Shaivism

File:LordShiva.jpg

Lord Shiva

Shaivism (also spelled "Saivism"), refers to a school in Hinduism devoted primarily to the monotheistic worship of Shiva, the destroyer god in the Hindu Trinity. Shaivism is practiced widely across all of India, and therefore has many different branches showing both regional variations in philosophy and practice. Followers of the tradition are called Shaiva(s), or sometimes Shaivite in English. The most commonly worshipped symbol for Shaivites is the linga, a phallic structure representative of Shiva's coexistent virility and chastity.

History

Indus Valley Civilization

File:Pashupati.gif

An Indus Valley seal with the seated figure termed pashupati

It is very difficult to determine the early history of Shaivism. Artifacts from Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and other archaeological sites of northwestern India and Pakistan have been interpreted to suggest that the earliest form of Shiva worship was practiced in the Indus Valley Civilization, which flourished between 2800 B.C.E. - 1500 B.C.E. These artifacts include numerous lingas carved on rock surfaces, as well as the "Pashupati seal" found at Mohenjo-daro which has been the subject of much study. An engraving upon this seal depicts a horned male figure made all the more noteworthy by the fact that he is ithyphallic. This image appears to represent a prototype of the Vedic deity Pashupati, the "lord of the creatures", who would come to be thought of as an aspect of Shiva. The central figure is also described to be seated in a yogic posture and is surrounded by animals, perhaps echoing the associations with meditative asceticism and wildlife that Shiva and his precursor Rudra would take on.

Vedic Period

By 150 B.C.E., With the insurgence of the Aryans and the dissolution of the Harrapan culture, religion in the Indus Valley region and India at large changed dramatically. With the composition of the Rg Vedas (c. 1200 B.C.E.), the proto-Shiva figure developed into Rudra, a terrifying, capricious who held jurisdiction over storms, disease and the wilderness. Although only four of the Rg Vedic hymns are dedicated exclusively to Rudra, he plays an important mythological role in the Vedas in his association with the fire god Agni and the sacrificial beverage Soma. Not unlike Shiva, Rudra is connected with wildlife in his role of "lord of the cattle" (pasunam patih) and "wearer of the animal hide". As a proper name, Shiva means "The Auspicious One", and may have originally been used as a euphimistic name for Rudra. In fact, Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in a number of Hindu traditions today, and are often referred to together as Rudra-Shiva.

In the later Vedas, Rudra-Shiva is venerated as a supreme, monotheistic figure for the first time. In the Svetsvara Upanishad, for instance, a text possibly dating back as far as the sixth century B.C.E., Rudra-Shiva is proclaimed to be the primordial creator. Furthermore, this Upanishad ultimately describes Rudra-Shiva as Brahman, the monistic essence of the universe. As a result, Rudra-Shiva came to be perceived to be protector and creator of all things, and had begun to more closely resemble Shiva as he is known today.

The Epics and The Puranas

By the year 150 B.C.E., Shiva seems to have garnered a cult following. During this time the grammarian Patanjali notes in his "Great Commentary" on Panini's Sanskrit grammar the presence of devotee of Shiva as clad in animal skins and carrying an iron lance as the symbol of his god. This lance may be a precursor of Shiva's trident. The two great epics of India, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, also suggest Shiva's burgeoning significance, dealing extensively with stories of his exploits. Specifically, the Mahabharata suggests that an important Shaivic cult, the Pasupatas, may have been dedicated to the god around the beginning of the Common Era Shiva was also featureed on coins during the Kushan period (300-550 C.E.) suggesting his sustained popularity.

It is with the rise to prominence of the Puranas during the Gupta dynasty (c. 320-500 C.E.), however, that Shaivism spread most rapidly throughout the Indian subcontinent. Gupta emperors sponsored Shaivite temples despite their own Vaishnavite stance, while kings of the Vakataka and the later Maukhari dynasties were fully Shaivite. By the seventh century CE, Shaivism replaced Jainism and Buddhism as the dominant religious affiliation of South India.

At this time, numerous sects were also touting Shiva to be the supreme deity. Shiva himself is distinguished as the central deity most obviously in the Shiva Purana, as well as the Linga Purana, Matsya Purana, Kurma purana, Skanda Purana, and Agni Purana. In these mythical texts, Shiva is portaryed as the supreme god, a suggestion of monotheism that was put into practice by contemporaneous Shaivite sects such as the Kapalikas, the Kalamukhas, the Pasupatas and the Shaiva Siddhantins. Here he comes to the fore and acts independently and alone to create, preserve, and destroy the world. Also presented in these texts are some myths central to the definition of Shiva's later character. One particularly important story tells of incidents which transpired when Shiva enters a pine forest, in the typical dress of the ascetics who live their. Here Shiva takes the time to seduce the wives of the ascetics. Angry with Shiva's licentious behaviour, and unbeknowing of his true identiry, the ascetics castrate the destroyer god and fixed it in the earth. This legend provides mythological explanation for the worship of the linga as it is performed today.

Shankara and Beyond

Shankara (788-820), one of the most famous philosophers Hinduism has ever known, was Shaivite and composed several devotional hymns to Shiva. As such, Shaivism has often been linked with Shankara's Advaita or non-dual thought. By the ninth century, Shaivism had come to prominence in the North with the development of the Trika school, located primarily in Kashmir. This sect drew heavily upon Shankara's monistic philosophy, as well as that of Tantra. Tantric influences had been prominent in Shaivism from the Gupta period onward

Shaivism also continued to thrive in South India during the medieval period. Between approxiamately 500-700 C.E., the sixty three Nayanars, a group of Shavite saints, spread Shaivism through the Tamil speaking regions of South India. The Nayanars, who ranged in status from untouchables to kings, were among first proponents of the bhakti movement, which upheld intense emotional devotion to a personal diety as the highest religious idea. Although the Pasupata, Kapalika, and Kalamukha sects faded to extinction during this time period, they laid the foundation for the Virashaivas, also known as the Lingayats, a reformist Shaivite sect formed along the border regions of Maharashtra and Karnataka in the mid-12th century.

During the later medieval period, the bhakti movement went on to become the most popular form of Hindu religious practice. Although this movement was typically favoured by worshippers of Vishnu, many Hindus still devote themselves exclusively to Shiva. Most of these followers are not, however, devoted exclusively to Shiva. Regardless, millions of Hindus appear at temples in order to worship Shiva today. Banares, the holy city of Shiva, with the temple of Siva Visvesvara there remaining one of the most popular pilgrimage sites in India today.

Orders and Lineages

Shaivism has many different schools showing both regional variations and differences in philosophy. Shaivism has a vast literature that includes texts representing multiple philosophical schools, including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dual-with-dualism (bhedābheda) perspectives. The following are concise summaries of some of the major schools of Shaivism, along with maps showing the primary areas of origin or present-day influence and concentration of each school in areas of the Indian subcontinent.

Pashupatas

The ascetic Pashupatas (Sanskrit: Pāśupatas) are one of the oldest named Shaivite sects.. The most likely founder of this group was Lakulisa, "the lord of the club", who lived around the early part of the second century CE. Each of his four major disciples, Kusika, Gargya, Kaurusa, and Maitreya, established important lineages of their own. The Pasupatas wielded great influence over South Indian Shaivism from the 7th to 14th centuries, mainly in its connection to the Kalamukhas. Together these sects revived Shaivism in this region, ensuring that Jainism and Buddhism all but disappeared there. Pashupata influence also spread to more northern regions such as Gujarat, Kashmir and Nepal.

Although the movement seems to have died out by the late 15th century, its precepts are still well known because of two surviving texts, the Ganakarika, and the Pasupata Sutra. The Ganakārikā delineates five stages in progress towards spiritual union with god, each of which involves a specific procedure. This process begins with time spent in the temple along with a guru and progresses to the outside world, where the adept attempts to generate the loathing of the general populace. Finally, the ascetic draws his religious behaviour inward in order to attain full union with Shiva. The Pasupata Sutra, meanwhile, describes in detail the five major theological concerns of the sect. They are 1) kārya, the created universe, 2)kārana, God, cause of the universe, 3) yoga, the union of the individual soul with god, 4) vidhi, or observance, which includes devotion and ascetic practice, which leads to 5) duhkhāntha, the "end of suffering". In both texts, the dualistic distinction between souls (pashu), God (pati) and the physical word (pāsha) is made, a worldview that would live on in Shaiva Siddhanta.

Kapalikas and Kalamukhas

Two medieval Shaivite sects often paired together in scholarly opinion are the Kapalikas and Kalamukhas. Little is known about either sect, since no compositions belonging to either group are extant. Information on the Kapalikas (or "skull-bearers") gleaned from outsider commentaries, most notably Shankara's biography, the Shankara-divijaya, suggests that the group centred around bhakti devotion to Bhairava, Shiva in his most terrifying form. In order to accumulate merit, members of the Kapalika sect apparently undertook the Mahavratin, an extremely austere ritual of penance usually performed as punishment for the murder of a Brahmin. As their name would suggest, members of the Kapalika sect became famous for the human skulls which they were said to have wandered from village to village, for use as a begging bowl or drinking up. Accordingly, the Kapalikas were linked with any number of other horrifying practices, including meat-eating, intoxication, orgies, and even cannibalism, though these accusations may have been based upon polemical reasoning.

The Kalamukhas (or "black-faced"), meanwhile, were more closely associated with the Bramanical tradition. Information on this sect, culled mostly from epigramatic inscriptions on temples, suggests that the Kalamukhas were Here they existed in mathas, monastic organizations centered around a temple. The Kalamukhas were apparently influenced by the Pasupatas, sharing many of their traditions and identifying numerous sages from their fold with Lakulisa. The high regard for the linga and the prominence of the Kalamukhas in the Karnataka region between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries CE suggests that Virashaivism may represent a reformation of the Kalamukha tradition. Contemporary scholars, most notably David N. Lorenzen, have been more hesitant to link the Kalamukhas as closely to the Kapalikas as they have in the past.

Nayanars

Among the first proponents of the vernacular bhakti tradition in Hinduism were the Nayanars, an exalted group comprised of sixty-three poet-saints which developed in South India duirng the seventh century CE. These saints came from all levels of the social strata, promoting selfless, loving devotion as well as a spiritually equalitarian ethic. Among the most prominent of these figures are Nancampantar (c. 650 C.E.), Tirunavukkaracar (580-760 C.E.), Cuntaramurtti (c. 7-8th century CE), and Manikkavacakar (c. 9th century), regarded the four primary poet saints. The latter is responsible for the Tiruvacakam, an important collection which praises Siva as belonging to the southern country yet worshipped by people of all countries. It is the Nayanar Tirumular (7th or 8th century AD) who is considered to be the earliest proponent of Shaivism in Tamil areas. His Tirumantiram is a primary source for the system of Shaiva Siddhanta, being the tenth book of its canon.

The hymns of penned by these saints, which communicate deep emotional love for Shiva in his personal form, are divided into eleven collections together with a Tamil Purana called the Periya Puranam. The first seven collections, composed in the 7th-8th century CE by Nancampantar, Sambandar (c. 7th century CE), and Sundarar (8th century CE), are known as the Thevaram and are considered by Tamil Shaivites to be tantamount to the Vedas in spiritual importance. All throughout the corpus of their hymns, the Nayanars drew upon many aspects of Tamil culture so as to provide their works with distinct local colour. Not only are the songs of these saints still sung by Tamil worshippers today, but their images also widely worshipped.

Kashmir Shaivism

Kashmir Shaivism influence in India

Tantric Shaivism thrived in Kashmir during the second half of the ninth century CE as result of the polarities between two groups popular in this region, the dualistic Shaiva Siddhantas (see below) and the monists who formed the Trika and Krama traditions. The Shaiva Siddanthas maintained what they held to be a "pure" form of Shaivism which was very much compatible with the orthodox Brahmanical philosophy and practice. They were lead primarily by Narayanakantha (c. 950-1025 C.E.) and his son Ramakantha, who composed the Naresvaraparkisaprakasa.

Monist opposition to Shaiva Siddhanta was first codified by Vasugupta (ca 800) and carried on by his student Kallata (850-900), culminating in the works of Abhinavagupta. This school considered Shiva to be the substrate of an ubiquitous self that existed between all persons. This attributed Shiva with the characteristics of both immanence and transcendence, rendering him a real but also wholly abstract creator-preserver-destroyer. In accordance with Tantric influence, the Trika tradition claimed that the iniated Saiva householder was able to experience the power of transcendence for himself by partaking in the ritual consumption of meat, wine, and sexual intercourse, practiced abhorred by the Shaiva Siddhanta sect. Trika non-dualism eventually was absorbed by the Kaula cult, which worshipped the goddess Srividya, and came to prominence in Kashmir during the eleventh century. Precepts for worship of Srividya superceded those of the Trika cult, due in no small part to their dissemination by figures like Jayaratha (c. 1225-1275), Sahib Kaula (b. 1629) and Harabhatta (1874-1951). The Krama, in contrast, has thrived for a number of centuries thanks to texts such as Nityasvatantra's Mahanayaprakasa, wherein Krama ritual is connected to the yearly Sivaratri festival.

The aforementioned non-dualist sects have traditionally what has referred to as Kashmir Shaivism proper, though it is now obvious that Shaiva Siddhanta was the more popular group in this region during the tenth and eleventh centuries. In fact, the foremost of all the Shaiva cults in Kashmir during this time was actually that which worshipped Svacchandabhairava and his wife Aghoresvari. Althoguh nondual Shaivism and meditational techniques are still employed by some Brahmans in the Kashmir region, the influx of Muslim influence forced the Tantric ritualism of the nondualists into obscurity.

Shiva Siddhanta

Not only is the medieval Shaiva Siddhanta tradition one of the most popular and persistent Shaivic philosophies, it also provided the fundamental basis for the ritual and theology of virtually all other Shaiva groups which followed it. The tradition seems to have originated as early as the sixth century CE in Kashmir and central India, although it truly flourished in South India. Between the eleventh or twelfth centuries AD Shaiva Siddhanta was well-established in the South, particularly in Tamil Nadu. Shaiva Siddhanta upholds the older Pashupata distinction between three eternal substrates: souls, God, and the physical world. Shiva, the supreme divine being, is the effecient cause of the universe and the volitional souls within it while his Shakti provides the instrumental cause. Souls are bound to the material state because of ignorance, karma, and maya, the illusory aspect of reality. Shiva, however, provides the sould with the abiltiy to obtain empirical knowledge, which in turn leads to action which is either good or evil.

In practice, this philosophy is manifest as an intense devotional monotheism, wherein the most profound experience of god is held to be of the personal and loving variety. Shaiva Siddhanta allows for three paths of salvation, service (carya), worship (kriya) and meditation (yoga). No matter which path a devotee choses to follow, they must keep their mind fixed lovingly upon Shiva in every aspect of their lives in order to attain salvation. Such devotion alone supercedes asceticism, scriptural understanding, and external ritual in importance. Liberation in this tradition entails the dispensation of divine knowledge (patijnana) directly from Lord Shiva, the precursor for eventual realization of inseperability from (although not identity with) the single god.

In addition to the Vedic Samhitas, Upanishads, and the twenty-eight Saiva and Raudra Agamas, the canonical texts for this group include the Tirumurai and Meykantasastras, texts written in the vernacular Tamil. The Tirumurai (c. 10th century CE) are devotional songs of a mystical nature attributed to the poet Nampi Antar Nampi, while the Meykantasastras expound (c. 13th-14th century CE) are doctrinal explanations composed by theologians. Due in no small part to its connection with the vernacular Tamil, Shaiva Siddhanta survives as the most normative form of Shaivism in South India today, with a large following remaining in Tamil Nadu as well as Sri Lanka.

Virashaivism

Vira Shaivism influence in India

The Virasaivas("heroic Shaivas") are a reformist Shaivite sect with approxiamately six million adherents located in the South India state of Karnataka today. The movement originated along the border regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra in the mid-12th century. As is evident by their alternative moniker, the Lingayats ("bearers of the linga"), the linga represents the most important religious symbol for this group. This founder of this movement is traditionally thought to be Basava (1106-1167 C.E.), although his contemporary Ekantada Ramayya, may have been the principal reformer. Basava rejected traditional elements of the mainstream Brahmanical religion such as temple worship and caste domination. As such, the literature of this group, consisting mainly of vacanas or aphoristic sayings of the Virashaiva saints, is largely in the vernacular Kannada.

Virashaivas follow a system of qualified nondualism, a variant of Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita, which accepts both difference and nondifference between soul and God. Shiva and the cosmic force are one, yet Shiva is beyond His creation, which is real, not illusory. Shiva acts by way of his energy, or Shakti, which divides itself into God who is manifested in the linga and the guru. Because of this, the every Virashaiva must be guided by a guru who is held in higher esteem than God. Members are required to wear around their neck or arm a linga fastened in a tube as a constant reminder of Shiva's presence. Virashaivas must pay homage to this linga at least twice every day. Liberation is said to result from six phases of devotion, the culmination of which is union with Shiva.

Temples and Worship

There can be found almost innumerable Shaivite temples and shrines, with many shrines accompanied as well by murtis dedicated to Ganesha, Lord of the Ganas, followers of Shiva, and son of Shiva and Śakti.

The twelve Jyotirlinga shrines are among the most esteemed in Śaivism.

There are many temples in Tamilnadu dedicated to Siva, but the holiest of all Siva shrines is Chidambaram's famous Nataraja Temple. Siva's consort, Parvathi is also worshipped in temples to Siva, as are his sons Ganapathi and Murugan.

File:Srirangam temple kopuram.jpg

The gopuram of the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple in Srirangam, Tamilnadu.

The Agamas are a set of twenty-eight books, written in Sanskrit. Each temple follows its own Agama. The architecture and layout, the locations of the images, and directions for methods of worship are all prescribed, and no deviation is allowed. Shiva temples have a tall multi-storied gopuram at the entrance and are enclosed in a high wall. The lingam resides deep within the temple compound of buildings, courtyards and gardens. The lingam and the special structure that houses it are placed in such a way as to face the compound entrance directly; only the sivacharya may enter this sanctum sanctorum but worshippers gather around to witness the rituals of ablution, decoration and offerings, to pray and sing, and to receive the ceremonial blessing. Around the sanctum sanctorum every Siva temple has at least one circumambulatory path, and a procession around this path is part of the devotional service. A stone statue of Siva as Teacher, the Dakshinamurthy faces south. Dakshinamurthy literally means "on the southern part of an outer perimeter path of the sanctum sanctorum".^{[citation needed]}

"Shivacharyas" conduct Shiva worship services. Only the sivacharyas may enter the sanctum sanctorum, while worshippers gather at the entrance to watch. Unlike Catholic priests, sivacharyas are dedicated solely to worship and do not perform marriages or other civil rites of passage. In Chidambaram and a few other places adhisaivas are allowed to perform the ceremonies.^{[citation needed]} Services are held daily, as many as six each day depending on the resources and the popularity of the temple. The usual service consists of the following: first, the figure of the deity is anointed with oil, water, milk, ghee, honey, curd, various juices, sandalwood paste, and others before being showered with blossoms. Then it is dressed in the traditional way of Tamilnadu, adorned with jewels and flower garlands. Incense is burned, followed by a food offering (usually a rice preparation). Beautiful lamps of various designs are lit and presented to the image of the deity. Camphor is lit and presented. The burning camphor is then carried to the congregation. The worshippers reverentially show their palms over it before placing their palms over their eyes, some say this gesture signifies that the devotion is as precious to the worshipper as his or her own sight. Finally sacred ash and kungumam are distributed into the upraised palms of the worshippers, who touch it onto their foreheads. The worshippers then process along the circumambulation at least once before bowing low in prayer before the sanctum sanctorum, singing and reciting verses from the Vedic hymns, the Thevaram and others.^{[citation needed]}

There are numerous Siva temples in Tamilnadu, most located in the Thanjavur region which was a major part of the Chola empire between 800 and 1200 C.E.

Symbols

Linga

People also worship Shiva at home. They have natural lingam-shaped stones to which they perform ablution flower-worship and Nivedhanam. (food offering)

Sacred Ash

Sacred ash came to be used as a sign of Shaivism. Devotees of Shiva wear it as a sectarian mark on their foreheads and other parts of their bodies with reverence. Some sects took this to extremes, such as the Kapalikas, who are said to have covered themselves in the funerary ashes of cremated corpses. The Sanskrit words bhasma and vibhuti can both be translated as "sacred ash".

Tilak

Add something about Tilak here.

Beyond India

It left a major imprint on the intellectual life of classical Cambodia, Champa in what is today south Vietnam, Java, Kashmir and the Tamil land. The wave of Saivite devotionalism that swept through late classical and early medieval India redefined Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Shaivite worship legitimized several ruling dynasties in pre-modern India be they the Chola, the Rajput or tribal. A similar trend was witnessed in early medieval Indonesia with the Majapahit empire and pre-Islamic Malaya.

References

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• Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. 
• Flood, Gavin (Editor) (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5. 
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External links

• Sadhus and Yogis of India Retrieved Aug 9, 2007.

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