Self-esteem

In psychology, self-esteem or self-worth includes a person's subjective appraisal of himself or herself as intrinsically positive or negative to some degree (Sedikides & Gregg, 2003).

Self-esteem involves both self-relevant beliefs (e.g., "I am competent/incompetent", "I am liked/disliked") and associated self-relevant emotions (e.g., triumph/despair, pride/shame). It also finds expression in behavior (e.g., assertiveness/timorousness, confidence/caution). In addition, self-esteem can be construed as an enduring personality characteristic (trait self-esteem) or as a temporary psychological condition (state self-esteem). Finally, self-esteem can be specific to a particular dimension (e.g., "I believe I am a good writer, and feel proud of that in particular") or global in extent (e.g., "I believe I am a good person, and feel proud of myself in general").

Major Definitions of Self-Esteem

The term “self-esteem” appears to be first coined by William James in 1890 which makes it one of the oldest concepts in psychology. In addition, self-esteem is the third most frequently occurring theme in psychological literature and has already resulted in over 25,000 articles, chapters, and books refer to the topic (Rodewalt & Tragakis, 2003). Given such a long and varied history, it is not surprising to find three major types of definitions in the field, each of which has generated its own tradition of research, findings, and practical applications. The original definition presents self-esteem as a ratio that is found by dividing one’s successes in areas of life that are important to a given individual by the failures in them or one’s “success / pretensions” (James, 1890). A problem with this approach is that making self-esteem contingent upon success means that it is inherently unstable because failure can occur at any moment (Crocker and Park, 2004). In the mid 1960s Maurice Rosenberg and social learning theorists defined self-esteem in terms of a stable sense of personal worth or worthiness that can be measured by self-report testing. This approach became the most frequently used definition but now it is known that feeling good about oneself in healthy ways is difficult to differentiate from such things as narcissism (Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996). Nathaniel Branden (1969) defined self-esteem as a relationship between one’s competence and one’s worthiness. This definition sees self-esteem as the result of dealing with challenges of living in a way that is worthy or respectable and doing so consistently over time. This two-factor approach, as it has also been called, is a balanced definition that seems to be capable of dealing with limits of defining self-esteem primarily in terms of competence or worth alone (Mruk, 2006).

Measurement

For the purposes of empirical research, self-esteem is typically assessed by a self-report questionnaire yielding a quantitative result. The validity and reliability of the questionnaire are established prior to use.

Quality and level of self-esteem

Level and quality of self-esteem, though correlated, are not synonymous. Self-esteem can be high but fragile (e.g., narcissism) and low but secure (e.g., humility). However, the quality of self-esteem can be indirectly assessed in several ways: (I) in terms of its constancy over time (stability), (II) in terms of its independence upon particular conditions being met (non-contingency), and (III) in terms of how ingrained it is at a basic psychological level (implicitness or automaticity).

Criticisms

Critics see the all pervading importance given to self-esteem in popular culture and in modern psychology as misleading and over-positive. A review of self-esteem literature by Roy Baumeister confirmed that high self-regard per see is not necessarily good nor does it translate into higher estimates by others of a person's intellect, appearance or virtue. Self-esteem as panacea is "a very compelling illusion," because it correlates with happiness and other good things, says Baumeister, but psychologists "were a little too eager in promoting the program before the data were in." Some social constructionists argue that modern day America with its overwhelming cultural bias towards self-enhancement has fabricated and validated the dogma of self-esteem as a universal human goal that all must strive towards perfecting. This fails to consider the absence of such an emphasis in other flourishing cultures, where high self-esteem is not as celebrated and central a concept.

The main thrust in psychological literature and popular culture is the presence or absence of high self-esteem, however there is evidence that the overemphasis on the self-esteem mantra, can lead to rapid falls when the self is invalidated in the domains that one considers important. In addition this pursuit may have negative consequences on the welfare of society as a whole.

Self-esteem, grades and relationships

From the late 1960s to the early 1990s it was assumed as a matter of course that a student's self-esteem was a critical factor in the grades that they earn in school, in their relationships with their peers, and in their later success in life. That being the case, many American groups created programs to increase the self-esteem of students, assuming that grades would increase, conflicts would decrease, and that this would lead to a happier and more successful life. Until the 1990s little peer-reviewed and controlled research was done on this topic.

The concept of self-improvement has undergone dramatic change since 1911, when Ambrose Bierce mockingly defined self-esteem as "an erroneous appraisement." Good and bad character are now known as "personality differences." Rights have replaced responsibilities. The research on egocentrism and ethnocentrism that informed discussion of human growth and development in the mid-20th century is ignored; indeed, the terms themselves are considered politically incorrect. A revolution has taken place in the vocabulary of self. Words that imply responsibility or accountability—self-criticism, self-denial, self-discipline, self-control, self-effacement, self-mastery, self-reproach, and self-sacrifice — are no longer in fashion. The language most in favor is that which exalts the self — self-expression, self-assertion, self-indulgence, self-realization, self-approval, self-acceptance, self-love, and the ubiquitous self-esteem. (Ruggiero, 2000)

Peer-reviewed research undertaken since then has not validated previous assumptions. Recent research indicates that inflating students' self-esteem in and of itself has no positive effect on grades. One study has shown that inflating self-esteem by itself can actually decrease grades. (Baumeister 2005)

High self-esteem correlates highly with self-reported happiness. However, it is not clear which, if either, necessarily leads to the other (Baumeister 2004).

Bullying, violence and murder

Some of the most interesting results of recent studies center on the relationships among bullying, violence and self-esteem. It used to be assumed that bullies acted violently towards others because they suffered from low self-esteem (although no controlled studies were offered to back up this position).

These findings suggest that the low-esteem theory is wrong. But none involves what social psychologists regard as the most convincing form of evidence: controlled laboratory experiments. When we conducted our initial review of the literature, we uncovered no lab studies that probed the link between self-esteem and aggression. (Baumeister, 2001)

In contrast to old beliefs, recent research indicates that bullies act the way that they do because they suffer from unearned high self-esteem.

Violent criminals often describe themselves as superior to others - as special, elite persons who deserve preferential treatment. Many murders and assaults are committed in response to blows to self-esteem such as insults and humiliation. (To be sure, some perpetrators live in settings where insults threaten more than their opinions of themselves. Esteem and respect are linked to status in the social hierarchy, and to put someone down can have tangible and even life-threatening consequences. The same conclusion has emerged from studies of other categories of violent people. Street-gang members have been reported to hold favourable opinions of themselves and turn to violence when these estimations are shaken. Playground bullies regard themselves as superior to other children; low self-esteem is found among the victims of bullies, but not among bullies themselves. Violent groups generally have overt belief systems that emphasise their superiority over others. (Baumeister, 2001).

The findings of this research don't take into account that the concept of self-esteem has not been clearly defined and that there are differing views of the precise definition of self-esteem. Baumeister takes it for granted that self-esteem is how you regard yourself (or how you appear to regard yourself) regardless of how this view was cultivated. Some psychologists believe that self esteem that depends on external validation of the self (or other people's approval) is not, in fact, true self esteem. Nathaniel Branden labelled this 'pseudo self esteem', arguing that true self esteem comes from internal sources, such as self responsibility, self sufficiency and the knowledge of one's own competence and capablity to deal with obstacles and adversity, regardless of what other people think.

Psychologists who agree with this view dismiss Baumeister's findings and say that what he mistakes as 'high self esteem' in criminals is in fact narcissism and because it is an inflated opinion of self that is built on the shaky ground and the violence comes when that opinion is threatened. A person of true self esteem who valued themselves and believed wholly in their own competence and worth would have no need to resort to violence or indeed have any need to believe in superiority or prove superiority.

Self-esteem and economic motivation

Adam Smith discusses self-love as an economic motivation. Ranking by country 1.Serbia 2.Chile 3.Israel 4.Peru 5.Estonia 7.United States 8.Turkey 9.Mexico 10.Croatia

References

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• Roy F. Baumeister, "Violent Pride", in Scientific American, 284, No. 4, pages 96–101; April 2001.
• Roy F. Baumeister, Jennifer D. Campbell, Joachim I. Krueger and Kathleen D. Vohs, "Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles?", Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4 (1), pages 1–44; May 2003.
• Roy F. Baumeister, Jennifer D. Campbell, Joachim I. Krueger and Kathleen D. Vohs, "Exploding the Self-Esteem Myth" Scientific American, January 2005.
• Barbara Lerner, "Self-Esteem and Excellence: The Choice and the Paradox," American Educator, Winter 1985.
• Andrew M. Mecca, Neil J. Smelser and John Vasconcellos (Eds.) The Social Importance of Self-esteem University of California Press, 1989.
• Ruggiero, Vincent R. "Bad Attitude: Confronting the Views That Hinder Student's Learning" American Educator, Summer 2000.
• Sedikides, C., & Gregg. A. P. (2003). "Portraits of the self." In M. A. Hogg & J. Cooper (Eds.), Sage handbook of social psychology (pp.110-138). London: Sage Publications.
• Baumeister, R., Smart, L. & Boden, J. (1996). Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103, 5–33.
• Branden, N. (1969). The psychology of self-esteem. New York: Bantam.
• Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (2004). The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological Bulletin, 130(3), 392–414.
• James, W. (1983). The principles of psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1890)
• Mruk, C. (2006). Self-Esteem research, theory, and practice: Toward a positive psychology of self-esteem (3rd ed.). New York: Springer.
• Rodewalt, F. & Tragakis, M. W. (2003). Self-esteem and self-regulation: Toward optimal studies of self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 66–70.

External links

• Counseling To Enhance Self-Esteem
• Self-Esteem and Narcissism: Implications for Practice
• A Buddhist View on Lack of Self-confidence
• [1] - Scientific American
• The costs and causes of low self-esteem
• Our Urgent Need For Self-Esteem by Nathaniel Branden

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