to worship objects or people while they exist. While a few public shrines are elaborate structures, most are small buildings in the characteristic Japanese architectural style. There are well over 100,000 of these shrines in operation today, each with its retinue of Shinto priests. The main sanctuary is called a “honden.” Some shrines, such as those that have a mountain or other large natural object for a center of worship, have no sanctuary at all, just a pavilion where the worshipper can stand and gaze at it.. Shinto priests often wear a ceremonial robe called a jo-e. Kami are invoked at such important ceremonies as weddings and entry into a university. The kami are commonly petitioned for earthly benefits, such as a child, a promotion, or a happier life. While one may wish ill fortune on others, this is believed to be possible only if the target has first committed a wrong, or if one is willing to offer one's life. Shinto is popular for the occasions of daily life, but when it comes to funerals most Japanese turn to Buddhist ceremonies, since the emphasis in Shinto is on this life and not the next.

Practices and teachings

Tying her omikuji (fortune) at Kasuga Shrine

Impurity and Purification

Shinto teaches that certain deeds create a kind of ritual impurity that needs to cleansed, not because it is wrong, but for one's own peace of mind and good fortune. Wrong deeds are called kegare (literally, "dirtiness"), as opposed to kiyome (purity). Normal days are called ke (day), and festive days are called hare (sunny, or simply good). The killing of living beings should be done with reverence and the attitude of taking a life in order to continue one's own. Modern Japanese continue to place great emphasis on the importance of aisatsu, or ritual phrases and greetings. Before eating, most (though not all) Japanese say "itadakimasu" ("I will humbly receive [this food]") in order to show proper thankfulness to the preparer of the meal in particular and more generally to all those living things that lost their lives to make the meal. Failure to show proper respect can be seen as a lack of concern for others, looked down on because it is believed to create problems for all. Those who fail to take into account the feelings of other people and kami will only bring ruin on themselves. The worst expression of such an attitude is the taking of another's life for personal advancement or enjoyment. Those killed without being shown gratitude for their sacrifice will hold "urami" (a grudge) and become aragami, a powerful and evil kami that seeks revenge. This same emphasis on the need for cooperation and collaboration can be seen throughout Japanese culture today. Purification rites are a vital part of Shinto. These may serve to placate any restive kami, for instance when their shrine had to be relocated. Such ceremonies have also been adapted to modern life. For example, a ceremony was held in 1969 to hallow the Apollo 11 mission to the moon, new buildings made in Japan are frequently blessed by a Shinto priest during the groundbreaking ceremony, and many cars made in Japan have been blessed as part of the assembly process. A more personal purification rite is the purification by water. This may involve standing beneath a waterfall or performing ritual ablutions in a river-mouth or in the sea. These two forms of purification are often referred to as harae (祓). A third form of purification is avoidance, that is, the taboo placed on certain persons or acts. For example, women were not allowed to climb Mount Fuji until 1868, in the era of the Meiji Restoration. Although this aspect has decreased in recent years, religious Japanese will not use an inauspicious word like "cut" at a wedding, nor will they attend a wedding if they have recently been bereaved.

Gateway to Shinto shrine with torii gate

Ema

In medieval times, wealthy people would donate horses to shrines, especially when making a request of the god of the shrine (for example, when praying for victory in battle). For smaller favors, giving a picture of a horse became customary, and these ema (絵馬) are popular today. The visitor to a shrine purchases a wooden tablet with a likeness of a horse, or nowadays, something else (a snake, an arrow, even a portrait of Thomas Edison), writes a wish or prayer on the tablet, and hangs it at the shrine. In some cases, if the wish comes true, the person hangs another ema at the shrine in gratitude. [edit] Cultural effects Many famously Japanese practices have origins either directly or indirectly rooted in Shinto. For example, it is clear that the Shinto ideal of harmony with nature underlies such typically Japanese arts as flower-arranging (ikebana), paper-folding (origami), and traditional Japanese architecture and garden design. A link to Shinto is seen in sumo wrestling, where, even in the modern version of the sport, many Shinto-inspired ceremonies must be performed before a bout, such as purifying the wrestling arena by sprinkling it with salt. The Japanese emphasis on proper greetings and respectful phrasings can be seen as a continuation of the ancient Shinto belief in kotodama (words with a magical effect on the world).

Ema at a Shinto shrine

In medieval times, wealthy people would donate horses to shrines, especially when making a request of the god of the shrine (for example, when praying for victory in battle). For smaller favors, giving a picture of a horse became customary, and these ema (絵馬) are popular today. The visitor to a shrine purchases a wooden tablet with a likeness of a horse, or nowadays, something else (a snake, an arrow, even a portrait of Thomas Edison), writes a wish or prayer on the tablet, and hangs it at the shrine. In some cases, if the wish comes true, the person hangs another ema at the shrine in gratitude.

Important shrines

  • Atsuta Shrine, Nagoya, Aichi, shrine to the Imperial sword Kusanagi
  • Heian Jingu (Kyoto), dedicated to Emperor Kammu and Emperor Kōmei
  • The Grand Shrine of Ise (Ise), dedicated to Amaterasu
  • Itsukushima Shrine, Hiroshima prefecture
  • Iwashimizu Shrine, Yawata, Kyoto
  • Izumo Shrine (Izumo)
  • Kasuga Shrine, Nara
  • Katori Shrine, Chiba Prefecture
  • Kumano Shrines, Wakayama Prefecture
  • Meiji Shrine (Tokyo), the shrine of Emperor Meiji
  • Nikko Toshogu, Nikko, Tochigi Prefecture
  • Tsurugaoka Hachiman Shrine, Kamakura, Kanagawa
  • Usa Hachiman Shrine, Oita Prefecture
  • Yasukuni Shrine (Tokyo), controversial shrine dedicated to the 'peace of the nation' and seen by some as a symbol of Japan's militaristic past

See also

Portal Shinto Portal
  • Culture of Japan
  • History of Japan
  • Japanese Buddhism
  • Japanese mythology
  • Japanese nationalism
  • Jinja (Shinto)
  • Libation
  • Oomoto
  • Religion in Japan
  • Shinto music

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Littleton, C. Scott (2002). Shinto: Origins, Rituals, Festivals, Spirits, Sacred Places. Oxford University Press, Inc. ISBN 0195218868.
  • Ueda, Kenji (1999). "The Concept of Kami". In John Ross Carter (Ed.), The Religious Heritage of Japan: Foundations for Cross-Cultural Understanding in a Religiously Plural World, pp. 65-72. Book East. ISBN ???.

External links


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