Political History

Political history is the narrative and analysis of political events, ideas, movements, and leaders. It is usually structured around the nation-state. It is distinct from, but related to, other fields of history such as social history, economic history, and military history. Generally, political history focuses on events relating to nation-states and the formal political process. According to Hegel, Political History "is an idea of the state with a moral and spiritual force beyond the material interests of its subjects: it followed that the state was the main agent of historical change" This contrasts for instance with social history, which focuses predominantly on the actions and lifestyles of ordinary people, or people's history, which is historical work from the perspective of common, non-elite people.

The development, alongside political history, of historical reconstructions that aims to express the views of those whose voices are not heard in top-down historical reconstruction serves to stress that all history is written from somebody's perspective. The way in which the history of national leaders is written usually serves to justify, excuse or sometimes to censure how they have acted. In order to construct a fuller, more complete picture of human development, a variety of approaches is needed. A value based analysis of history concerned with the lessons that can be learnt and with how decisions made by elites impacted for good or for ill on the lives of non-elies has to rise to the challenge of identifying a wide variety of voices and of finding sources that have habitually been forgotten, deliberately set aside or even suppressed. For those who posit that history has a providential purpose, the possibility that God works through the life of non-elites who yet contribut significantly to their immediate societies, improving people's lives, must always remain open. Political history is often a narrative of battles, of nations defeating nations, of the triumph of generals and of the kings and politicians who ordered them to war. By placing the lives of non-elites alongside those of generals, rulers and leaders of nations, other achievements in fields that enrich human life also become the stuff of history.

Description

Diplomatic history focuses on politics, politicians and other rulers and views them as being the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time. This is the most common form of history and is often the classical and popular belief of what history should be. The makers and movers of diplomatic history are heads of state or of government and their representatives.

Diplomatic history is the past aggregate of the art and practice of conducting negotiations between accredited persons representing groups or nations occurring in succession. Events lead from the past to the present and even into the future. Diplomatic history records or narrates events relating to or characteristic of diplomacy such as the conduct of state relations through the intercession of individuals with regard to issues of peace-making, culture, economics, trade and war.

Aspects of political history

The first "scientific" political history was written by Leopold von Ranke in Germany in the 19th century. His methodologies profoundly affected the way historians critically examine sources. An important aspect of political history is the study of ideology as a force for historical change. One author asserts that "political history as a whole cannot exist without the study of ideological differences and their implications." Studies of political history typically centre around a single nation and its political change and development. Some historians identify the growing trend towards narrow specialisation in political history during recent decades: "while a college professor in the 1940s sought to identify himself as a "historian", by the 1950s "American historian" was the designation."

From the 1970s onwards, new movements sought to challenge traditional approaches to political history. The development of social history and women's history shifted the emphasis away from the study of leaders and national decisions, and towards the role of ordinary citizens; "...by the 1970s "the new social history" began replacing the older style. Emphasis shifted to a broader spectrum of ... life, including such topics as the history of urban life, public health, ethnicity, the media, and poverty." As such, political history is sometimes seen as the more 'traditional' kind of history, in contrast with the more 'modern' approaches of other fields of history.

Early developments

Although much of existing written history might be classified as diplomatic history - Thucydides, certainly, is among other things, highly concerned with the relations among states - the modern form of diplomatic history was codified in the 19th century by Leopold von Ranke, a German historian. Ranke wrote largely on the history of Early Modern Europe, using the diplomatic archives of the European powers (particularly the Venetians) to construct a detailed understanding of the history of Europe wie es eigentlich gewesen ("as it actually happened.") Ranke saw diplomatic history as the most important kind of history to write because of his idea of the "Primacy of Foreign Affairs" (Primat der Aussenpolitik), arguing that the concerns of international relations drive the internal development of the state. Ranke's understanding of diplomatic history relied on the large number of official documents produced by modern western governments as sources.

Ranke's understanding of the dominance of foreign policy, and hence an emphasis on diplomatic history, remained the dominant paradigm in historical writing through the first half of the twentieth century. This emphasis, combined with the effects of the War Guilt Clause in the Treaty of Versailles (1919) which ended [[World War I, led to a huge amount of historical writing on the subject of the origins of the war in 1914, with the involved governments printing huge, carefully edited, collections of documents and numerous historians writing multi-volume histories of the origins of the war. In general, the early works in this vein, including Fritz Fischer's controversial (at the time) 1961 thesis that German goals of "world power" were the principal cause of the war, fit fairly comfortably into Ranke's emphasis on Aussenpolitik.

Modern developments

In the course of the 1960s, however, some German historians (notably Hans-Ulrich Wehler and his cohort) began to rebel against this idea, instead suggesting a "Primacy of Domestic Politics" (Primat der Innenpolitik), in which the insecurities of (in this case German) domestic policy drove the creation of foreign policy. This led to a considerable body of work interpreting the domestic policies of various states and the ways this influenced their conduct of foreign policy.

At the same time, the middle of the twentieth century began to see a general de-emphasis on diplomatic history. The French Annales school had already put an emphasis on the role of geography and economics on history, and of the importance of broad, slow cycles rather than the constant apparent movement of the "history of events" of high politics. The most important work of the Annales school, Fernand Braudel's The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, contains a traditional Rankean diplomatic history of Philip II's Mediterranean policy, but only as the third and shortest section of a work largely focusing on the broad cycles of history in the longue durée ("long term"). The Annales were broadly influential, leading to a turning away from diplomatic and other forms of political history towards an emphasis on broader trends of economic and environmental change.

In the 1960s and 1970s, an increasing emphasis on giving a voice to the voiceless and writing the history of the underclasses, whether by using the quantitative statistical methods of social history or the more qualitative assessments of cultural history, also undermined the centrality of diplomatic history to the historical discipline. Most history is written from somebody's point of view. In telling the story of their nations and leaders, historians tend to shed as positive a light on events as possible, offering excuses for mistakes. The same event narrated by a writer from opposing sides of a battle or struggles may emphasize different aspects depending on what they regard as in the interest of their own state. The voices of political dissent are also often ignored or given a negative, critical gloss. Marxist history to some degree uncovers the voices of non-elites by focusing on the role that class and class conflict conflict plays in the evolution of social institutions positing a dialectic that moves society towards communism. The challenge of giving voice to the voiceless requires finding these hidden, lost or silenced voices, that is, using alternative accounts than those written by the movers and shakers of history.

Legacy

Diplomatic history has always remained a historical field with a great interest to the general public, and considerable amounts of work are still done in the field, often in much the same way that Ranke pioneered in the middle years of the 19th century. The widening of historical research to include the contributions of non-elite also

Literature

Books listed by date

• Sreedharan, E. (2007). A manual of historical research methodology. Trivandrum, Centre for South Indian Studies.
• Sreedharan, E. (2004). A textbook of historiography: 500 B.C.E. to AD 2000. New Delhi: Orient Longman.
• Elman, C., & Elman, M. F. (2001). Bridges and boundaries: historians, political scientists, and the study of international relations. BCSIA studies in international security. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
• Hogan, M. J. (2000). Paths to Power: The Historiography of American Foreign Relations to 1941. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521664136
• Plischke, E. (1999). U.S. Department of State: a reference history. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.
• Smith, T. W.(1999). History and International Relations. Routledge. ISBN 0415178657
• Kissinger, H. (1994). Diplomacy. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0743231503
• Jones, R. A. (1983). The British diplomatic service, 1815-1914. Waterloo, Ont., Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.
• Elton, G. R. (1968). The practice of history. New York: Crowell.
• Bailey, T. A. (1964). A diplomatic history of the American people. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
• Kissinger, H. (1954). A World Restored: Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace 1812-1822.
• Braudel, F.(1976). The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip Ii, 2 vols, New York and Cambridge: Harper and Row.
• Schroeder, P. W. (1972). Austria, Great Britain, and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert.
• Zeman, Z. A. B. (1971). The gentlemen negotiators; a diplomatic history of the First World War. New York: Macmillan.
• Sontag, R. J. (1933). European diplomatic history, 1871-1932. New York, London: Century Co.
• Treat, P. J. (1928). The Far East: a political and diplomatic history. Harper's historical series. New York and London: Harper & brothers.
• Raymond, D. N. (1921). British policy and opinion during the Franco-Prussian war. New York: Columbia University; [etc.].
• Schreiner G. A., et al. (1921). Entente Diplomacy and the World: Matrix of the History of Europe, 1909-14. G.P. Putnam's Sons.
• Heatley, D. P. (1919). Diplomacy and the study of international relations. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Satow, E. (1917). A Guide to Diplomatic Practice. Longmans, Green & Co. London & New York. (ed., A standard reference work used in many embassies across the world. Now in its fifth edition (1998, ISBN 0-582-50109-1)).
• Lord, R. H. (1915). The second partition of Poland: a study in diplomatic history. Harvard historical studies, vol. xxiii. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
• Williams, H. S. (1907). The historians' history of the world. Volume XV. (ed., this volume covers Leopold von Ranke on Page 633.)
• Hildt, J. C. (1906). Early diplomatic negotiations of the United States with Russia. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.
• Whitman, S. (1897). Imperial Germany; a critical study of fact and character. Chautauqua reading circle literature. Meadville, Penna: [etc.] Flood and Vincent.
• Phillimore, W. G. F., Mure, R. J., & Phillimore, R. J. (1889). Commentaries upon international law.
• Segesser, A. P. v. (1860). Die Beziehungen der Schweizer zu Mathias Corvinus, König von Ungarn, in den Jahren 1476-1490. Lucern: Frz. Jos. Schiffmann. (German)

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Tosh, John: The Pursuit of History, 2nd edition, London Group UK Limited,

External links

• Documents of Diplomatic History
• Fletcher School at Tufts International Relations Resources
• A New Nation Votes: American Elections Returns 1787–1825
• (French) French Website of the Comité d'histoire parlementaire et politique (Parliamentary and Political History Committee) and Parlement(s), Revue d'histoire politique, published three times a year. It contains a lot of information about French political history, including about 900 references of scholarly political history studies and a bibliography of parliamentary history.

ar:تاريخ سياسي es:Historia política fr:Histoire politique no:Politisk historie pl:Historia polityczna pt:História da política fi:Poliittinen historia tr:Siyasi tarih

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