Difference between revisions of "Samsara" - New World Encyclopedia
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| − | '''Samsāra''', in Indian philosophical systems such as [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and other related religions, refers to the state of perpetual [[reincarnation]] or [[rebirth]] in which all beings are ensnared. Etymologically, Samsara is derived from | + | '''Samsāra''', in Indian philosophical systems such as [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and other related religions, refers to the state of perpetual [[reincarnation]] or [[rebirth]] in which all beings are ensnared. Etymologically, Samsara is derived from [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pāli]] phrases which can be translated in a number of ways: "to flow together," "to go or pass through states", "continous movement", "continuous flowing" or "to wander". The term is also generally applied to conditioned, transient existence within the material world, which is in juxtaposed with notions of liberated states such as [[moksha]] and [[nirvana]]. |
| − | Although understandings of samsara vary between the Indian philosophical traditions, as well as within their sects, certain points are consistently acknowledged. In all three faiths, | + | Although understandings of samsara vary between the Indian philosophical traditions, as well as within their sects, certain points are consistently acknowledged. In all three faiths, the ongoing and beginningless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth is assumed to be a principle of nature. This cycle is inextricably linked with the doctrine of [[karma]], which states that human action has consequences not only in this life, but in future lives as well. Karma is said to determine the nature of one's rebirth in the samsaric world. Most of these traditions regard Samsāra negatively, as a fallen condition marked by suffering, sorrow and inpermanence. Actions motivated by desire, selfish individualism, and/or ignorance of the true nature of the self and reality lead to rebirths. According to the merit of their karma, an individual may be reincarnated as another human, animal, or even as an insect or plant. One may also be reborn in a particular locale, such as heaven or hell. The ultimate goal of all three religions is to escape this realm. However, in all three religions, some lay practioners engage in so-called "samsaric" forms of religiosity, which refers to the performance of good works in order to improve karma and thereby gain a more favourable birth in the next life. |
==Origins== | ==Origins== | ||
| − | Some scholars have linked belief in the cycle of rebirth to the Aryan emphasis on fire sacrifices, | + | Some scholars have linked belief in the cycle of rebirth to the Aryan emphasis on fire sacrifices, which is particularly important in the Vedas. During Vedic rituals, fire (personified by the god Agni), was seen as the medium through which humanity connected with the heavens, and thereby allowed human beings to gain favour of the gods. Precisely executed ritualistic acts were thought to bring about specific results. Karma extends to the entire cosmos this notion that specific acts have specific results in the future. Further, Vedic religion upheld the idea of ''punar mrtyu'', or "redeath" which took place in heaven, and preceded ''punar avrtti'', or return to life on earth. Aryan texts link this process to the rhythms and cycles which persist in nature. Alternate theories have suggested the rebirth doctrine emerged among ancient non-Aryan tribal people of India, or else groups located around the Ganges who opposed the Vedas. Regardless of origin, the doctrine of rebirth was widely accepted in India by the sixth century B.C.E. when the Upanishads were composed, and the new religions of Buddhism and Jainism were being developed. |
==Samsāra in Hinduism== | ==Samsāra in Hinduism== | ||
| − | Most Hindu traditions view the process of samsara occuring through the perpetual transmigration of the individual self (or ''[[jiva]]'') to another body, as determined by their karma, after | + | Most Hindu traditions view the process of samsara occuring through the perpetual transmigration of the individual self (or ''[[jiva]]'') to another body, as determined by their karma, after it departs the body at death. The eternal self, or atman, which resembles the western concept of the soul, remains unaffected by karma, and is consistent no matter what form an individual is reincarnated in. In Hinduism, it is [[avidya]], or ignorance, of one's true self, that leads to ego-consciousness of the body and therefore the perception of the phenomenal world. This material world breeds desire within the individual and grounds them in the perpetual chain of [[karma]] and reincarnation. |
| − | There are several possible outcomes for the reincarnated soul in the traditional understanding of samsara. Karma of the worst variety may result in rebirth in hell, or else on earth as an insignificant being such as an insect, plant, or small animal. A step up from this is the so-called "way of the ancestors", which is the fate of those who are householders and performers of sacrifices. Here the soul upon death is converted to rain and brought back down to the earth where it nourishes plants. These plants are then consumed by animals, who expel the | + | There are several possible outcomes for the reincarnated soul in the traditional understanding of samsara. Karma of the worst variety may result in rebirth in hell, or else on earth as an insignificant being such as an insect, plant, or small animal. A step up from this is the so-called "way of the ancestors", which is the fate of those who are householders and performers of sacrifices. Here the soul upon death is converted to rain and brought back down to the earth where it nourishes plants. These plants are then consumed by animals, who expel the soul in the form of semen which provides it with a new body after conception. At this level of rebirth, one can potentially gain what is supposedly higher incarnation through birth into a more advantageous [[caste system|caste]]. However, it can also be a step downward to the life of an animal or an outcaste, which are believed to be less providential positions for karmic advancement. The Chandogya Upanishads describes the weight which rests upon karma in determining the nature of rebirth: |
<blockquote> ''Accordingly, those who are of pleasant conduct here (...) they will enter a pleasant womb, either the womb of a Brahman, or the womb of a Ksatriya, of the womb of a Vaishya. But those who are of stinking conduct here — the prospect is, indeed, that they will enter a stinking womb, either the womb of a dog, or the womb of a swine, or the womb of an outcaste'' (Chandogya Upanishad V:10:7). | <blockquote> ''Accordingly, those who are of pleasant conduct here (...) they will enter a pleasant womb, either the womb of a Brahman, or the womb of a Ksatriya, of the womb of a Vaishya. But those who are of stinking conduct here — the prospect is, indeed, that they will enter a stinking womb, either the womb of a dog, or the womb of a swine, or the womb of an outcaste'' (Chandogya Upanishad V:10:7). | ||
</blockquote> | </blockquote> | ||
| − | The third and most desireable result of reincarnation is the "way of the gods", and is only attainable by those who have led austere lives dedicated to isolation and contemplation. Such discipline allows for the transcendence of notions of space and time, which leads to the cessation of rebirth, and therefore liberation. Hinduism | + | The third and most desireable result of reincarnation is the "way of the gods", and is only attainable by those who have led austere lives dedicated to isolation and contemplation. Such discipline allows for the transcendence of notions of space and time, which leads to the cessation of rebirth, and therefore liberation. Hinduism has many terms for the state of liberation, such as [[moksha]], nirvana, and mahasamadhi, among others. |
Hindus believe that once the karma of this eternal self is purified, one can escape the bonds of existence in samsara. The Hindu Yoga provides four different means by which to attain liberation: 1) by love and devotion of [[Ishvara]], the personalized form of God, often called the [[bhakti]] yoga; 2)by psycho-physical meditation ([[Raja Yoga]]), 3) by discrimination of what is real and unreal through intense study and contemplation ([[Jnana Yoga]]) and 4) through [[Karma Yoga]], the path of selfless action and subversion of the ego. Generally, all of these paths provide an equal oppurtunity for liberation, though certain paths may be favoured by particular schools. | Hindus believe that once the karma of this eternal self is purified, one can escape the bonds of existence in samsara. The Hindu Yoga provides four different means by which to attain liberation: 1) by love and devotion of [[Ishvara]], the personalized form of God, often called the [[bhakti]] yoga; 2)by psycho-physical meditation ([[Raja Yoga]]), 3) by discrimination of what is real and unreal through intense study and contemplation ([[Jnana Yoga]]) and 4) through [[Karma Yoga]], the path of selfless action and subversion of the ego. Generally, all of these paths provide an equal oppurtunity for liberation, though certain paths may be favoured by particular schools. | ||
| − | The school of [[Advaita Vedanta]] believes the atman to be one and the same as [[Brahman]], the supreme divinity. Any perception of a difference is merely human egoism, caused by [[maya]], or illusion. The phenomenal world itself and samsāric participation in it is fundamentally a consequence of maya. Illusion is the bondage, then, but bondage is also an illusion | + | The school of [[Advaita Vedanta]] believes the atman to be one and the same as [[Brahman]], the supreme divinity. Any perception of a difference between the two is merely human egoism, caused by [[maya]], or illusion. The phenomenal world itself and samsāric participation in it is fundamentally a consequence of maya. Illusion is the bondage, then, but bondage is also an illusion; therefore, once the illusion is understood, it can be overcome. For Advaitans, liberation from samsara is gained when one transcends the illussion of samsara and comes to realization of the equivalence of their soul with Brahman. |
The tradition of Visistadvaita Vedanta, in contrast, believes that the individual soul is only a part and not wholly equivalent with Brahman. Therefore, mere realization of the nature of atman is not sufficient for purposes of escaping samsara, and one must practice bhakti in order to obtain liberation through Ishvara's grace. For Visistadvaitans and other followers of bhakti, samsara is problematic in that it commonly involves failure to acknowledge the existence of a personal deity. Release, then, for a bhakti devotee, is characterized by emancipation from the temptations of everyday life so that one may become fully absorbed in their chosen god or goddess. Thus, samsara does not necessarily need to be "transcended" in these traditions. | The tradition of Visistadvaita Vedanta, in contrast, believes that the individual soul is only a part and not wholly equivalent with Brahman. Therefore, mere realization of the nature of atman is not sufficient for purposes of escaping samsara, and one must practice bhakti in order to obtain liberation through Ishvara's grace. For Visistadvaitans and other followers of bhakti, samsara is problematic in that it commonly involves failure to acknowledge the existence of a personal deity. Release, then, for a bhakti devotee, is characterized by emancipation from the temptations of everyday life so that one may become fully absorbed in their chosen god or goddess. Thus, samsara does not necessarily need to be "transcended" in these traditions. | ||
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==Samsāra in Jainism== | ==Samsāra in Jainism== | ||
| − | Like Hinduism, Jainism also centres its belief in samsara upon the notion of a pure and perfect soul, which they refer to as ''jiva''. For the Jains, however, karma is conceptualized as a kind of substance rather than a metaphysical force. The ''jiva'' becomes trapped in the cycle of rebirth due to the accumulation of karma upon it. This karma forms the physical body or bodies which becomes attached to the soul and determines various characteristics of each rebith. Jains identify four types of karma which are responsible for these characteristics. The various aspects of the body, such as class, species, and sex are determined by ''Namakarma''. Spiritual qualities of any given incarnation are determined by ''Gotrakarma''. The extent to which each incarnation is punitive or pleasant is determined by ''Vedaniyakarma'', and ''Ayuhkarma'' determines the length of this punishment or pleasure. The fate of the soul is dictated by these four types of karma until liberation. Jains refer to liberation from samsara as ''mukti'' or, as in the Hindu tradition ''[[moksha]]''. However, much like in Advaita Vedanta, so long as the ego ([[anuva]]) remains unconquered, the veil of [[maya (illusion)|maya]] persists, and liberation is impossible. | + | Like Hinduism, Jainism also centres its belief in samsara upon the notion of a pure and perfect soul, which they refer to as ''jiva'', fettered by karma and the material world. For the Jains, however, karma is conceptualized as a kind of substance rather than a metaphysical force. The ''jiva'' becomes trapped in the cycle of rebirth due to the accumulation of karma upon it. This karma forms the physical body or bodies which becomes attached to the soul and determines various characteristics of each rebith. Jains identify four types of karma which are responsible for these characteristics. The various aspects of the body, such as class, species, and sex are determined by ''Namakarma''. Spiritual qualities of any given incarnation are determined by ''Gotrakarma''. The extent to which each incarnation is punitive or pleasant is determined by ''Vedaniyakarma'', and ''Ayuhkarma'' determines the length of this punishment or pleasure. The fate of the soul is dictated by these four types of karma until liberation. Jains refer to liberation from samsara as ''mukti'' or, as in the Hindu tradition, ''[[moksha]]''. However, much like in Advaita Vedanta, so long as the ego (''[[anuva]]'') remains unconquered, the veil of [[maya (illusion)|maya]] persists, and liberation is impossible. |
==Samsāra in Buddhism== | ==Samsāra in Buddhism== | ||
| Line 32: | Line 32: | ||
While the Buddhist conceptualization of samsara contains the requisite doctrines of 1) a cycle of birth (jāti) and 2) consequent decay and death (jarāmaraṇa) which can only be escaped through the attainment of enlightenment, it is better summed up as unenlightened life characterized by suffering. For this reason, samsara is typically described by Buddhists as a "Wheel of Suffering" or "Wheel of life." Entrapment within samsara is conditioned by ''akushala'', or, the three roots of suffering: ''dvesha'',(hatred), ''trishna'' (desire or craving) and ''avidya'' (delusion). | While the Buddhist conceptualization of samsara contains the requisite doctrines of 1) a cycle of birth (jāti) and 2) consequent decay and death (jarāmaraṇa) which can only be escaped through the attainment of enlightenment, it is better summed up as unenlightened life characterized by suffering. For this reason, samsara is typically described by Buddhists as a "Wheel of Suffering" or "Wheel of life." Entrapment within samsara is conditioned by ''akushala'', or, the three roots of suffering: ''dvesha'',(hatred), ''trishna'' (desire or craving) and ''avidya'' (delusion). | ||
| − | Whereas in [[Hinduism]] it is the eternal self ([[Atman]] which is subject to Samsāra, Buddhism teaches that such a self does not exist (a doctrine known as ''anatman.'') How exactly reincarnation can occur without an eternal self which | + | Whereas in [[Hinduism]] it is the eternal self ([[Atman]] which is subject to Samsāra, Buddhism teaches that such a self does not exist (a doctrine known as ''anatman.'') How exactly reincarnation can occur without an eternal self which persists through the span of incarnations has been a problem for philosophers since the time of the Buddha. Buddhists originally accounted for the process of rebirth/[[reincarnation]] by appeal to phenomenological or psychological constituents. Theravadins, for instance, identify consciousness as the link between death and rebirth. Although there is no existence of self, perpetual ignorance from moment to moment causes every changing psychological states (or the [[skandhas]]) to be perceived to be indicators of selfhood. As long as mental representations of self persist, so to does the cycle of rebirth. Theravada, therefore, places the realm of samsara in direct oppostion to nirvana, though the Mahayana and Vajrayana schools actually equate the two realms, considering them both to be devoid (or "empty") of essence. If everything is a mental representation, then so too are both samsara ''and'' nirvana, which are nothing more than labels without substance. In these schools, realizing this simple fact allows for the realization that samsara itself ''is'' the sole attainment, and existence is nothing other than the moment as it is. |
| − | Others schools of Buddhism dealt with the difficult coexistence of the samsara and anatman doctrines in different ways. For instance, the [[Pudgalavada|Pudgalavāda]] school resurrected the concept of a "person" (pudgla) which [[transmigrates]]. Although this concept of a "person" is not necessarily equated with conceptions such as atman, such a teaching very nearly contradicts the notion of anatman. Another concept used by this school as well the Sarvastivadins to explain rebirth was that of ''antarabhava''. This doctrine suggested the existence of an "intermediate being" present between life and rebirth. This being scouts out the location where rebirth is to occur as is dictated by karma from the previous life, and proceeds to attach itself to the sexual organs of the prospective parents of new child in which the soul will dwell. | + | Others schools of Buddhism dealt with the difficult coexistence of the samsara and ''anatman'' doctrines in different ways. For instance, the [[Pudgalavada|Pudgalavāda]] school resurrected the concept of a "person" (pudgla) which [[transmigrates]] after death. Although this concept of a "person" is not necessarily equated with conceptions such as atman, such a teaching very nearly contradicts the notion of anatman. Another concept used by this school as well the Sarvastivadins to explain rebirth was that of ''antarabhava''. This doctrine suggested the existence of an "intermediate being" present between life and rebirth. This being scouts out the location where rebirth is to occur as is dictated by karma from the previous life, and proceeds to attach itself to the sexual organs of the prospective parents of new child in which the soul will dwell. |
| − | One of the most florid representations of samsara in the Buddhist tradition comes from Tibeta Buddhism, where the cycle of existence is commonly referred to as ''bhavacakra''. Here the samsaric cycle is depicted as being contained, fittingly, within a circle (or ''mandala''). The ''bhavacakra'' most often drawn or described as having six sections, each of which represents a realms of existence, spanning the world of hell, which is at the hub, and the world of the gods which is at the very top. The bhavacakra is held in the jaws, hands, and feet of a | + | One of the most florid representations of samsara in the Buddhist tradition comes from Tibeta Buddhism, where the cycle of existence is commonly referred to as ''bhavacakra''. Here the samsaric cycle is depicted as being contained, fittingly, within a circle (or ''mandala''). The ''bhavacakra'' most often drawn or described as having six sections, each of which represents a realms of existence, spanning the world of hell, which is at the hub, and the world of the gods which is at the very top. The bhavacakra is held in the jaws, hands, and feet of a malevolent being, usually Mara (the demon representing sensual pleasures) or Yama (the God of death), who continually turns the wheel. The goal of life, naturally, is to proceed from the innermost rings of this circle to the outside, where liberation is attained. |
==References== | ==References== | ||
Revision as of 22:43, 17 September 2006
Samsāra, in Indian philosophical systems such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and other related religions, refers to the state of perpetual reincarnation or rebirth in which all beings are ensnared. Etymologically, Samsara is derived from Sanskrit and Pāli phrases which can be translated in a number of ways: "to flow together," "to go or pass through states", "continous movement", "continuous flowing" or "to wander". The term is also generally applied to conditioned, transient existence within the material world, which is in juxtaposed with notions of liberated states such as moksha and nirvana.
Although understandings of samsara vary between the Indian philosophical traditions, as well as within their sects, certain points are consistently acknowledged. In all three faiths, the ongoing and beginningless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth is assumed to be a principle of nature. This cycle is inextricably linked with the doctrine of karma, which states that human action has consequences not only in this life, but in future lives as well. Karma is said to determine the nature of one's rebirth in the samsaric world. Most of these traditions regard Samsāra negatively, as a fallen condition marked by suffering, sorrow and inpermanence. Actions motivated by desire, selfish individualism, and/or ignorance of the true nature of the self and reality lead to rebirths. According to the merit of their karma, an individual may be reincarnated as another human, animal, or even as an insect or plant. One may also be reborn in a particular locale, such as heaven or hell. The ultimate goal of all three religions is to escape this realm. However, in all three religions, some lay practioners engage in so-called "samsaric" forms of religiosity, which refers to the performance of good works in order to improve karma and thereby gain a more favourable birth in the next life.
Origins
Some scholars have linked belief in the cycle of rebirth to the Aryan emphasis on fire sacrifices, which is particularly important in the Vedas. During Vedic rituals, fire (personified by the god Agni), was seen as the medium through which humanity connected with the heavens, and thereby allowed human beings to gain favour of the gods. Precisely executed ritualistic acts were thought to bring about specific results. Karma extends to the entire cosmos this notion that specific acts have specific results in the future. Further, Vedic religion upheld the idea of punar mrtyu, or "redeath" which took place in heaven, and preceded punar avrtti, or return to life on earth. Aryan texts link this process to the rhythms and cycles which persist in nature. Alternate theories have suggested the rebirth doctrine emerged among ancient non-Aryan tribal people of India, or else groups located around the Ganges who opposed the Vedas. Regardless of origin, the doctrine of rebirth was widely accepted in India by the sixth century B.C.E. when the Upanishads were composed, and the new religions of Buddhism and Jainism were being developed.
Samsāra in Hinduism
Most Hindu traditions view the process of samsara occuring through the perpetual transmigration of the individual self (or jiva) to another body, as determined by their karma, after it departs the body at death. The eternal self, or atman, which resembles the western concept of the soul, remains unaffected by karma, and is consistent no matter what form an individual is reincarnated in. In Hinduism, it is avidya, or ignorance, of one's true self, that leads to ego-consciousness of the body and therefore the perception of the phenomenal world. This material world breeds desire within the individual and grounds them in the perpetual chain of karma and reincarnation.
There are several possible outcomes for the reincarnated soul in the traditional understanding of samsara. Karma of the worst variety may result in rebirth in hell, or else on earth as an insignificant being such as an insect, plant, or small animal. A step up from this is the so-called "way of the ancestors", which is the fate of those who are householders and performers of sacrifices. Here the soul upon death is converted to rain and brought back down to the earth where it nourishes plants. These plants are then consumed by animals, who expel the soul in the form of semen which provides it with a new body after conception. At this level of rebirth, one can potentially gain what is supposedly higher incarnation through birth into a more advantageous caste. However, it can also be a step downward to the life of an animal or an outcaste, which are believed to be less providential positions for karmic advancement. The Chandogya Upanishads describes the weight which rests upon karma in determining the nature of rebirth:
Accordingly, those who are of pleasant conduct here (...) they will enter a pleasant womb, either the womb of a Brahman, or the womb of a Ksatriya, of the womb of a Vaishya. But those who are of stinking conduct here — the prospect is, indeed, that they will enter a stinking womb, either the womb of a dog, or the womb of a swine, or the womb of an outcaste (Chandogya Upanishad V:10:7).
The third and most desireable result of reincarnation is the "way of the gods", and is only attainable by those who have led austere lives dedicated to isolation and contemplation. Such discipline allows for the transcendence of notions of space and time, which leads to the cessation of rebirth, and therefore liberation. Hinduism has many terms for the state of liberation, such as moksha, nirvana, and mahasamadhi, among others.
Hindus believe that once the karma of this eternal self is purified, one can escape the bonds of existence in samsara. The Hindu Yoga provides four different means by which to attain liberation: 1) by love and devotion of Ishvara, the personalized form of God, often called the bhakti yoga; 2)by psycho-physical meditation (Raja Yoga), 3) by discrimination of what is real and unreal through intense study and contemplation (Jnana Yoga) and 4) through Karma Yoga, the path of selfless action and subversion of the ego. Generally, all of these paths provide an equal oppurtunity for liberation, though certain paths may be favoured by particular schools.
The school of Advaita Vedanta believes the atman to be one and the same as Brahman, the supreme divinity. Any perception of a difference between the two is merely human egoism, caused by maya, or illusion. The phenomenal world itself and samsāric participation in it is fundamentally a consequence of maya. Illusion is the bondage, then, but bondage is also an illusion; therefore, once the illusion is understood, it can be overcome. For Advaitans, liberation from samsara is gained when one transcends the illussion of samsara and comes to realization of the equivalence of their soul with Brahman.
The tradition of Visistadvaita Vedanta, in contrast, believes that the individual soul is only a part and not wholly equivalent with Brahman. Therefore, mere realization of the nature of atman is not sufficient for purposes of escaping samsara, and one must practice bhakti in order to obtain liberation through Ishvara's grace. For Visistadvaitans and other followers of bhakti, samsara is problematic in that it commonly involves failure to acknowledge the existence of a personal deity. Release, then, for a bhakti devotee, is characterized by emancipation from the temptations of everyday life so that one may become fully absorbed in their chosen god or goddess. Thus, samsara does not necessarily need to be "transcended" in these traditions.
Samsāra in Jainism
Like Hinduism, Jainism also centres its belief in samsara upon the notion of a pure and perfect soul, which they refer to as jiva, fettered by karma and the material world. For the Jains, however, karma is conceptualized as a kind of substance rather than a metaphysical force. The jiva becomes trapped in the cycle of rebirth due to the accumulation of karma upon it. This karma forms the physical body or bodies which becomes attached to the soul and determines various characteristics of each rebith. Jains identify four types of karma which are responsible for these characteristics. The various aspects of the body, such as class, species, and sex are determined by Namakarma. Spiritual qualities of any given incarnation are determined by Gotrakarma. The extent to which each incarnation is punitive or pleasant is determined by Vedaniyakarma, and Ayuhkarma determines the length of this punishment or pleasure. The fate of the soul is dictated by these four types of karma until liberation. Jains refer to liberation from samsara as mukti or, as in the Hindu tradition, moksha. However, much like in Advaita Vedanta, so long as the ego (anuva) remains unconquered, the veil of maya persists, and liberation is impossible.
Samsāra in Buddhism
While the Buddhist conceptualization of samsara contains the requisite doctrines of 1) a cycle of birth (jāti) and 2) consequent decay and death (jarāmaraṇa) which can only be escaped through the attainment of enlightenment, it is better summed up as unenlightened life characterized by suffering. For this reason, samsara is typically described by Buddhists as a "Wheel of Suffering" or "Wheel of life." Entrapment within samsara is conditioned by akushala, or, the three roots of suffering: dvesha,(hatred), trishna (desire or craving) and avidya (delusion).
Whereas in Hinduism it is the eternal self (Atman which is subject to Samsāra, Buddhism teaches that such a self does not exist (a doctrine known as anatman.) How exactly reincarnation can occur without an eternal self which persists through the span of incarnations has been a problem for philosophers since the time of the Buddha. Buddhists originally accounted for the process of rebirth/reincarnation by appeal to phenomenological or psychological constituents. Theravadins, for instance, identify consciousness as the link between death and rebirth. Although there is no existence of self, perpetual ignorance from moment to moment causes every changing psychological states (or the skandhas) to be perceived to be indicators of selfhood. As long as mental representations of self persist, so to does the cycle of rebirth. Theravada, therefore, places the realm of samsara in direct oppostion to nirvana, though the Mahayana and Vajrayana schools actually equate the two realms, considering them both to be devoid (or "empty") of essence. If everything is a mental representation, then so too are both samsara and nirvana, which are nothing more than labels without substance. In these schools, realizing this simple fact allows for the realization that samsara itself is the sole attainment, and existence is nothing other than the moment as it is.
Others schools of Buddhism dealt with the difficult coexistence of the samsara and anatman doctrines in different ways. For instance, the Pudgalavāda school resurrected the concept of a "person" (pudgla) which transmigrates after death. Although this concept of a "person" is not necessarily equated with conceptions such as atman, such a teaching very nearly contradicts the notion of anatman. Another concept used by this school as well the Sarvastivadins to explain rebirth was that of antarabhava. This doctrine suggested the existence of an "intermediate being" present between life and rebirth. This being scouts out the location where rebirth is to occur as is dictated by karma from the previous life, and proceeds to attach itself to the sexual organs of the prospective parents of new child in which the soul will dwell.
One of the most florid representations of samsara in the Buddhist tradition comes from Tibeta Buddhism, where the cycle of existence is commonly referred to as bhavacakra. Here the samsaric cycle is depicted as being contained, fittingly, within a circle (or mandala). The bhavacakra most often drawn or described as having six sections, each of which represents a realms of existence, spanning the world of hell, which is at the hub, and the world of the gods which is at the very top. The bhavacakra is held in the jaws, hands, and feet of a malevolent being, usually Mara (the demon representing sensual pleasures) or Yama (the God of death), who continually turns the wheel. The goal of life, naturally, is to proceed from the innermost rings of this circle to the outside, where liberation is attained.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Fischer-Schreiber, Ingrid. "Samsara." In The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion. Schumacher, S. & Woerner, Gert, eds. Boston: Shambhala, 1994. 298. ISBN 0-87773-433-X
- Long, J.B. "Samsara." In The Perennial Dictionary of World Religions, Keith Crim, ed. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1989. 650-651. ISBN 0-06-061613-X
- Smith, Brian K. "Samsara." Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. Mercia Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 56-57.
- Van Put, Ineke. "Sukhavati in the Context of Intermediate Existence" <http://www.univie.ac.at/eajs/sections/abstracts/Section_8/8_10.htm> [Accessed September 16 2006].
See also
- Bhavacakra
- Reincarnation
- Nirvana
- Moksha
External links
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