Outdoor education

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Outdoor education usually refers to organized learning that takes place in the outdoors. Outdoor education programs often involve residential or journey-based experiences in which students participate in a variety of adventurous challenges such as hiking, climbing, canoeing, ropes courses, and group games. Outdoor education draws upon the philosophy and theory of experiential education and on environmental education.

A group of Outward Bound participants with physical disabilities after completing a ropes course, c. 1996.

Terminology

Outdoor education is closely related to terms such as adventure education, expeditionary studies, challenge education, experiential education, and environmental education. These terms, however, all represent slightly different emphases in philosophy and method. Adventure education, for example, focuses on participating in activities with perceived risks and does not necessarily occur outdoors. Consensus about the meaning of these terms is somewhat loose and varies between cultures.

Aims

Some typical aims of outdoor education are:

  • to learn how to overcome adversity
  • to learn alongside others
  • to develop a deeper relationship with nature.

Outdoor education spans the three domains of self, others, and the natural world. The relative emphasis of these three domains varies from one program to another. An outdoor education program can, for example, emphasize one (or more) of these aims:

  • to reduce recidivism
  • to enhance teamwork
  • to teach outdoor survival skills
  • to promote spirituality
  • to understand natural environments
  • to develop leadership skills
  • to improve problem solving skills

History

Modern outdoor education owes its beginnings to a number of separate initiatives. Organized camping was in evidence in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century in Europe, the UK, the USA, Australia and New Zealand. The Scouting movement, established in 1907 by Robert Baden-Powell, employs non-formal education with an emphasis on practical outdoor activities. The first Outward Bound centre at Aberdovey in Wales was established during the second world war. The Forest Schools of Denmark are examples of programs with similar aims and objectives.

A key outdoor education pioneer was Kurt Hahn, a German educator who founded schools such as the Schule Schloss Salem in Germany, Gordonstoun School in Scotland, and Atlantic College in Wales, the United World Colleges movement, the Duke of Edinburgh Award scheme (which emphasizes community service, craftsmanship skills, physical skill, and outdoor expeditions) and the Outward Bound movement.

The second half of the twentieth century saw rapid growth of outdoor education in all sectors (state, voluntary and commercial) with an ever-widening range of client groups and applications. In this period Outward Bound spread to over 40 countries around the world, including the USA in the 1960s. This, in turn, spawned many offshoot programs, including Project Adventure and the National Outdoor Leadership School. (Further 'North America' developments are described in the 'Around the World' section below.)

Other fields that are related to (or part of) 'outdoor education' include: adventure therapy, adventure recreation, adventure tourism, and ropes courses.

A history of outdoor education in the UK has been documented by Lyn Cook (1999) [1]. and a history of outdoor education in New Zealand has been published in Pip Lynch's 'Camping in the Curriculum' (2007)[2].

Philosophy

People are at their rawest level when outdoors. We remember that we are part of a greater ecosystem and are not as bound by social customs and norms. In essence we are more true to ourselves and it is easier to see people as people regardless of race, class, religion etc. Outdoor education also helps instill the basic elements of teamwork because we are forced to work together and rely on others. For many people a high ropes course or an outdoor activity may stretch their comfort zone and cause them to challenge themselves physically which in turn can lead to challenging oneself mentally.


The roots of modern outdoor education can be found in the philosophical work of:

Foundational work on the philosophy of outdoor education includes work by:

  • Kurt Hahn
  • Willi Unsoeld

Theory

A wide range of social science and specific outdoor education theories and models have been applied in an effort to better understand outdoor education. Amongst the key theoretical models or concepts are:

  • Group development theories
  • the Outward Bound Process Model[3]
  • Stress, optimal arousal, and psychological flow theories
  • Psychoevolutionary theory and the Biophilia hypothesis

Around the world

Outdoor education occurs, in one form or another, in most if not all countries of the world. However, it can be implemented very differently, depending on the cultural context. Some countries, for example, view outdoor education as synonymous with environmental education, whilst other countries treat outdoor education and environmental education as distinct. Modern forms of outdoor education are most prevalent in UK, USA, Australia, New Zealand, Europe and to some extent Asia and Africa. A map is available of locations of outdoor education organisations, facilities, and people [1].

UK

After the second world war many local authorities in the UK emulated the Outward Bound principles and set up their own outdoor education centres for school children. Visits to these outdoor centres were often subsidised, allowing many children from the towns and cities their first real experience of the outdoor world.

By the late 1980s most UK local education authorities had an outdoor education centre, and there was a growing private sector offering similar experiences. Government moves to offer more autonomy to schools have badly affected this provision. Under regulations for the local management of schools that took effect in England and Wales from 1992 onwards, the majority of the money spent on education in the UK now goes direct to the school, and local authorities often find it difficult to subsidise their outdoor education centres. As a result many have closed.

One of the most significant changes in outdoor education in Great Britain came as a result of the Lyme Bay kayaking tragedy in March, 1993. This tragedy accelerated governmental discussions until, in January 1995, the Activity Centres (Young Persons’ Safety) Act 1995 was passed through Parliament in January 1995 and an independent licensing authority, the Adventure Activities Licensing Authority (AALA) was formed.

Overall, the AALA appears to have succeeded in its mission, but it has also created debate regarding whether it is possible for young people to experience adventure in an 'educational way' within tight regulations. Some people view AALA regulations as tight and thus, restricting their opportunity to provide what they believe to be meaningful outdoor education.

One further area worthy of note is the Campaign for Adventure (Campaign for Adventure, 2000a)[citation needed]. This campaign started in 2000 following a one day conference titled “A Question of Balance.” Since then the campaign has concentrated on lobbying political individuals and parties to support risk taking and to acknowledge and work against the increasing trends indicated by a “culture of fear.” This phrase is the title of Furedi’s (1997) book, which is heavily cited in recent UK outdoor education literature. As with most political campaigns it is difficult to assess progress but the work of those involved in the campaign can be followed on line (Campaign for Adventure, 2000a)[citation needed]. Consistent with this position, a recent report from the Office of Standards in Education, which covers England and Wales, concluded that outdoor education is uniquely placed to offer structured opportunities for students to identify hazards, calculate the related risks and decide the significance of a risk in order to determine and implement the precautions necessary to eliminate and minimise risk. Students’ involvement in risk management makes them aware of potential harm and contributes towards their being able to take greater responsibility for their own and others’ safety. (Ofsted, 2004, p. 13)[citation needed]

While on the surface Ofsted may appear to be consistent with the Campaign for Adventure there are some significant inconsistencies here worthy of brief explanation. It appears that Ofsted is suggesting that the very idea of risk taking is to be avoided and the role of outdoor education could be to enable students to assess risk and then ‘eliminate or minimise’ it. A contrary position is taken by the Campaign for Adventure based on adventure and risk as, at least an educational value, and perhaps even as central to life and a way of being, which is threatened by a culture of fear. The Campaign for Adventure believe that life is best approached with a spirit of adventure and that absolute safety is unachievable.

Recently there has been concern expressed about the decline in the number and quality of school trips in the UK. In 2005 the Parliamentary select committee on Education published a report on 'Education outside the classroom' [2] which called on the UK government to do more to protect and promote outdoor education. In response the government promised to issue a manifesto for outdoor education, setting out what schools ought to offer their pupils.

North America

The origin of outdoor education in the USA is difficult to pinpoint[4]. North American culture, particularly since European colonization in the 17th century, has embraced a pioneering spirit. This contributed to the extensive development of organized camping programs during the 20th century, Outward Bound programs since the 1960s, as well as many related off-shoot programs including Project Adventure, the National Outdoor Leadership School, the ropes course industry, and many other applications including wilderness orientation programs within colleges and universities and adventure therapy. In the 1970's, the Association for Experiential Education was also formed, along with the Journal of Experiential Education which continues to have a strong focus on adventure education scholarship and practice.

India

Outdoor education is relatively new to schools in India, though it is quite well established abroad. Acceptance is slowly increasing with a few schools advocating outbound adventure based programmes among students, to enhance personal growth through experiential learning and increase awareness about various subjects like the environment, ecology, wildlife, history, archaeology, geography and adventure sports. Some organisations that currently offer such programmes for schools are OETS and Wide Aware in Mumbai.Youreka& Ozonewho offer open summer programs based out of Delhi in north and Bangalore in South.


Germany

The term ‘outdoor education’ doesn’t seem to have an exact equivalent in the German language although Kurt Hahn, one of key figures in the development of outdoor education in the twentieth century was German. In general, outdoor or adventure education is not as widespread in Germany as in other developed regions, such as North America, Australia, and the UK. However, a closely related educational approach called experiential education (In German: “Erlebnispädagogik”) is commonly applied.

Most organisations and companies offering programs and activities based on experiential education for children and youth also offer similar programs for adults and especially corporate teams which are then mostly referred to as 'outdoor trainings'.

Judging from the kind of outdoor training programs available in an internet search, the main clientele of German outdoor training providers seem to be corporate teams and organisations seeking team building and personal development. There is also a wide range of organisations offering outdoor programs based on experiential education for children, adolescents, families and school classes with or without disabilities. German schools have seemingly started to make increased use of outdoor and experiential possibilities when planning their school trips but the experiential approach is rarely implemented in the normal school system and it is by no means as common for school students to experience outdoor education trips as it is other countries.

A more detailed summary of German outdoor education and experiential educational providers and networks is available[3].

Critical views

Loynes (1998)[citation needed] has suggested that outdoor education is increasingly an entertainment park consumption experience.

In a controversial paper critiquing the algorithmic paradigm Loynes (2002)[citation needed] has also called for an increase in “creativity, spontaneity and vitality" (p. 124). These dialogues indicate a need for those working in outdoor education to examine assumptions to ensure that their work is educational (Hovelynck & Peeters, 2003)[citation needed].

Effects

There is much anecdotal evidence about benefits of outdoor education experiences; teachers, for example, often speak of the improvement they have in relationships with students following a trip. However, hard evidence showing that outdoor education has a demonstrable long-term effect on behaviour or educational achievement is harder to identify; this may be in part because of the difficulty involved in conducting studies which separate out the effects of outdoor education on meaningful outcomes.

A major meta-analysis of 97 empirical outcome studies indicated a moderately positive overall effect of adventure education programs on outcomes such as self-concept, leadership, and communication skills[5]. Interestingly, this study also indicated that there appeared to be ongoing positive effects, unless most educational interventions whose effects tend to fade.


Survival skills

Survival skills are skills that may help one to survive dangerous situations (such as storms or earthquakes), or in dangerous places (such as the desert, the mountains, and the jungle). Useful skills include lighting a fire, finding shelter, making water safe to drink, finding and identifying food, treating injuries, and climbing, swimming, and using specific or makeshift tools.

Each type of environment challenges a person with a different range of dangers (see hazards of outdoor activities). An environment may be dry, wet, hot, cold, high altitude, low altitude, desert, rural, urban, wilderness, subterranean, or an island. Nevertheless, there are four basic necessities of life which apply in all of these cases; shelter, water, fire, and food (also oxygen for very high altitudes).

Where survival skills are used on a more permanent basis, or as a component of daily life beyond the mundane basic necessities, they are often referred to as Bushcraft.

Survival priorities

In most survival situations, four priorities must be addressed before any other needs are met:

  1. Finding or making shelter is the most important survival priority because it allows a person to stay protected from the elements, and thus hopefully warm and dry.
  2. Humans can live for only about three days without water.
  3. Fire helps to purify water, provide warmth, scare away dangerous animals, and signal to other people.
  4. A human can survive for weeks without food, but hunger impairs judgment and clarity of mind, and makes one weak and susceptible to disease.

These priorities may shift depending on the environment, though shelter is almost always the most important consideration. For example, in a desert environment, water is typically more immediately important than fire, with the priorities (perhaps) reversed in a cold-weather survival situation.

Shelter

A shelter will protect one from potentially disastrous weather, help prevent hypothermia, and allow restful sleep. It will also boost morale, as it will become a base or home. Therefore, in typical survival situations, a shelter should be built first.

A shelter should provide a somewhat comfortable place to sleep. To this end, it should account for the following:

  • Immovable rocks, animal nests, and other obstacles and hazards should be avoided.
  • Dry watercourses may be flat, sandy, and comfortable to sleep on, but they will flood in a storm.
  • Sunlight will provide warmth (which is not always welcome), and help one to wake up in the morning. However, sunny, open areas are vulnerable to wind.
  • Heat transfer: an excessively large or well-ventilated shelter will not retain warmth well.

A simple shelter can be constructed using a lattice of branches propped up at an angle against the wind. Large leaves, such as ferns or fir branches, can then be added to create cover for rain and hail. Branches propped against a fallen tree make a simple and effective shelter, but animals such as ants and snakes may nest under the tree. With some practice, more advanced shelters such as a debris shelter can be constructed without modern tools or implements.

Water

Humans can live for several weeks without food, but only about three days without water. A typical person will lose 2-3 liters of water per day in ordinary conditions, but more in very hot or dry weather. A lack of water causes dehydration, resulting in lethargy, headaches, dizziness, confusion, and eventually death. Even mild dehydration impairs concentration, which is dangerous in a survival situation where clear thinking is essential. Dark yellow or brown urine indicates dehydration. Because of these risks, a safe supply of drinking water must be located as soon as a shelter is built (or even before, depending on conditions).

In a survival situation, any water supply may be contaminated with pollutants or pathogens (see Potability of backcountry water). Although little can be done to remove molecular contaminants, particles and microorganisms can be removed and/or killed (see Portable water purification).

Water can be gathered in numerous ways. In areas of abundant moisture, water can be scooped out of a creek or pond. Rainwater (which is typically safe to drink) can be caught in makeshift containers. If these easy sources are not available, a bit more ingenuity will be necessary. Water can be collected from condensation traps or solar stills. Clothing can be used to collect dew from vegetation.

Animal blood is not suitable for rehydration, as it may be diseased. In addition, because of the nutrients it contains, it requires energy to digest. Urine contains salt and other toxins, which also makes it unsuitable to drink, although it can be refined in a solar still.

A common survival myth is that cacti can be sliced open to obtain water. While some cacti do have fluid inside, it is a highly acidic solution and would induce vomiting if drunk.

In extremely dry environments, it is necessary to take extra care to prevent water loss by:

  • Breathing through the nose to prevent water vapour escaping through the mouth
  • Not smoking
  • Resting in the shade and avoiding strenuous labor during sunny, hot periods
  • Not eating too much (the human body uses a lot of water to digest food - especially fats and proteins)
  • Not drinking alcohol, which hastens dehydration

Fire

A fire is as important as a safe water supply, because of its many uses:

  • Boiling water to kill pathogens (see above)
  • Cooking food, including wild-caught fish and game (see below)
  • Staying warm, particularly when wet
  • Repelling dangerous animals
  • Provides a sense of companionship and morale boost
  • Signaling to rescuers (bright at night, smoky by day)
See also: Campfire, Ignition device

Food

Food is not urgently needed in survival situations, since a human can survive for several weeks without it. However, much like dehydration, hunger can bring about many consequences long before it causes death, such as:

  • Irritability and low morale
  • Weakness
  • Loss of mental clarity, such as confusion, disorientation, or poor judgment
  • Weakened immune system
  • Difficulty maintaining body temperature (see heat exhaustion and hypothermia)

It is actually rather easy to find food in the wild, provided one knows where to look. A basic knowledge of animal trapping, hunting, and fishing will provide meat. Equally important is a knowledge of edible plants, fungi, and lichens. One cannot always rely on the most abundant or most easily accessible type of food. To survive for long periods of time, one must maintain a balanced diet. In order to do this, one must consume a balanced variety of foods.

Many survival books promote the "universal edibility test": allegedly, one can distinguish edible foods from toxic ones by tasting progressively larger portions over time. However, many experts (such as Ray Mears) deprecate this method, in main part because a very small amount of some "potential foods" can cause anything from gastric distress to illness or death.

First aid

First aid (and wilderness first aid in particular) can help a person survive and function with injuries that would otherwise kill or incapacitate him/her. Common and dangerous injuries include:

  • Lacerations, which may be infected
  • Bites from venomous animals, such as snakes
  • Bone fractures
  • Sprains, particularly of the ankle
  • Burns

The survivor may need to apply the contents of a first aid kit or naturally-occurring medicinal plants, immobilize injured limbs, or even transport incapacitated comrades.

Navigation

Many survival situations can be resolved, or at least ameliorated, by finding one's way to safety. This requires some navigation skills, such as:

  • Celestial navigation, using the sun and the night sky
  • Reading a map (particularly a topographic map), together with a compass
  • Using a GPS receiver, if one is available
  • www.special-forces-adventure-training.co.uk have posted a video on youtube this video shows you how to find compass direction using the Sun & your watch and the Sun & stick & stone, both in the field and in the classroom. This short video runs for 7 minutes 8 seconds.

Other survival skills

For long-term survival some other skills are useful:

  • Knife or Multitool - usage and sharpening (a knife or Multitool is important and useful for many aspects of bushcraft)
  • Climbing and Mountaineering techniques
  • Ropework
    • Making rope from materials such as the inner bark of trees, other plant fibers, or animal sinews
    • Knowledge of knots and their applications
  • Making a raft or boat
  • Basic rifle/handgun marksmanship, both for hunting and defense

Training

Training survival skills has two components: mental competence and physical fitness. Physical fitness includes, among other abilities, carrying loads over long distances on rough terrain. Mental competence includes the skills listed in this article, as well as the ability to overcome panic and think clearly. Theoretical knowledge of survival skills is useful only if it can be applied effectively in a real survival situation.

Several organizations offer training in survival skills, which ranges from introductory courses lasting only a day, to field courses lasting as long as a month. In addition to teaching survival techniques for conditions of limited food, water, and shelter, many such courses seek to engender appreciation and understanding of the lifestyles of pre-industrialized cultures.

There are several books that teach one how to survive in dangerous situations and schools usually tell children what to do in the event of an earthquake or fire. Some cities also have contingency plans in case of a major disaster.

Survival manual

A survival manual is a book used as reference in case of emergency, when one's survival is threatened. Typically it will cover both preparation for a trip, and guidance, such as is contained in this article, for dealing with eventualities.

There are many different types of survival manuals. The military will usually have one as part of its standard documentation. These are sometimes republished for public distribution; for example the SAS Survival Handbook and United States Army Survival Manual: FM 21-76. Other manuals may be written for more specific uses, such as wilderness or maritime survival.

Presence of mind

It is also extremely important to use laughter as an essential part of survival. As Laurence Gonzales says in his book "Deep Survival," "laugh at threats...playing and laughing go together. Playing keeps the person in contact with what is happening around him. To deal with reality you must first recognize it as such." Keeping laughter and humor in a situation where a person is fighting for their lives only makes them more calm and relaxed, helping them to have a far better chance of survival. Another important aspect of survival that Gonzales discusses is helping others. When helping someone else you have to conquer your own personal fears. By doing this “you’re a rescuer, not a victim. And seeing how your leadership and skill buoy others up gives you more focus and energy to persevere.” By helping another person it gives you confidence and power. People begin to look to you for support and instructions. This allows one to become more educated on their situation and surroundings allowing them to survive.

An aspect of survival can be knowing whether you are lost or not. This can have a lot to do with what your behaviors are at the time. Being lost includes emotional and behavioral consequences, therefore it is extremely necessary to always keep this in mind during any high-risk activities. These high-risk activities are often what causes a person to be in a position of life and death, and in a position where they will feel they need to do something in order to survive.

A question often asked when discussing survival is "What were these people thinking?" or "Why would they put themselves in this frightening and dangerous situation?" The answer has a lot to do with adrenaline, and also a lot to do with the mastery of having one's life in one's own hands. Though some people think extremely high-risk activities are done just for fun, it is found they that are also done because it makes a person feel more alive. It essentially gives them a chance to save their own lives.

Notes

  1. ↑ Cook L. (1999). The 1944 Education Act and outdoor education: from policy to practice. History of Education, 28(2), 157-172. ISBN 0-473-10583-7
  2. ↑ Lynch, P. (?). Camping in the Curriculum: A History of Outdoor Education in New Zealand Schools. PML publications, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand.
  3. ↑ Walsh, V., & Golins, G. L. (1976). The exploration of the Outward Bound process. Denver, CO: Colorado Outward Bound School.
  4. ↑ Knapp, C. E. (1994). Progressivism never died, it just moved outside: What can experiential educators learn from the past? Journal of Experiential Education, 17(2), 8-12.
  5. ↑ Hattie, J. A., Marsh, H. W., Neill, J. T. & Richards, G. E. (1997). Adventure Education and Outward Bound: Out-of-class experiences that have a lasting effect. Review of Educational Research, 67, 43-87.

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