Difference between revisions of "Imprinting (psychology)" - New World Encyclopedia
| Line 4: | Line 4: | ||
| − | '''Imprinting''' is | + | '''Imprinting''' is used in [[psychology]] and [[ethology]] to describe any kind of learning that occurrs at a particular age or stage of devlopement. Imprinting is a phase-sensitive type of learning that usually involves an organism recognizing the characteristics of certain stimuli that are subsequently "imprinted" onto the subject. Imprinting is an intriguing combination of both innate and environmental influences that affect animal behavior. |
| − | == | + | ==History of the Theory== |
| − | + | A widely researched form of imprinting is known as filial imprinting. Filial imprinting occurs when a young animal recognizes the characteristics of its parent. It is most obvious in nidifugous birds, who imprint on their parents. | |
| − | + | '''Filial imprinting''' was first reported in domestic chickens, by the 19th century amateur biologist [[Douglas Spalding]]. It was rediscovered by the early ethologist[Oskar Heinroth, and studied scientifically and popularized by his disciple [[Konrad Lorenz]] working with greylag geese. Lorenz demonstrated how incubator-hatched geese would imprint on the first suitable moving stimulus they saw within what he called a "critical period" of about 36 hours shortly after hatching. Being present with the goslings during their hatching, Lorenz found that the goslings would imprint on himself. As a result of this he is often depicted being followed by a gaggle of geese who had imprinted on him. | |
| − | + | Filial imprinting is not restricted to animals that are able to follow their parents, however; in [[child development]] the term is used to refer to the process by which a baby learns to distinguish who its mother and father are. The process is recognized as beginning in the womb, when the unborn baby begin to recognize its parents' voices. | |
| − | ''' | + | The Italian hang-glider pilot [[Angelo d'Arrigo]] manipulated Lorenz's technique to re-introduce endangered species. D'Arrigo noted that the flight of a non-motorised hang-glider is very similar to the flight patterns of migratory birds seeing as both use updrafts of thermal currents to gain altitude, permiting soaring flight over long distances. Birds which are hatched in captivity have no mentor birds to teach them their traditional migratory routes. D'Arrigo had one solution to this problem. The chicks hatched under the wing of his glider, and imprinted on him. Subsequently, he taught the fledglings to fly and to hunt. The young birds followed him not only on the ground (as with Lorenz) but also in the air as he took the path of various migratory routes. He flew across the [[Sahara]] and over the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to [[Sicily]] with [[eagle]]s, from [[Siberia]] to [[Iran]] (5,500 km) with a flock of Siberian cranes, and over [[Everest]] with [[Nepal]]ese eagles. In 2006, he worked with a condor in South America. |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | |||
In a similar project, orphaned [[Canada Goose|Canada Geese]] were trained to their normal migration route by the Canadian ultralight enthusiast [[Bill Lishman]], as shown in the fact based movie drama [[Fly Away Home]]. | In a similar project, orphaned [[Canada Goose|Canada Geese]] were trained to their normal migration route by the Canadian ultralight enthusiast [[Bill Lishman]], as shown in the fact based movie drama [[Fly Away Home]]. | ||
| Line 28: | Line 25: | ||
== Westermarck effect == | == Westermarck effect == | ||
| − | ''Reverse'' sexual imprinting is also | + | ''Reverse'' sexual imprinting is also observed when two people live in close domestic proximity during the first few years of their lives become desensitized to sexual attraction and bonding later on. This phenomenon, known as the '''Westermarck effect''', was discovered by anthropologist [[Edvard Westermarck]]. The Westermarck effect has since been observed in many places and cultures, including in the [[Israel]]i [[kibbutz]] system, and the Shim-pua marriage customs of Taiwan, as well as in biological-related families. |
| − | When this does not occur, for example where a brother and sister are brought up not knowing about one another, they may find one another highly sexually attractive when they meet as adults | + | When this does not occur, for example where a brother and sister are brought up not knowing about one another, they may find one another highly sexually attractive when they meet as adults— a phenomenon known as genetic sexual attraction. This observation is consistent with the theory that the Westermarck effect evolved to suppress inbreeding. |
== Evidence of Imprinting in Neuroscience== | == Evidence of Imprinting in Neuroscience== | ||
| + | |||
| + | In 1985, G. Horn found that a possible structure of associated to imprinting was on either side of the brain in the hyperstratium ventrale (IMHV). By removing the chicks' IMHV, Horn was able to demonstrate that the chicks no longer displayed imprinting tendencies. The hyperstratium ventrale is a part of the dorsal ventrical ridge (DVR) a common brain structure found in both reptiles and birds. The dorsal ventrical ridge also includes a wulst, which is similar to a mammal's memory structure. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==Importance of Imprinting== | ||
| + | |||
| + | Behavioral imprinting is a natural survival instinct. Theoretically speaking, an infant of any animal kingdom should have the ability to recognize their parent in order to guarantee their well-being during a dangerous event. This makes imprinting both a reliable and necessary bond between the parent and their newborn. Imprinting is most obvious in nidifugous birds. Generally speaking, mammals aren't known to imprint the same way that nidifugous birds do, but there is a strong mother-child bond that develops through lengthier, more complex processes. | ||
| + | |||
| + | A species-specific behavior, imprinting is an intriguing inborn phenomena. Imprinting facilitates certain behaviors that are vital to survival. | ||
==Recent Research== | ==Recent Research== | ||
| Line 40: | Line 45: | ||
With more controlled environments, scientists now believe that imprinting isn't as rapid as previously thought and that it may be a progressive process that relies on the release of endorphins in the brain. It is suggested that imprinting can't be reversed and there doesn't seem to be any narrow critical period for imprinting to occur. In 1996, Howard S. Hoffman discovered that imprinting occurs in various species and the special learning components are more vital than previously thought. | With more controlled environments, scientists now believe that imprinting isn't as rapid as previously thought and that it may be a progressive process that relies on the release of endorphins in the brain. It is suggested that imprinting can't be reversed and there doesn't seem to be any narrow critical period for imprinting to occur. In 1996, Howard S. Hoffman discovered that imprinting occurs in various species and the special learning components are more vital than previously thought. | ||
| − | |||
| − | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
Revision as of 17:56, 25 August 2006
Imprinting is used in psychology and ethology to describe any kind of learning that occurrs at a particular age or stage of devlopement. Imprinting is a phase-sensitive type of learning that usually involves an organism recognizing the characteristics of certain stimuli that are subsequently "imprinted" onto the subject. Imprinting is an intriguing combination of both innate and environmental influences that affect animal behavior.
History of the Theory
A widely researched form of imprinting is known as filial imprinting. Filial imprinting occurs when a young animal recognizes the characteristics of its parent. It is most obvious in nidifugous birds, who imprint on their parents.
Filial imprinting was first reported in domestic chickens, by the 19th century amateur biologist Douglas Spalding. It was rediscovered by the early ethologist[Oskar Heinroth, and studied scientifically and popularized by his disciple Konrad Lorenz working with greylag geese. Lorenz demonstrated how incubator-hatched geese would imprint on the first suitable moving stimulus they saw within what he called a "critical period" of about 36 hours shortly after hatching. Being present with the goslings during their hatching, Lorenz found that the goslings would imprint on himself. As a result of this he is often depicted being followed by a gaggle of geese who had imprinted on him.
Filial imprinting is not restricted to animals that are able to follow their parents, however; in child development the term is used to refer to the process by which a baby learns to distinguish who its mother and father are. The process is recognized as beginning in the womb, when the unborn baby begin to recognize its parents' voices.
The Italian hang-glider pilot Angelo d'Arrigo manipulated Lorenz's technique to re-introduce endangered species. D'Arrigo noted that the flight of a non-motorised hang-glider is very similar to the flight patterns of migratory birds seeing as both use updrafts of thermal currents to gain altitude, permiting soaring flight over long distances. Birds which are hatched in captivity have no mentor birds to teach them their traditional migratory routes. D'Arrigo had one solution to this problem. The chicks hatched under the wing of his glider, and imprinted on him. Subsequently, he taught the fledglings to fly and to hunt. The young birds followed him not only on the ground (as with Lorenz) but also in the air as he took the path of various migratory routes. He flew across the Sahara and over the Mediterranean Sea to Sicily with eagles, from Siberia to Iran (5,500 km) with a flock of Siberian cranes, and over Everest with Nepalese eagles. In 2006, he worked with a condor in South America.
In a similar project, orphaned Canada Geese were trained to their normal migration route by the Canadian ultralight enthusiast Bill Lishman, as shown in the fact based movie drama Fly Away Home.
Sexual imprinting
Sexual imprinting is the process by which a young animal learns the characteristics of a desirable mate. For example, male zebra finches appear to prefer mates with the appearance of the female bird that rears them, rather than mates of their own type (Immelmann, 1972).
Westermarck effect
Reverse sexual imprinting is also observed when two people live in close domestic proximity during the first few years of their lives become desensitized to sexual attraction and bonding later on. This phenomenon, known as the Westermarck effect, was discovered by anthropologist Edvard Westermarck. The Westermarck effect has since been observed in many places and cultures, including in the Israeli kibbutz system, and the Shim-pua marriage customs of Taiwan, as well as in biological-related families.
When this does not occur, for example where a brother and sister are brought up not knowing about one another, they may find one another highly sexually attractive when they meet as adults— a phenomenon known as genetic sexual attraction. This observation is consistent with the theory that the Westermarck effect evolved to suppress inbreeding.
Evidence of Imprinting in Neuroscience
In 1985, G. Horn found that a possible structure of associated to imprinting was on either side of the brain in the hyperstratium ventrale (IMHV). By removing the chicks' IMHV, Horn was able to demonstrate that the chicks no longer displayed imprinting tendencies. The hyperstratium ventrale is a part of the dorsal ventrical ridge (DVR) a common brain structure found in both reptiles and birds. The dorsal ventrical ridge also includes a wulst, which is similar to a mammal's memory structure.
Importance of Imprinting
Behavioral imprinting is a natural survival instinct. Theoretically speaking, an infant of any animal kingdom should have the ability to recognize their parent in order to guarantee their well-being during a dangerous event. This makes imprinting both a reliable and necessary bond between the parent and their newborn. Imprinting is most obvious in nidifugous birds. Generally speaking, mammals aren't known to imprint the same way that nidifugous birds do, but there is a strong mother-child bond that develops through lengthier, more complex processes.
A species-specific behavior, imprinting is an intriguing inborn phenomena. Imprinting facilitates certain behaviors that are vital to survival.
Recent Research
Recent research contends that the tradition of Lorenz's imprinting may be somewhat incomplete. Studying the birds in their natural environment, it is argued that Lorenz lacked the objectivity that can be facilitated in a laboratory. The experimental approach of modern reseach has allowed for understanding of the special learning processes that contribute to the behavior of imprinting.
With more controlled environments, scientists now believe that imprinting isn't as rapid as previously thought and that it may be a progressive process that relies on the release of endorphins in the brain. It is suggested that imprinting can't be reversed and there doesn't seem to be any narrow critical period for imprinting to occur. In 1996, Howard S. Hoffman discovered that imprinting occurs in various species and the special learning components are more vital than previously thought.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Westermarck, E. A. The history of human marriage, 5th edn. London: Macmillan, 1921.
- Immelmann, K. (1972) Sexual and other long-term aspects of imprinting in birds and other species. Advances in the Study of Behavior, 4, 147–174.
External links
- Cardoso, SH and Sabbatini, RME. Learning who is your mother. The behavior of imprinting. Brain & Mind Magazine.
- Nancy T. Burley, a researcher into imprinting in zebra finches
- Debra Lieberman, John Tooby and Leda Cosmides. "Does morality have a biological basis? An empirical test of the factors governing moral sentiments relating to incest." Accepted for publication in Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B November 2002. Available online at Citeseer
- Angelo d'Arrigo personal website
Credits
New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:
The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:
Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.
