Difference between revisions of "Indian Martial Arts" - New World Encyclopedia

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The [[Indian subcontinent]] is home to a variety of '''[[martial arts]]'''. '''''Dhanurveda''''' (from ''dhanus'' "bow" and ''veda'' "knowledge") is the term for the "science of [[archery]]" in [[Puranas|Puranic]] literature, later applied to martial arts in general.
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[[Image:Kurukshetra.jpg|right|350px|thumb|A manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra, fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, recorded in the Mahabharata Epic.]]
  
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Martial arts of the Indian subcontinent are diverse in nature and have origins of different times from various different regions. Some of the older traditions include the organised martial systems practiced by the [[Kshatriya]] warrior caste of [[Hinduism]]. These systems include armed and unarmed combat, and aspects such as meditation and mental conditioning.  Many ancient [[Hindu temple]]s have statues of [[deities]] and warriors in various postures related to combat.  A number of ancient [[Dravidian martial arts]] were developed in [[South India]], including [[Kuttu Varisai]] (empty hand combat) and [[Varma Kalai]] (the art of vital points) in [[Tamil Nadu]], and [[Kalarippayattu]] (way of the arena) and [[Adithada]] (attack and defend) in [[Kerala]].<ref>Luijendijk, D.H. (2005) Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art, Paladin Press, ISBN 1-58160-480-7</ref>
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'''Indian Martial Arts''' refers to a cluster of [[Religion|religious]] and [[Military|martial]] practices that arose in the Indian subcontinent beginning in Vedic times (c. 1500-700 B.C.E.). [[Vedas|Vedic]] literature includes a field of study known as ''Dhanurveda'' (from ''dhanus'' "bow" and ''veda'' "knowledge"), which developed into an important component of ancient [[Hinduism|Hindu]] society. This "science of archery" included armed and unarmed combat, and aspects such as meditation and mental conditioning.  The theories behind [[Yoga]], [[Ayurveda]] and [[Tantra]], such as [[Kundalini]] (coiled energy), [[Prana]] (life force), Nadi (meridians), [[Chakra]] (aura) and Marmam (pressure points), are also present in Indian martial arts.
  
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The theories behind [[Yoga]], [[Ayurveda]] and [[Tantra]], such as [[Kundalini]] (coiled energy), [[Prana]] (life force), [[Nadi]] (meridians), [[Chakra]] (aura) and [[Marmam]] (pressure points), are also present in Indian martial arts.{{Fact|date=February 2008}}
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Although many Hindu saints have championed non-violence in modern times, it is also true that many ancient [[Hindu temple]]s have statues of [[deities]] and warriors in various postures related to combat. It is also true that  The responsibility for the practice of Indian martial arts fell to the hands of the Hindu [[Kshatriya]]s (warrior caste).  furthermore, a number of ancient [[Dravidian martial arts]] were developed in [[South India]], including Kuttu Varisai (empty hand combat) and Varma Kalai (the art of vital points) in [[Tamil Nadu]], and Kalarippayattu (way of the arena) and Adithada (attack and defend) in [[Kerala]].<ref name=Luijendijk>D.H. Luijendijk, ''Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art'' (Paladin Press, 2005, ISBN 1581604807).</ref>
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The  ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' text describes Dhanur Veda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of knowledge.<ref name=Zarrilli1>Phillip B. Zarrilli, [http://www.spa.ex.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/power.html A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms.] Retrieved August 19, 2016.</ref>
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
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{{see|Military history of India}}
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===Antiquity ===
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===Antiquity (pre-Gupta)===
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The  [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epics]] contain accounts of combat, describing warriors such as [[Bhima]]. The ''Mahabharata'' describes a prolonged battle between [[Arjuna]] and [[Karna]] using bows, swords, trees and rocks, and fists.<ref name=Zarrilli1/> Another unarmed battle in the ''Mahabharata'' describes two fighters [[boxing]] with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts.<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m04/m04013.htm Section XIII: ''Samayapalana Parva''], Book 4: ''Virata Parva'', ''Mahabharata''. Retrieved August 30, 2016.</ref> Other boxing fights are also described in  ''Mahabharata'' and ''[[Ramayana]]''.<ref>Shamya Dasgupta, "An Inheritance from the British: The Indian Boxing Story," ''Routledge'' '''21''' (3)(June-September 2004): 433-451.</ref>  
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The  [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epics]] contain accounts of combat, describing warriors such as [[Bhima]]. The ''Mahabharata'' describes a prolonged battle between [[Arjuna]] and [[Karna]] using bows, swords, trees and rocks, and fists.<ref name=Zarrilli1/> Another unarmed battle in the ''Mahabharata'' describes two fighters [[boxing]] with [[Punch (strike)|clenched fists]] and fighting with [[kick]]s, finger strikes, [[knee strike]]s and [[headbutt]]s.<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m04/m04013.htm Section XIII: ''Samayapalana Parva''], Book 4: ''Virata Parva'', ''[[Mahabharata]]''.</ref> Other boxing fights are also described in  ''Mahabharata'' and ''[[Ramayana]]''.<ref>Shamya Dasgupta (June-September 2004). "An Inheritance from the British: The Indian Boxing Story", ''Routledge'' '''21''' (3), p. 433-451.</ref>  
 
  
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Stories describing [[Krishna]]  report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used [[knee strike]]s to the chest, [[punch]]es to the head, hair pulling, and [[Chokehold|strangleholds]].<ref name=Svinth/> Based on such accounts, Svinth (2002) traces [[Press up#Hindu press up|press up]]s and [[Hindu squat|squats]] used by Indian wrestlers to the pre-classical era.<ref name=Svinth/>
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Stories describing [[Krishna]]  report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds.<ref name=Svinth/> Based on such accounts, Svinth traces press ups and squats used by Indian wrestlers to the pre-classical era.<ref name=Svinth/>
  
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Many authorities contend that the 4th century B.C.E. conquest of India by [[Alexander the Great]] laid the foundation of Indian martial arts by dispersing [[pankration]] techniques throughout the subcontinent.<ref>{{Citation | last=Arvanitis | first=Jim | year=2003 | title=Pankration}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | last=Todd | first=Tank | last2=Webb | first2=James | year=2005 | title=Military Combative Masters of the 20th Century}}.</ref> Notable figures, such as Tatsuo Suzuki, [[Hirokazu Kanazawa]], and Masutasu Oyama have pointed out the influence of [[Pankration]] on Indian martial arts.<ref>[http://pic1.piczo.com/extremepankration/?g=13802396&cr=1 History and background of Pankration]</ref>
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Many authorities contend that the fourth century B.C.E..E. conquest of India by [[Alexander the Great]] laid the foundation of Indian martial arts by dispersing pankration techniques throughout the subcontinent.<ref>Jim Arvanitis, ''Pankration'' (Paladin Press, 2003, ISBN 978-1581603972).</ref><ref name=Tank>Tank Todd and James Webb, ''Military Combative Masters of the 20th Century'' (Lulu.com, 2006, ISBN 978-1411661967).</ref>  
  
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Around the 3rd century BC, [[Patanjali]] wrote the ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga Sutras]]'', which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various [[mudra]] finger movements were taught in [[Yogacara]] Buddhism. These [[Yoga]] elements, as well as finger movements in the ''nata'' dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.<ref name=Svinth/>
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Around the third century B.C.E., [[Patanjali]] wrote the ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga Sutras]]'', which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various [[mudra]] finger movements were taught in [[Yogacara]] Buddhism. These [[Yoga]] elements, as well as finger movements in the ''nata'' dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.<ref name=Svinth/>
  
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The word "[[kalari]]" is mentioned in [[Sangam literature]] from the 2nd century BC. The ''[[Akananuru]]'' and ''[[Purananuru]]'' describe the martial arts of [[Ancient Tamil country|ancient Tamilakkam]], including forms of one-to-one combat, and the use of spears, swords, shields, bows and [[silambam]]. The word "kalari" appears in the ''Puram'' <ref>verses 225, 237, 245, 356</ref> and ''Akam'' <ref>verses 34, 231, 293</ref> to describe to both a battlefield and combat arena.
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The word "kalari" appears in the ''Puram'' <ref>verses 225, 237, 245, 356.</ref> and ''Akam'' <ref>verses 34, 231, 293.</ref> to describe to both a battlefield and combat arena. It is also mentioned in Sangam literature from the second century B.C.E. The ''Akananuru'' and ''Purananuru'' describe the martial arts of ancient Tamilakkam, including forms of one-to-one combat, and the use of spears, swords, shields, bows and silambam.  
  
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The references to "Silappadikkaram" in Sangam literature dating back to the 2nd century refer to the sale of Silamabam staves, swords, pearls and armor to foreign traders. The silambam staff was one of the martial art weapons, which was in great demand with the visitors.<ref name=Raj>{{cite book |last= Raj|first= J. David Manuel |title= The Origin and the Historical Development of Silambam Fencing: An Ancient Self-Defence Sport of India |year= 1977 |publisher= College of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Univ. of Oregon |location= Oregon |pages= pp. 44, 50, & 83}}</ref><ref name=Sports>{{cite book |last= Sports Authority of India|first= |title= Indigenous Games and Martial Arts of India |year= 1987 |publisher= Sports Authority of India |location= New Delhi|pages= pp. 91 & 94}}</ref>
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The references to "Silappadikkaram" in Sangam literature dating back to the second century refer to the sale of Silamabam staves, swords, pearls and armor to foreign traders. The silambam staff was one of the martial art weapons, which was in great demand with the visitors.<ref name=Raj>J. David Manuel Raj, ''The Origin and the Historical Development of Silambam Fencing: An Ancient Self-Defence Sport of India'' (Oregon: University of Oregon, 1977).</ref>
  
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References to martial arts are found in early [[Buddhist texts]]. The ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' (ca. 1st century AD) refers to a [[boxing]] art while speaking to [[Manjusri]].<ref name=Haines>Bruce A. Haines (1995). ''Karate's History and Traditions'' (p. 23-25). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-1947-5.</ref> The ''Lotus Sutra'' also categorized combat techniques as [[Grappling hold|joint locks]], [[Punch (strike)|fist strikes]], [[Grappling|grapples]], and [[Throw (grappling)|throws]],<ref>[http://www.uta.edu/student_orgs/umaa/htmlDocs/history.html University Martial Arts Association. History of Taekwondo.]</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=February 2008}} and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called ''Nara''.<ref>[http://home.maine.rr.com/poiuyt/history.html Steinwachs, Tim.History of Karate.]</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=February 2008}} Another early Buddhist [[sutra]] ''Hongyo-kyo'' describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince [[Nanda (Buddhism)|Nanda]] and his cousin [[Devadatta]].<ref name=Haines/> Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion of martial arts and archery before becoming the Buddha.<ref name=Svinth/>
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References to martial arts are found in early [[Buddhist texts]]. The ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' (ca. first century C.E.) refers to a [[boxing]] art while speaking to [[Manjusri]].<ref name=Haines>Bruce A. Haines, ''Karate's History and Traditions'' (Tuttle Publishing, 1995, ISBN 0804819475).</ref> Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion of martial arts and archery before becoming the Buddha.<ref name=Svinth/> Another early Buddhist sutra ''Hongyo-kyo'' describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince Nanda and his cousin Devadatta.<ref name=Haines/>  
  
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The ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' text describes Dhanur Veda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of knowledge.<ref name=Zarrilli1>Zarrilli, Phillip B. [http://www.spa.ex.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/power.html A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms.] [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]].</ref>
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The martial art of Vajra Mushti is also mentioned in sources of the early centuries C.E.<ref name=Haines/>
  
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===Classical period (3rd to 9th centuries)===
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===Classical period (third to ninth centuries)===
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Like other branches of [[Sanskrit literature]], treatises on martial arts became more systematic in the course of the first millennium C.E.
  
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Like other branches of [[Sanskrit literature]], treatises on martial arts become more systematic in the course of the 1st millennium AD.
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Indian military accounts of the [[Gupta Empire]] (c. 240-480) identified over 130 different classes of weapons. The ''[[Kama Sutra]]'' written by [[Vātsyāyana]] at the time suggested that women should regularly "practice with sword, single-stick, quarter-staff, and bow and arrow."
  
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The martial art of [[Vajra Mushti]] is also mentioned in sources of the early centuries CE.<ref name=Haines/> Indian military accounts of the [[Gupta Empire]] (c. 240-480) identified over 130 different classes of weapons. The ''[[Kama Sutra]]'' written by [[Vātsyāyana]] at the time suggested that women should regularly "practice with [[sword]], single-stick, quarter-[[staff (stick)|staff]], and [[Bow (weapon)|bow]] and [[arrow]]." Around this time, [[Tantra|Tantric]] philosophers developed important metaphysical concepts such as [[kundalini]] energy, [[chakra]]s, and [[mantra]]s.<ref name=Svinth/>
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The ''Sushruta Samhita'' (c. fourth century) identifies  107 vital points of the human body in his ''Sushruta Samhita''.<ref>G. D. Singhal and L. V. Guru, ''Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita'' (India: Singhal Pubns, 1973, ISBN 978-0861860517).</ref> Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick.<ref name=Svinth/> Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline [[Ayurveda]], which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as [[Varma Kalai]] and [[Marma Adi]].<ref name=Svinth/> With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial practitioners knew and practiced attacking or defending vital points.<ref name=Zarrilli1992/>
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The ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' (c. 4th century) identifies  107 vital points of the human body in his ''Sushruta Samhita''.<ref>G. D. Singhal, L. V. Guru (1973). ''Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita''.</ref> Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a [[Punch (strike)|fist]] or [[Staff (stick)|stick]].<ref name=Svinth/> Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline [[Ayurveda]], which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as [[Varma Kalai]] and [[Marma Adi]].<ref name=Svinth/> With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial practitioners knew and practiced attacking or defending vital points.<ref name=Zarrilli1992/>
 
 
   
 
   
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Martial arts were not exclusive to the [[Kshatriya]] warrior caste, though they used the arts more extensively. The 8th century text ''Kuvalaymala'' by Udyotanasuri recorded martial arts being taught at ''salad'' and ''ghatika'' educational institutions, where [[Brahmin]] students from throughout the subcontinent (particularly from [[South India]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Bengal]]) "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (niuddham)."<ref name=Zarrilli1/>
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Martial arts were not exclusive to the [[Kshatriya]] warrior caste, though they used the arts more extensively. The eighth century text ''Kuvalaymala'' by Udyotanasuri recorded martial arts being taught at ''salad'' and ''ghatika'' educational institutions, where [[Brahmin]] students from throughout the subcontinent (particularly from [[South India]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Bengal]]) "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (''niuddham'')."<ref name=Zarrilli1/>
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Around 630, King [[Narasimhavarman]] of the [[Pallava dynasty]] commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of [[Varma Kalai|Varma Adi]], a Dravidian martial art that allowed [[kick]]ing, kneeing, [[elbow strike|elbowing]], and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist. This is similar to the Dhanur Veda martial art described in the ''Agni Purana''.<ref name=Svinth/>
 
  
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The earliest extant manual of Dhanur Veda is in the ''[[Agni Purana]]'' (c. 8th century),<ref name=Zarrilli1992>{{cite journal | author = Zarrilli, Phillip B. | year = 1992 | title = [http://www.spa.ex.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/healharm.html To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions] Part I: Focus on Kerala's Kalarippayattu | journal = Journal of Asian Martial Arts | volume = 1 | issue = 1 }}</ref> which contains several chapters giving descriptions and instructions on the fighting arts of Dhanur Veda, with reference earlier [[sutra]]s on Dhanur Veda dating back centuries earlier.<ref>P. C. Chakravarti (1972). ''The art of warfare in ancient India''. Delhi.</ref> It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat.<ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth (2002). [http://ejmas.com/kronos A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports.] ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''.</ref> The former included the [[Bow (weapon)|bow]] and [[arrow]], the [[sword]], [[spear]], [[noose]], [[armour]], [[Dart (missile)|iron dart]], [[Club (weapon)|club]], [[battle axe]], [[discus]], and the [[trident]].<ref name=Zarrilli1/> The latter included [[wrestling]], [[Knee (strike)|knee strikes]], and [[Punch (strike)|punching]] and [[kicking]] methods.<ref name=Svinth/>
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Around 630 C.E.., King Narasimhavarman of the Pallava dynasty commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of Varma Adi, a Dravidian martial art that allowed kicking, kneeing, elbowing, and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist. This is similar to the Dhanur Veda martial art described in the ''Agni Purana''.<ref name=Svinth/>
  
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===Middle Ages (10th to 15th centuries)===
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The earliest extant manual of Dhanur Veda is in the ''[[Agni Purana]]'' (c. eighth century),<ref name=Zarrilli1992>Phillip B. Zarrilli, [http://www.spa.ex.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/healharm.html "To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions" Part I: Focus on Kerala's Kalarippayattu"] ''Journal of Asian Martial Arts'' 1(1) (1992). Retrieved August 30, 2016.</ref> which contains several chapters giving descriptions and instructions on the fighting arts of Dhanur Veda, with reference earlier sutras on Dhanur Veda dating back centuries earlier.<ref>P. C. Chakravarti, ''The art of warfare in ancient India'' (Delhi, 1972).</ref> It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat.<ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth, [http://ejmas.com/kronos A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports.] ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences'', 2002. Retrieved August 30, 2016.</ref> The former included the bow and arrow, the sword, spear, noose, armour, iron dart, club, battle axe, discus, and the trident.<ref name=Zarrilli1/> The latter included wrestling, knee strikes, and punching and kicking methods.<ref name=Svinth/>
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{{see|Origins of Kalarippayattu|Malla-yuddha}}
 
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[[Image:Balarama Mural.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Martial are associated with [[avatars]]  such as [[Balarama]]  in the [[Puranas]] (17th century mural of Balarama from a wall hanging in South Indian temple)]]
 
  
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Organised martial arts in ancient India include the martial art of [[Malla-yuddha]], a form of combat [[wrestling]] codified into four forms,<ref>[http://www.kathinayoga.com/KalariWorld/Articles/other_article3.html R.Venkatachalam (September 1999). Mallayuddha.]</ref> The ''Malla Purana'' (ca. 13th century) is the earliest treatise discussing the techniques of Malla-yuddha.
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===Middle Ages ===
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[[Image:Balarama Mural.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Martial are associated with [[avatars]] such as [[Balarama]] in the [[Puranas]] (seventeenth century mural of Balarama from a wall hanging in South Indian temple)]]
  
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Organized martial arts in ancient India include the martial art of [[Malla-yuddha]], a form of combat [[wrestling]] codified into four forms. The ''Malla Purana'' (ca. thirteenth century) is the earliest treatise discussing the techniques of Malla-yuddha.
  
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The modern forms of [[Marma Adi]], [[Varma Kalai|Varma Ati]],<ref name=Svinth/> and [[Kalarippayattu]] were developed by the 11th century, during an extended period of warfare between the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] and [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] dynasties.<ref name=Zarrilli1998>{{cite book | last = Zarrilli | first = Phillip B. | title = When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art | year = 1998 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford}}</ref>
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The modern forms of Marma Adi, Varma Ati,<ref name=Svinth/> and [[Kalarippayattu]] were developed by the eleventh century, during an extended period of warfare between the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] and [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] dynasties.<ref name=Zarrilli1998>Phillip B. Zarrilli, ''When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art'' (Oxford University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0195655384).</ref>
 
   
 
   
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<!-- ===Mughal era (1526 to 1857)=== —>
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===Modern period ===
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===Modern period (1857 to present)===
 
 
[[Image:Rajputs.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Rajput]] warriors, ca. 1860.]]
 
[[Image:Rajputs.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Rajput]] warriors, ca. 1860.]]
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Kalarippayattu underwent a period of decline after the introduction of firearms and especially after the full establishment of British colonial rule in the 19th century.<ref name=Zarrilli1992/> More European modes of organizing police, armies and governmental institutions, and the increasing use of firearms, gradually eroded the need for traditional martial training associated with caste-specific duties.<ref name=Zarrilli1998/> The British colonial government banned kalarippayattu in 1804 in response to a series of revolts.<ref>{{cite book | last = Luijendijk | first = D.H. | title = Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art | url = http://www.martialartssupermarket.com/index.cfm?action=showProd&subid=1083 | year = 2005 | publisher = Paladin Press | location = Boulder | id = ISBN 1581604807}}</ref>{{Verify source|date=February 2008}}<!--This reference cites the entry for a book in an online book catalog, not the book itself—>
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Kalarippayattu underwent a period of decline after the introduction of firearms and especially after the full establishment of British colonial rule in the nineteenth century.<ref name=Zarrilli1992/> More European modes of organizing police, armies and governmental institutions, and the increasing use of firearms, gradually eroded the need for traditional martial training associated with caste-specific duties.<ref name=Zarrilli1998/> The British colonial government banned kalarippayattu in 1804 in response to a series of revolts.<ref name=Luijendijk/>
  
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The resurgence of public interest in kalarippayattu began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout South India which characterized the growing reaction against British colonial rule.<ref name=Zarrilli1998/>
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The resurgence of public interest in kalarippayattu began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout South India, which characterized the growing reaction against British colonial rule.<ref name=Zarrilli1998/>
  
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During the period, Indian wrestling became prominent in western [[catch wrestling]] tournaments. <ref>[http://ejmas.com/jalt/jaltart_noble_0502.htm The Lion of the Punjab – Gama in England, 1910 By Graham Noble]</ref><ref>[http://www.ejmas.com/jalt/jaltart_noble_0602.htm The Lion of the Punjab – Part II: Stanislaus Zbyszko By Graham Noble]</ref><ref>[http://www.ejmas.com/jalt/jaltart_noble_0702.htm The Lion of the Punjab – Part III: London, 1910 By Graham Noble]</ref><ref>[http://www.ejmas.com/jalt/jaltart_noble_0802.htm The Lion of the Punjab – Part IV: Aftermath by Graham Noble] </ref><ref>[http://bod.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/6/2/45 Subaltern Bodies and Nationalist Physiques: Gama the Great and the Heroics of Indian Wrestling by Joseph Alter, Department of Anthropology at the University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA] </ref>
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During this period, Indian wrestling became prominent in western catch wrestling tournaments. <ref>Graham Noble, [http://ejmas.com/jalt/jaltart_noble_0502.htm "The Lion of the Punjab – Gama in England, 1910"] ''InYo: Journal of Alternative Perspectives'', May 2002. Retrieved August 30, 2016.</ref><ref>Graham Noble, [http://www.ejmas.com/jalt/jaltart_noble_0602.htm "The Lion of the Punjab – Part II: Stanislaus Zbyszko"] ''InYo: Journal of Alternative Perspectives'', June 2002. Retrieved August 30, 2016. </ref><ref>Graham Noble, [http://www.ejmas.com/jalt/jaltart_noble_0702.htm "The Lion of the Punjab – Part III: London, 1910"] ''InYo: Journal of Alternative Perspectives''. July 2002. Retrieved August 30, 2016. </ref><ref>Graham Noble, [http://www.ejmas.com/jalt/jaltart_noble_0802.htm "The Lion of the Punjab – Part IV: Aftermath"] ''InYo: Journal of Alternative Perspectives''. Aug 2002. Retrieved August 30, 2016. </ref><ref>Joseph Alter, [http://bod.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/6/2/45 Subaltern Bodies and Nationalist Physiques: Gama the Great and the Heroics of Indian Wrestling] ''Body Society'' 6(2) (June 2000): 45-72. Retrieved August 30, 2016. </ref>
  
 
==Indian weapons==
 
==Indian weapons==
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[[Image:Rajput Khanda.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The [[Khanda (sword)|khanda]], a straight sword as opposed to the Persian-influenced curved [[talwar]], is a classical Indian weapon]]
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[[Image:Rajput Khanda.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Khanda (sword)|khanda]], a straight sword as opposed to the Persian-influenced curved [[talwar]], is a classical Indian weapon]]
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{{See also|Category:Indian mêlée weapons|Category:South Asian swords|Category:Weapons in Hindu mythology}}
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According to [[P C Chakravati]] in ''[[The Art of War in Ancient India]]'', Indian armies used standard weapons such as wooden or metal tipped [[spear]]s, [[sword]]s, thatched bomboo [[shield]]s, wooden shields, metal shields, [[axe]]s, short [[Bow (weapon)|bows]] and long bows in warfare as early as the invasion of India by the forces of [[Alexander of Macedon]], and these weapons are all mentioned in even earlier native texts.{{Specify|date=February 2008}}  Some troops in ancient times wore personal armor, but the majority did not until medieval times. Armed forces were largely standardised, and it is unclear if regular infantry were trained in any recognisable Indian martial art, other than standard military drills. Over time, weapondary evolved, and India became famed for its flexible [[wootz]] steel. Invasion in the 13th century from the pourous northwestern mountain passes that lead from Cerntal Asia and the Middle East into India, likely inspired new forms of weapondary, such as the [[talwar]], a curved blade resembling [[Persian]] and [[Turkic]] arms. Curved blades had been used in India since ancient times, some even curved toward the cutting side like a [[sickle]], but before the introduction of the talwar, the stright [[khanda]] type sword may have enjoyed greater popularity. Martial artists, typically coming from warrior [[jati]]s, employed other uniquely weapons such as the [[katar]] sword-gauntlet and [[urumi]] sword-whip.
+
According to P. C. Chakravati in ''The Art of War in Ancient India'', Indian armies used standard weapons such as wooden or metal tipped spears, swords, thatched bamboo shields, wooden shields, metal shields, axes, short bows and long bows in warfare as early as the invasion of India by the forces of [[Alexander the Great]], and these weapons are all mentioned in even earlier native texts. Some troops in ancient times wore personal armor, but the majority did not until medieval times. Armed forces were largely standardised, and it is unclear if regular infantry were trained in any recognisable Indian martial art, other than standard military drills. Over time, weapondary evolved, and India became famed for its flexible wootz steel. Invasion in the thirteenth century from the pourous northwestern mountain passes that lead from Cerntal Asia and the Middle East into India, likely inspired new forms of weapondary, such as the talwar, a curved blade resembling Persian and [[Turkic]] arms. Curved blades had been used in India since ancient times, some even curved toward the cutting side like a [[sickle]], but before the introduction of the talwar, the stright [[khanda]] type sword may have enjoyed greater popularity. Martial artists, typically coming from warrior [[jati]]s, employed other uniquely weapons such as the [[katar]] sword-gauntlet and [[urumi]] sword-whip.
  
 
==Influence of Indian martial arts==
 
==Influence of Indian martial arts==
−
{{see|Foreign influence on Chinese martial arts}}
 
−
{{see also|Bodhidharma, Shaolin Kung fu, and the disputed India connection}}
 
 
[[Image:JasmineSimhalan-kalaripayatt-silambam.gif‎|thumb|Jasmine simhalan performing silambam and kalaripayatt]]
 
[[Image:JasmineSimhalan-kalaripayatt-silambam.gif‎|thumb|Jasmine simhalan performing silambam and kalaripayatt]]
−
The martial arts of India have influenced the martial arts of other countries, particularly within the [[Indosphere]], those regions outside India influenced by [[Culture of India|Indian culture]]. Examples of such arts include [[Bando]],<ref>Draeger, Donn F. (1981). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts pg 155. Kodansha International.</ref> [[Silat]],<ref>Draeger, Donn F. (1992). ''Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia''. pg 23. Tuttle Publishing</ref><ref>Shamsuddin, Sheikh (2005). ''The Malay Art of Self-Defense: Silat Seni Gayong'' pg 7. North Atlantic Books.</ref> [[Escrima]],<ref>Mark V. Wiley (1994). ''Filipino Martial Arts: Serrada Escrima'' pg21. Tuttle Publishing</ref> and [[Muay Thai]].<ref>Erwin de Castro, B. J. Oropeza and Ron Rhodes (1993). ''Enter The Dragon?
+
The martial arts of India have influenced the martial arts of other countries, particularly within the [[Indosphere]], those regions outside India influenced by [[Culture of India|Indian culture]]. Examples of such arts include Bando,<ref>Donn F. Draeger and Robert W. Smith, ''Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts'' (Kodansha USA, 1981, ISBN 978-0870114366).</ref> Silat,<ref> Donn F. Draeger, ''Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia'' (Tuttle Publishing, 2001, ISBN 978-0804817165).</ref><ref>Sheikh Shamsuddin, ''The Malay Art of Self-Defense: Silat Seni Gayong'' (Blue Snake Books, 2005, ISBN 978-1556435621).</ref> Escrima,<ref>Mark V. Wiley, ''Filipino Martial Arts: Cabales Serrada Escrima'' (Tuttle Publishing).</ref> and Muay Thai.<ref>Arjarn T. Moore, [http://www.usmta.com/MYTHS%20&%20LEGENDS.htm Muay Thai's Divine Connection] USMTA Inc. Retrieved August 30, 2016.</ref>
−
Wrestling With The Martial Arts Phenomenon''</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=February 2008}}<ref>[http://www.usmta.com/MYTHS%20&%20LEGENDS.htm United States Muay Thai Association. The Ramakien.].</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=February 2008}}
 
  
−
The Tamil kingdoms were instrumental in the spread of [[Silambam]] throughout [[Southeast Asia]]. During the [[18th century|18th]] and the [[19th century|19th centuries]] Silambam was much more prevalent in Southeast Asia than in India, where it was banned by the British government.<ref>Crego, Robert (2003). ''Sports and Games of the 18th and 19th Centuries'' pg 32. Greenwood Press</ref>
+
The Tamil kingdoms were instrumental in the spread of Silambam throughout [[Southeast Asia]]. During the 18th and the 19th centuries, Silambam was much more prevalent in Southeast Asia than in India, where it was banned by the British government.<ref>Robert Crego, ''Sports and Games of the 18th and 19th Centuries'' (Greenwood Press, 2003).</ref>
  
−
India has also influenced the Portuguese martial art of [[Jogo do Pau]].<ref>[http://ejmas.com/jmanly/articles/2003/jmanlyart_wolfcosta_0203.htm Jogo do Pau: Origins and Evolution (February 2003). Excerpted from O JOGO DO PAU, Origens e evolução by Nuno Curvello Russo. Originally published in Os Portugueses e o Mundo, Conferência Internacional, VI Volume, "Artes, Arqueologia e Etnografia." Translated by Tony Wolf and Gonçalo Costa]</ref><ref>[http://home.dbio.uevora.pt/~oliveira/Jogo_Pau/J_Pau.htm Jogo Do Pau]</ref>
+
India has also influenced the Portuguese martial art of [[Jogo do Pau]].<ref>Nuno Curvello Russo, (translated by Tony Wolf and Gonçalo Costa), [http://ejmas.com/jmanly/articles/2003/jmanlyart_wolfcosta_0203.htm Jogo do Pau: Origins and Evolution] ''Journal of Manly Arts'',
 +
February 2003. Retrieved August 30, 2016.</ref>
  
−
The practice of [[Indian clubs]] swinging was first introduced to England by British soldiers who had studied the discipline while stationed in India during the 1800s. The Indian clubs were used by military cadets and appeared as a gymnastic event in the [[gymnastics at the 1904 Summer Olympics|1904 Olympics]]. Gymnasiums were built just to cater to club exercise groups.  
+
The practice of Indian clubs swinging was first introduced to England by British soldiers who had studied the discipline while stationed in India during the 1800s. The Indian clubs were used by military cadets and appeared as a gymnastic event in the 1904 Olympics. Gymnasiums were built just to cater to club exercise groups.<ref> Dio Lewis, [http://ejmas.com/pt/ptart_lewis_1101.htm "Exercises with Clubs"] ''Physical Training'', Nov 2001. Retrieved August 30, 2016.</ref>
−
<ref>[http://ejmas.com/pt/ptart_lewis_1101.htm ''Exercises with Clubs'', by Dio Lewis, M.D., 1862]</ref><ref>[http://www.sandowplus.co.uk/Competition/Kehoe/kehoe-intro.htm ''Indian Club Exercise'', by Sim D. Kehoe, 1866]</ref><ref>[http://ejmas.com/pt/dandfclub.html Indian Club Exercises from ''Athletic Sports for Boys'', by Dick and Fitzgerald, 1866]</ref><ref>[http://ejmas.com/pt/ptart_dick_0101.htm ''Dick's Indian-Club Exercises'', 1887]</ref><ref>[http://ejmas.com/pt/ptart_ymca_0401.htm ''Gymnastic Nomenclature for Apparatus and Indian Club Movements'', 1949]</ref><ref>[http://www.dolfzine.us/page654.htm ''The Clubbell: The Indian Club Reappears'', 2003]</ref>
 
  
−
Russian officials travelled to India, under the employ of [[NKVD]] physical training center, ''"[[Dynamo (sports society)|Dinamo]]"'', to observe its native martial arts. The collection of techniques from martial arts of various countries — including India — formed the basis of the Russian martial art [[Sambo (martial art)|Sambo]]. V.A. Spiridinov was assigned to [[Mongolia]], [[China]] and India to research the [[Mongol]]-[[Vedic period|Vedic]] martial arts.<ref>Todd, Geoff (2006). ''Military Combative Masters of the 20th Century'' pg 150. ISBN 1411661966 </ref>
+
Russian officials traveled to India, under the employ of NKVD (the leading secret police organization of the Soviet Union) physical training center, ''"Dinamo"'', to observe its native martial arts. The collection of techniques from martial arts of various countries—including India—formed the basis of the Russian martial art Sambo. V.A. Spiridinov was assigned to [[Mongolia]], [[China]] and India to research the [[Mongol]]-[[Vedic period|Vedic]] martial arts.<ref name=Tank/>
  
−
The Indian wrestling form of [[Pehlwani]] has influenced both [[catch wrestling]] and it's derivative system of [[shoot wrestling]]. [[Karl Istaz]] applied the training methods of Indian wrestlers to shoot wrestling; this philosophy was later passed on to several of his students.<ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/public/91.cfm?sd=2 Shannon, Jake. ''My Christmas with Karl Gotch''. Lion's Share Ventures]</ref><ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/public/180.cfm?sd=2 Laren Grey Umphlett (2007). ''Victory goes over a bridge''. Lion's Share Ventures.]</ref><ref>Karter, Karon, [[Guy Mezger|Mezger, Guy]] (2000). ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Kickboxing'' pg 163. Alpha Books</ref>
+
Doshin So, the founder of Shorinji Kempo, was convinced that a Shaolin temple wall painting depicted Chinese and Indian monks practicing martial arts together for spiritual edification.<ref>Rupert A. Cox, ''Zen Arts: An Anthropological Study of the Culture of Anesthetics Form in Japan'' (Routledge, 2003, ISBN 978-0700714759). Since his first visit to the Shaolin Temple, Doshin So had been impressed with the wall paintings which depicted Indian and Chinese monks training and enjoying themselves together. This method of training together stood in contrast to his own training, and he developed the idea that training should be a collaboration between partner, for the purpose of mutual progress. In Japanese this concept is expressed as "otagai renshu" (training for each other) or "jita kyoraku" (enjoying things with other people).</ref>
−
 
 
−
[[Doshin So]], the founder of [[Shorinji Kempo]], was convinced that a Shaolin temple wall painting depicted Chinese and Indian monks practicing martial arts together for spiritual edification.<ref>{{cite book | last = Cox | first = Rupert A. | title = Zen Arts: An Anthropological Study of the Culture of Anesthetics Form in Japan | year = 2003 | publisher = RoutledgeCurzon in association with the [[Royal Asiatic Society|Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland]] | id = ISBN 0700714758 | pages = p. 157}}</ref><ref>[http://www.uwesu.net/shorinji/hist.shtml UWE Shorinji Kempo club] Since his first visit to the Shaolin Temple, Doshin So had been impressed with the wall paintings which depicted Indian and Chinese monks training and enjoying themselves together. This method of training together stood in contrast to his own training, and he developed the idea that training should be a collaboration between partner, for the purpose of mutual progress. In Japanese this concept is expressed as "otagai renshu" (training for each other) or "jita kyoraku" (enjoying things with other people).</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=February 2008}}
 
−
 
 
−
In addition, modern martial arts such as [[Brazilian Jiu Jitsu]] credit India as a founding influence on their fighting principles.<ref name=Machado>[http://www.carlosmachado.net/machado/history.jsp Origins of Jiu-Jitsu at Carlosmachado.net]</ref><ref name=Royler>[http://www.royler.com.br/historia.shtml Historia do Jiu-Jitsu at Royler Gracie's official website]</ref><ref name=Rickson>[http://www.rickson.com/history.htm  History of Jiu-Jitsu :Rickson Gracie Official website]</ref><ref>[http://www.graciemiami.com/history.htm Official Gracie Miami Websites: History of BJJ]</ref><ref>[http://www.ibjjf.org/jjh.htm The History of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu: Official International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation Website]</ref><ref>[http://www.floridajiujitsufed.com/history.htm The beginning: Official Florida Federation of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Website]</ref>
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
Line 88: Line 78:
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
*Kiyota, Minoru & Jordan Lee. (1997). "Personal Growth Through Martial Arts: Studies in Kendo, Fencing, and Indian Swordsmanship". Ctr for Southeast Asia Stds. ISBN 978-0965980104   
+
*Arvanitis, Jim. ''Pankration: The Traditional Greek Combat Sport & Modern Martial Art''. Paladin Press, 2003. ISBN 978-1581603972
−
*Zarrilli, Phillip B. (2000). "When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art". Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195655384
+
*Chakravarti, P.C. ''The Art of Warfare in Ancient India''. Delhi, 1972.
−
 
+
*Cox, Rupert A. ''Zen Arts: An Anthropological Study of the Culture of Anesthetics Form in Japan''. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-0700714759
−
==External links==
+
*Crego, Robert. ''Sports and Games of the 18th and 19th Centuries''. Greenwood Press, 2003. {{ASIN|B01K16V5YM}}
−
*[http://silambamindia.com All India Silambam Federation of India]
+
*Dasgupta, Shamya. "An Inheritance from the British: The Indian Boxing Story," Routledge 21 (3) (June-September 2004): 433-451.
 +
*Draeger, Donn F. ''Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia''. Tuttle Publishing, 2001. ISBN 978-0804817165
 +
*Draeger, Donn F., and Robert W. Smith. ''Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts''. Kodansha USA, 1981. ISBN 978-0870114366
 +
*Haines, Bruce A. ''Karate's History and Traditions''. Tuttle Publishing, 1995. ISBN 0804819475
 +
*Kiyota, Minoru, and Jordan Lee. ''Personal Growth Through Martial Arts: Studies in Kendo, Fencing, and Indian Swordsmanship''. Center for Southeast Asia Studies, 1997. ISBN 978-0965980104   
 +
*Luijendijk, D.H. ''Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art''. Paladin Press, 2005. ISBN 1581604807
 +
*Raj, J. David Manuel. ''The Origin and the Historical Development of Silambam Fencing: An Ancient Self-Defence Sport of India''. Oregon: University of Oregon, 1977.
 +
*Shamsuddin, Sheikh. ''The Malay Art of Self-Defense: Silat Seni Gayong''. Blue Snake Books, 2005. ISBN 978-1556435621
 +
*Singhal, G. D., and L. V. Guru. ''Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita''. India: Singhal Pubns, 1973. ISBN 978-0861860517
 +
*Todd, Tank, and James Webb. ''Military Combative Masters of the 20th Century''. Lulu.com, 2006. ISBN 978-1411661967
 +
*Wiley, Mark V. ''Filipino Martial Arts: Cabales Serrada Escrima''. Tuttle Publishing.
 +
*Zarrilli, Phillip B. ''When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art''. Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0195655384
  
 
[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]

Latest revision as of 22:29, 30 August 2016

A manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra, fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, recorded in the Mahabharata Epic.

Indian Martial Arts refers to a cluster of religious and martial practices that arose in the Indian subcontinent beginning in Vedic times (c. 1500-700 B.C.E.). Vedic literature includes a field of study known as Dhanurveda (from dhanus "bow" and veda "knowledge"), which developed into an important component of ancient Hindu society. This "science of archery" included armed and unarmed combat, and aspects such as meditation and mental conditioning. The theories behind Yoga, Ayurveda and Tantra, such as Kundalini (coiled energy), Prana (life force), Nadi (meridians), Chakra (aura) and Marmam (pressure points), are also present in Indian martial arts.

Although many Hindu saints have championed non-violence in modern times, it is also true that many ancient Hindu temples have statues of deities and warriors in various postures related to combat. It is also true that The responsibility for the practice of Indian martial arts fell to the hands of the Hindu Kshatriyas (warrior caste). furthermore, a number of ancient Dravidian martial arts were developed in South India, including Kuttu Varisai (empty hand combat) and Varma Kalai (the art of vital points) in Tamil Nadu, and Kalarippayattu (way of the arena) and Adithada (attack and defend) in Kerala.[1]

The Vishnu Purana text describes Dhanur Veda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of knowledge.[2]

History

Antiquity

The Indian epics contain accounts of combat, describing warriors such as Bhima. The Mahabharata describes a prolonged battle between Arjuna and Karna using bows, swords, trees and rocks, and fists.[2] Another unarmed battle in the Mahabharata describes two fighters boxing with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts.[3] Other boxing fights are also described in Mahabharata and Ramayana.[4]

Stories describing Krishna report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds.[5] Based on such accounts, Svinth traces press ups and squats used by Indian wrestlers to the pre-classical era.[5]

Many authorities contend that the fourth century B.C.E. conquest of India by Alexander the Great laid the foundation of Indian martial arts by dispersing pankration techniques throughout the subcontinent.[6][7]

Around the third century B.C.E., Patanjali wrote the Yoga Sutras, which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These Yoga elements, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.[5]

The word "kalari" appears in the Puram [8] and Akam [9] to describe to both a battlefield and combat arena. It is also mentioned in Sangam literature from the second century B.C.E. The Akananuru and Purananuru describe the martial arts of ancient Tamilakkam, including forms of one-to-one combat, and the use of spears, swords, shields, bows and silambam.

The references to "Silappadikkaram" in Sangam literature dating back to the second century refer to the sale of Silamabam staves, swords, pearls and armor to foreign traders. The silambam staff was one of the martial art weapons, which was in great demand with the visitors.[10]

References to martial arts are found in early Buddhist texts. The Lotus Sutra (ca. first century C.E.) refers to a boxing art while speaking to Manjusri.[11] Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion of martial arts and archery before becoming the Buddha.[5] Another early Buddhist sutra Hongyo-kyo describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince Nanda and his cousin Devadatta.[11]

The martial art of Vajra Mushti is also mentioned in sources of the early centuries C.E.[11]

Classical period (third to ninth centuries)

Like other branches of Sanskrit literature, treatises on martial arts became more systematic in the course of the first millennium C.E.

Indian military accounts of the Gupta Empire (c. 240-480) identified over 130 different classes of weapons. The Kama Sutra written by Vātsyāyana at the time suggested that women should regularly "practice with sword, single-stick, quarter-staff, and bow and arrow."

The Sushruta Samhita (c. fourth century) identifies 107 vital points of the human body in his Sushruta Samhita.[12] Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick.[5] Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline Ayurveda, which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as Varma Kalai and Marma Adi.[5] With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial practitioners knew and practiced attacking or defending vital points.[13]

Martial arts were not exclusive to the Kshatriya warrior caste, though they used the arts more extensively. The eighth century text Kuvalaymala by Udyotanasuri recorded martial arts being taught at salad and ghatika educational institutions, where Brahmin students from throughout the subcontinent (particularly from South India, Rajasthan and Bengal) "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (niuddham)."[2]

Around 630 C.E., King Narasimhavarman of the Pallava dynasty commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of Varma Adi, a Dravidian martial art that allowed kicking, kneeing, elbowing, and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist. This is similar to the Dhanur Veda martial art described in the Agni Purana.[5]

The earliest extant manual of Dhanur Veda is in the Agni Purana (c. eighth century),[13] which contains several chapters giving descriptions and instructions on the fighting arts of Dhanur Veda, with reference earlier sutras on Dhanur Veda dating back centuries earlier.[14] It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat.[5] The former included the bow and arrow, the sword, spear, noose, armour, iron dart, club, battle axe, discus, and the trident.[2] The latter included wrestling, knee strikes, and punching and kicking methods.[5]

Middle Ages

Martial are associated with avatars such as Balarama in the Puranas (seventeenth century mural of Balarama from a wall hanging in South Indian temple)

Organized martial arts in ancient India include the martial art of Malla-yuddha, a form of combat wrestling codified into four forms. The Malla Purana (ca. thirteenth century) is the earliest treatise discussing the techniques of Malla-yuddha.

The modern forms of Marma Adi, Varma Ati,[5] and Kalarippayattu were developed by the eleventh century, during an extended period of warfare between the Chera and Chola dynasties.[15]

Modern period

Rajput warriors, ca. 1860.

Kalarippayattu underwent a period of decline after the introduction of firearms and especially after the full establishment of British colonial rule in the nineteenth century.[13] More European modes of organizing police, armies and governmental institutions, and the increasing use of firearms, gradually eroded the need for traditional martial training associated with caste-specific duties.[15] The British colonial government banned kalarippayattu in 1804 in response to a series of revolts.[1]

The resurgence of public interest in kalarippayattu began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout South India, which characterized the growing reaction against British colonial rule.[15]

During this period, Indian wrestling became prominent in western catch wrestling tournaments. [16][17][18][19][20]

Indian weapons

The khanda, a straight sword as opposed to the Persian-influenced curved talwar, is a classical Indian weapon

According to P. C. Chakravati in The Art of War in Ancient India, Indian armies used standard weapons such as wooden or metal tipped spears, swords, thatched bamboo shields, wooden shields, metal shields, axes, short bows and long bows in warfare as early as the invasion of India by the forces of Alexander the Great, and these weapons are all mentioned in even earlier native texts. Some troops in ancient times wore personal armor, but the majority did not until medieval times. Armed forces were largely standardised, and it is unclear if regular infantry were trained in any recognisable Indian martial art, other than standard military drills. Over time, weapondary evolved, and India became famed for its flexible wootz steel. Invasion in the thirteenth century from the pourous northwestern mountain passes that lead from Cerntal Asia and the Middle East into India, likely inspired new forms of weapondary, such as the talwar, a curved blade resembling Persian and Turkic arms. Curved blades had been used in India since ancient times, some even curved toward the cutting side like a sickle, but before the introduction of the talwar, the stright khanda type sword may have enjoyed greater popularity. Martial artists, typically coming from warrior jatis, employed other uniquely weapons such as the katar sword-gauntlet and urumi sword-whip.

Influence of Indian martial arts

Jasmine simhalan performing silambam and kalaripayatt

The martial arts of India have influenced the martial arts of other countries, particularly within the Indosphere, those regions outside India influenced by Indian culture. Examples of such arts include Bando,[21] Silat,[22][23] Escrima,[24] and Muay Thai.[25]

The Tamil kingdoms were instrumental in the spread of Silambam throughout Southeast Asia. During the 18th and the 19th centuries, Silambam was much more prevalent in Southeast Asia than in India, where it was banned by the British government.[26]

India has also influenced the Portuguese martial art of Jogo do Pau.[27]

The practice of Indian clubs swinging was first introduced to England by British soldiers who had studied the discipline while stationed in India during the 1800s. The Indian clubs were used by military cadets and appeared as a gymnastic event in the 1904 Olympics. Gymnasiums were built just to cater to club exercise groups.[28]

Russian officials traveled to India, under the employ of NKVD (the leading secret police organization of the Soviet Union) physical training center, "Dinamo", to observe its native martial arts. The collection of techniques from martial arts of various countries—including India—formed the basis of the Russian martial art Sambo. V.A. Spiridinov was assigned to Mongolia, China and India to research the Mongol-Vedic martial arts.[7]

Doshin So, the founder of Shorinji Kempo, was convinced that a Shaolin temple wall painting depicted Chinese and Indian monks practicing martial arts together for spiritual edification.[29]

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 D.H. Luijendijk, Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art (Paladin Press, 2005, ISBN 1581604807).
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Phillip B. Zarrilli, A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms. Retrieved August 19, 2016.
  3. ↑ Section XIII: Samayapalana Parva, Book 4: Virata Parva, Mahabharata. Retrieved August 30, 2016.
  4. ↑ Shamya Dasgupta, "An Inheritance from the British: The Indian Boxing Story," Routledge 21 (3)(June-September 2004): 433-451.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 J. R. Svinth, A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports. Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences, 2002. Retrieved August 30, 2016.
  6. ↑ Jim Arvanitis, Pankration (Paladin Press, 2003, ISBN 978-1581603972).
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Tank Todd and James Webb, Military Combative Masters of the 20th Century (Lulu.com, 2006, ISBN 978-1411661967).
  8. ↑ verses 225, 237, 245, 356.
  9. ↑ verses 34, 231, 293.
  10. ↑ J. David Manuel Raj, The Origin and the Historical Development of Silambam Fencing: An Ancient Self-Defence Sport of India (Oregon: University of Oregon, 1977).
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Bruce A. Haines, Karate's History and Traditions (Tuttle Publishing, 1995, ISBN 0804819475).
  12. ↑ G. D. Singhal and L. V. Guru, Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita (India: Singhal Pubns, 1973, ISBN 978-0861860517).
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Phillip B. Zarrilli, "To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions" Part I: Focus on Kerala's Kalarippayattu" Journal of Asian Martial Arts 1(1) (1992). Retrieved August 30, 2016.
  14. ↑ P. C. Chakravarti, The art of warfare in ancient India (Delhi, 1972).
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Phillip B. Zarrilli, When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art (Oxford University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0195655384).
  16. ↑ Graham Noble, "The Lion of the Punjab – Gama in England, 1910" InYo: Journal of Alternative Perspectives, May 2002. Retrieved August 30, 2016.
  17. ↑ Graham Noble, "The Lion of the Punjab – Part II: Stanislaus Zbyszko" InYo: Journal of Alternative Perspectives, June 2002. Retrieved August 30, 2016.
  18. ↑ Graham Noble, "The Lion of the Punjab – Part III: London, 1910" InYo: Journal of Alternative Perspectives. July 2002. Retrieved August 30, 2016.
  19. ↑ Graham Noble, "The Lion of the Punjab – Part IV: Aftermath" InYo: Journal of Alternative Perspectives. Aug 2002. Retrieved August 30, 2016.
  20. ↑ Joseph Alter, Subaltern Bodies and Nationalist Physiques: Gama the Great and the Heroics of Indian Wrestling Body Society 6(2) (June 2000): 45-72. Retrieved August 30, 2016.
  21. ↑ Donn F. Draeger and Robert W. Smith, Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts (Kodansha USA, 1981, ISBN 978-0870114366).
  22. ↑ Donn F. Draeger, Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia (Tuttle Publishing, 2001, ISBN 978-0804817165).
  23. ↑ Sheikh Shamsuddin, The Malay Art of Self-Defense: Silat Seni Gayong (Blue Snake Books, 2005, ISBN 978-1556435621).
  24. ↑ Mark V. Wiley, Filipino Martial Arts: Cabales Serrada Escrima (Tuttle Publishing).
  25. ↑ Arjarn T. Moore, Muay Thai's Divine Connection USMTA Inc. Retrieved August 30, 2016.
  26. ↑ Robert Crego, Sports and Games of the 18th and 19th Centuries (Greenwood Press, 2003).
  27. ↑ Nuno Curvello Russo, (translated by Tony Wolf and Gonçalo Costa), Jogo do Pau: Origins and Evolution Journal of Manly Arts, February 2003. Retrieved August 30, 2016.
  28. ↑ Dio Lewis, "Exercises with Clubs" Physical Training, Nov 2001. Retrieved August 30, 2016.
  29. ↑ Rupert A. Cox, Zen Arts: An Anthropological Study of the Culture of Anesthetics Form in Japan (Routledge, 2003, ISBN 978-0700714759). Since his first visit to the Shaolin Temple, Doshin So had been impressed with the wall paintings which depicted Indian and Chinese monks training and enjoying themselves together. This method of training together stood in contrast to his own training, and he developed the idea that training should be a collaboration between partner, for the purpose of mutual progress. In Japanese this concept is expressed as "otagai renshu" (training for each other) or "jita kyoraku" (enjoying things with other people).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Arvanitis, Jim. Pankration: The Traditional Greek Combat Sport & Modern Martial Art. Paladin Press, 2003. ISBN 978-1581603972
  • Chakravarti, P.C. The Art of Warfare in Ancient India. Delhi, 1972.
  • Cox, Rupert A. Zen Arts: An Anthropological Study of the Culture of Anesthetics Form in Japan. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-0700714759
  • Crego, Robert. Sports and Games of the 18th and 19th Centuries. Greenwood Press, 2003. ASIN B01K16V5YM
  • Dasgupta, Shamya. "An Inheritance from the British: The Indian Boxing Story," Routledge 21 (3) (June-September 2004): 433-451.
  • Draeger, Donn F. Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. Tuttle Publishing, 2001. ISBN 978-0804817165
  • Draeger, Donn F., and Robert W. Smith. Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts. Kodansha USA, 1981. ISBN 978-0870114366
  • Haines, Bruce A. Karate's History and Traditions. Tuttle Publishing, 1995. ISBN 0804819475
  • Kiyota, Minoru, and Jordan Lee. Personal Growth Through Martial Arts: Studies in Kendo, Fencing, and Indian Swordsmanship. Center for Southeast Asia Studies, 1997. ISBN 978-0965980104
  • Luijendijk, D.H. Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art. Paladin Press, 2005. ISBN 1581604807
  • Raj, J. David Manuel. The Origin and the Historical Development of Silambam Fencing: An Ancient Self-Defence Sport of India. Oregon: University of Oregon, 1977.
  • Shamsuddin, Sheikh. The Malay Art of Self-Defense: Silat Seni Gayong. Blue Snake Books, 2005. ISBN 978-1556435621
  • Singhal, G. D., and L. V. Guru. Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita. India: Singhal Pubns, 1973. ISBN 978-0861860517
  • Todd, Tank, and James Webb. Military Combative Masters of the 20th Century. Lulu.com, 2006. ISBN 978-1411661967
  • Wiley, Mark V. Filipino Martial Arts: Cabales Serrada Escrima. Tuttle Publishing.
  • Zarrilli, Phillip B. When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art. Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0195655384

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