Samsara
In Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and other related religions, samsāra refers to reincarnation or rebirth in Indian philosophical traditions. Etymologically, Samsara is derived from the the Sanskrit and Pāli phrases "to flow together," "to go or pass through states", "continous movement", "continuous flowing" or "to wander". In most Indian philosophical traditions, including the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain systems, an ongoing and beginningless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth is assumed to be a principle of nature. This cycle is inextricably linked with the doctrine of karma, which is said to determine one's rebirth in within the material world. Each tradition differs, however, in the terminology with which they describe the process and in the metaphysics they use to interpret it. There are also variations between sects within the tradition. Most of these traditions, in their evolved forms, regard Samsāra negatively, as a fallen condition marked by suffering, sorrow and inpermanence. Actions motivated by desire, selfish individualism, and/or ignorance of the true nature of the self and reality lead to rebirths. According to the merit of their karma, an individuals may be reincarnated as another human, an animal, or even an insect or plant. One may also be reborn in a particular locale, such as heaven or hell. The ultimate goal of all three religions is to escape this realm. However, in all three religions, some lay practioners engage in so-called "samsaric" forms of religiosity, which refers to the improvement of karma through good works in roder to gain a better birth in the next life. The term is also generally applied to conditioned, transient existence within the material world, which is in juxtaposed with liberated states such as moksha and nirvana.
Origins
Belief in the cycle of rebirth has been linked, by some scholars, to the Aryan emphasis on fire sacrifices as is seen in the Vedas. During Vedic rituals, fire (personified by the god Agni), was seen as the medium through which humanity connected with the heavens, and thereby allowed human beings to gain favour of the gods. It was thought that ritual, if executed precisely, could bring out specific results. This notion that actions in the present could have effects upon the future results may have been reconceptualized in the later doctrine of karma. Karma represents the generalization of this notion that specific acts have specific results to the entire cosmos. Aryan texts also link samsara to the rhythms and cycles which persist in nature. Further, Vedic religion upheld the idea of punar mrtyu, or "redeath" which took place in heaven, and preceded punar avrtti, or return to life on earth. Alternate theories attribute the rebirth doctrine to ancient non-Aryan tribal people, or else groups located around the Ganges which opposed the Vedas. Regardless of origin, the doctrine of rebirth was widespread in India during the sixth century B.C.E., when the Upanishads were composed, and the new religions of Buddhism and Jainism were founded.
Samsāra in Hinduism
Most Hindu traditions view the process of rebirth of the transmigration of the individual self (or jiva) to another body, as determined by their karma, after leaving the body at death. The eternal self, or atman, which resembles the western concept of the soul, remains unaffected by karma, and is consistent no matter what form an individual is reincarnated in. In Hinduism, it is avidya, or ignorance, of one's true self, that leads to ego-consciousness of the body and therefore the perceptioin of the phenomenal world. This grounds one in desire and the perpetual chain of karma and reincarnation.
There are several possible outcomes for the reincarnated soul in the traditional understanding. Karma of the worst variety may result in rebirth in hell, or else on earth as an insignificant being such as an insect, plant, or small animal. A step up from this is the so-called "way of the ancestors", which is the fate of those who are householders and performers of sacrifices. Here a soul is converted to rain and brought back down to the earth where their water nourishes plants. These plants are then consumed by animals, who expel the water as semen which gives the sould new life. Here one can gain a higher incarnation by moving up to a more desireable caste. However, it can also be a step downward, to the deplorable life of an animal or an outcaste. The Chandogya Upanishads describes the weight which rests upon karma together with rebirth:
Accordingly, those who are of pleasant conduct here (...) they will enter a pleasant womb, either the womb of a Brahman, or the womb of a Ksatriya, of the womb of a Vaishya. But those who are of stinking conduct here — the prospect is, indeed, that they will enter a stinking womb, either the womb of a dog, or the womb of a swine, or the womb of an outcaste (Chandogya Upanishad V:10:7).
The third and most desired result of reincarnation is the "way of the gods", and is only attainable by those who have led austere lives dedicated to isolation and contemplation. Such discipline allows for the transcendence of temporal units, which leads to the cessation of rebirth, and therefore liberation. Hinduism had many terms for the state of liberation like moksha, mukti, nirvana, and mahasamadhi.
In general, Hindus believe that once the karma of this eternal self is purified, one can escape the bonds of existence in samsara. The Hindu Yoga provides four different means by which to attain liberation: 1) by love and devotion of Ishvara, the personalized form of God, often called the bhakti yoga; 2)by psycho-physical meditation (Raja Yoga), 3) by discrimination of what is real and unreal through intense study and contemplation (Jnana Yoga) and 4) through Karma Yoga, the path of selfless action and subversion of the ego. All of these paths provide an equal oppurtunity for liberation
Various schools prescribe specific means by which to attain liberation. Some, such as Advaita Vedanta believe the atman to be one and the same as Brahman, the supreme divinity. Any perception of a difference is merely human egoism, caused by maya, or illusion. The phenomenal world itself and samsāric participation in it is fundamentally a consequence of maya. For Advaitans, liberation from samsara is gained when one transcends the illussion of samsara and comes to realization of the equivalence of their soul with Brahman. The tradition of Visistadvaita Vedanta, in contrast, believes that the individual soul is only a part and not wholly equivalent with Brahman. Therefore, mere realization of the nature of atman is not sufficient for purposes of escaping samsara, and one must practice bhakti in order to obtain Ishvara's grace and therefore, liberation.
Samsāra in Jainism
Like Hinduism, Jainism also centres its belief in samsara upon the notion of a pure and perfect soul, or jiva. For the Jains, however, karma is conceptualized as a kind of metaphysical substance rather than a force. The jiva becomes trapped in the cycle of rebirth due to the accumulation of karma upon it. This karma forms the physical body or bodies which remains attached to the soul through numerous rebirths until liberation. Jains refer to liberation from samsara as mukti or, as in the Hindu tradition moksha. However, much like in Advaita Vedanta, so long as the ego (anuva) remains unconquered, the veil of maya persists, and liberation is impossible.
Jains identify four types of karma which are responsible for the specific mechanisms of each rebirth. The various aspects of the body, such as class, species, and sex are determined by Namakarma. Spiritual qualities of any given incarnation are determined by Gotrakarma. The extent to which each incarnation is punitive or pleasant is determined by Vedaniyakarma. Ayuhkarma determines the length of this punishment or pleasure.
Samsāra in Buddhism
Samsāra refers in Buddhism to the concept of a cycle of birth (jāti) and consequent decay and death (jarāmaraṇa), in which all beings in the universe participate and which can only be escaped through the attainment of enlightenment, or nirvana. For this reason, samsara is typically described by Buddhists as a "Wheel of Suffering" or "Wheel of life."
Whereas in Hinduism it is the eternal self (Atman], jīva, etc.) which is subject to Samsāra, Buddhism teaches that such a self does not exist (a doctrine known as anatman.) How exactly reincarnation can occur without an eternal self which persits through several incarnations has been a problem for philosophers since the time of the Buddha. Despite difficulties, the basic idea that there is a cycle of birth and rebirth is, however, not questioned in early Buddhism and its successors. Buddhists originally accounts for the process of rebirth/reincarnation by appeal to phenomenological or psychological constituents. Theravadins, for instance, identify consciousness as the link between death and rebirth. Transmigration of souls occurs through discrete moments connected by chains of causality. Just as fresh milk transforms to curds, the essences continually changes; yet any given existence is always related to its predecessor. They key to ending the suffering which characterizes samsara depends on breaking points on the this chain. Theravada, therefore, places the realm of samsara in direct oppostion to nirvana, though the Mahayana and Vajrayana school equate the two realms, considering them both to be devoid (or "empty") of essence.
Others schools of Buddhism dealt with the difficult coexistence of the samsara and anatman doctrines in different ways. For instance, the Pudgalavāda, resurrected the concept of a "person" (pudgla) which transmigrates. Although not necessarily equated with conceptions such as atman, such a teaching very nearly contradicted the notion of anatman. Another concept used to explain rebirth was used by this school as well the Sarvastivadins, was that of antarabhava. This doctrine suggested that an "intermediate being" scouts out the location where rebirth is to occur as is dictated by karma, and proceeds to attach itself to the future parent's sexual organs.
One of the most florid representations of samsara in the Buddhist tradition comes from Tibeta Buddhism, where it is known as bhavacakra. Here the samsaric cycle is depicted as being contained, fittingly, within a circle (or mandala). The Bhavacakra most commonly depicted as having six sections, each of which represents a realms of existence, spanning the world of hell, which is at the hub, and the world of the gods which is at the very top. The Bhavacakra held in the jaws, hands, and feet of a demon, usually Mara (the demon representing sensual pleasures) or Yama (the God of death), who continually turns the wheel. The goal of life, naturally, is to proceed from the innermost rings of this circle to the outside.
See also
- Bhavacakra
- Reincarnation
- Nirvana
- Moksha
External links
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