Difference between revisions of "Herodotus" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:AGMA Hérodote.jpg |thumb|right|220px|[[Bust (sculpture)|Bust]] of '''Herodotus''']]
 
[[Image:AGMA Hérodote.jpg |thumb|right|220px|[[Bust (sculpture)|Bust]] of '''Herodotus''']]
  
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'''Herodotus''' of [[Halicarnassus]] (in [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], {{polytonic|Ἡρόδοτος}} {{polytonic|Ἁλικαρνᾱσσεύς}}, '''Herodotos Halikarnasseus''') was a [[Dorian Greeks|Dorian Greek]] [[historian]] who lived in the [[5th century BC]] ([[484 BC]]–ca.[[425 BC]]) and is regarded as the "''father of history''". He is almost exclusively known for writing ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|The Histories]]'', a collection of 'inquiries' (or '{{polytonic|ἱστορια}}', a word which passed into Latin and took on its modern connotation of 'history') about the places and peoples he encountered during his wide-ranging travels around the [[Mediterranean]]. The theme for this work was the conflict between the ancient [[Greeks]] and the [[Persian Empire|Persians]] or '[[Medes]]'.
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'''Herodotus''' of Halicarnassus (in [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], {{polytonic|Ἡρόδοτος}} {{polytonic|Ἁλικαρνᾱσσεύς}}, '''Herodotos Halikarnasseus''') was a [[Dorian Greeks|Dorian Greek]] [[historian]] who lived in the fifth century b.c.e. (484 b.c.e – 425 b.c.e.) Dubbed  "''the father of history''" by the Roman orator Cicero, he was the author of the first narrative history produced in the ancient world.   ''The Histories'', was a collection of 'inquiries' (or '{{polytonic|ἱστορια}}', a word which passed into Latin and took on its modern connotation of 'history'), in nine volumes, about the places and peoples he encountered during his wide-ranging travels around the [[Mediterranean]]. The theme for this work was the conflict between the ancient [[Acient Greece|Greeks]] and the [[Persian Empire|Persians]] or 'Medes,' the Persian invasions of Greece in 490 and 480 B.C.E.., the heroic Greek defense against the invaders, and the final Greek victory. Herodotus knowingly included  myths and legends in his history because they added interest to his account.
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== His life==
 
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Most of what is known of the life of Herodotus has been gleaned from his own work.  
 
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According to the Byzantine dictionary known as [[Suda]], however, he was exiled from Halicarnassus after his involvement in an unsuccessful [[coup d'état]] against the ruling dynasty, and that he then withdrew to the island of [[Samos Island|Samos]]. (He seems never to have returned to Halicarnassus, despite the fact that he appears to have been very proud of his native city and of its queen, [[Artemisia I of Caria|Artemisia]] I of [[Caria]]).
 
  
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It must have been during his exile that he undertook the journeys he describes in ''The Histories''. These journeys took him to [[Egypt]] as far south as the [[Aswan|first cataract]] of the [[Nile]], to the [[Ukraine]], and to [[Italy]] and [[Sicily]]. Although his description of [[Babylon]] contains highly suggestive remarks like "people who have not been there, will find it hard to believe that..." and "this was still the case in my days", he does not claim to have visited the city, and indeed, his description is extremely implausible.
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== Life==
  
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Herodotus mentions an interview with an informant in [[Sparta]], and almost certainly he lived for a period in [[Athens]]. In Athens, he obviously became familiar with the oral traditions of the prominent families, in particular the [[Alkmaeonidai]], (to which [[Pericles]] belonged, on his maternal side). However, as the Athenians did not accept foreigners as citizens, Herodotus must have felt distinctly out of place there. Indeed, when Athens sought citizens for the Italian [[apoikia|colony]] of [[Thurii]] in [[444 B.C.E.]], Herodotus' name was, according to the Suda, among the willing. Whether or not he died in his adopted city is uncertain.
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The little that is known of the life of Herodotus has been mostly gleaned from his own works.  Herodotus was born a Persian subject c. 484 B.C.E. at Halicarnassus in Asia Minor (now Bodrum, Turkey), and remained a Persian subject until the age of thirty or thirty-five.  At the time of Herodotus’ birth, Halicarnassus was ruled by a Queen Artemisia, who was succeeded by her son Pisindelis (born c. 498 B.C.E.).  His son Lygdamis took the throne around the time that Herodotus reached adulthood.  His father Lyxes and mother Rhaeo (or Dryo) belonged to the upper class.  Herodotus had a brother Theodore and an uncle or cousin named Panyasis, who was an epic poet and important enough to be considered a threat and put to death by Lygdamis.  Herodotus was either exiled or left Hallicarnassus voluntarily at the time of Panyasis’ execution.
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Herodotous received a Greek education, and being unable to enter politics because of the oppression of a tyrannical government, turned to literature  His extant works demonstrate that he was  intimately acquainted with the Iliad and the Odyssey and the poems of the epic cycle, including the Cypria, the Epigoni.  He quotes or otherwise shows familiarity with the writings of Hesiod, Olen, Musaeus, Bacis, Lysistratus, Archilochus of Paros, Alcaeus, Sappho, Solon, Aesop, Aristeas of Proconnesus, Simonides of Ceos, Phrynichus, Aeschylus and Pindar. He quotes and criticizes Hecataeus, the best of the prose writers who had preceded him, and makes numerous allusions to other authors of the same class.
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Herodotus traveled across Asia Minor and European Greece more than once, and visited all the most important islands of the Archipelago, Rhodes, Cyprus, Delos, Paros, Thasos, Samothrace, Crete, Samos, Cythera and Aegina. He undertook the long and perilous journey from Sardis to the Persian capital Susa, visited Babylon, Colchis, and the western shores of the Black Sea as far as the estuary of the Dnieper; he travelled in Scythia and in Thrace, visited Zante and Magna Graecia, explored the antiquities of Tyre, coasted along the shores of Palestine, saw Ga~a, and made a long stay in Egypt. His travels are estimated to have crossed thirty-one degrees of longitude, or 1700 miles, and twenty-four of latitude, or nearly the same distance. He remained for some time at all the more interesting sites and examined, inquired, made measurements, and gathered materials for his great work. He carefully obtained by personal observation a full knowledge of the various countries.
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Herodotus seem to have made most of his journeys between the ages of twenty and thirty-seven (464 - 447 B.C.E.). It was probably during his early manhood he visited Susa and Babylon as a Persian subject, taking advantage of the Persian system of posts which he describes in his fifth book. His residence in Egypt must have occurred after 460 B.C.E., because he reports seeing the skulls of the Persians slain by Inarus in that year. Skulls are rarely visible on a battlefield for more than two or three years after a battle, making it probable that Herodotus visited Egypt during the reign of Inarus (460-454 B.C.E.), when the Athenians had authority in Egypt, and  that he made himself known as a learned Greek.  On his return from Egypt, as he proceeded along the Syrian shore, he seems to have landed at Tyre, and to have gone on to Thasos from there. His Scythian travels are thought to have taken place prior to 450 b.c.e..
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Historians question what city Herodotus used as his headquarters while he was making all his travels.  Up to the time of the execution of Panyasis, which is placed by chronologists in or about the year 457 B.C.E., Herodotus probably resided at Halicarnassus. His travels in Asia Minor, in European Greece, and among the islands of the Aegean, probably belonged to this period, as also his journey to Susa and Babylon. When Herodotus quitted Halicarnassus on account of the tyranny of Lygdamis, about the year 457 B.C.E., he went to Samos. That island was an important member of the Athenian confederacy, and in making it his home Herodotus would have put himself under the protection of Athens. Egypt was then largely under the influence of Athens, making it possible for him to travel there in 457 or 456 b.c.e..  The stories that he heard in Egypt of Sesostris may have inspired him to make voyages from Samos to Colchis, Scythia and Thrace.
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Herodotus had resided in Samos for seven or eight years, until Lygdamis was expelled from the throne and he was able to return to Hallicarnassus. According to Suidas, Herodotus was himself a  rebel against Lygdamis; but no other author confirms this.    Halicarnassus became a voluntary member of the Athenian confederacy, and Herodotus could now return and enjoy the rights of free citizenship in his native city.  Around 447 B.C.E. he suddenly went to Athens, and there is evidence that he went there because his work was not well received in Hallicarnassus.  In Athens his work won such approval that in the year 445 B.C.E., a certain Anytus, he was voted a sum of ten talents (£2400) by decree of the people. At one of the recitations, it was said, the future historian Thucydides was present with his father, Olorus, and was so moved that he burst into tears, whereupon Herodotus remarked to the father-"Olorus, your son has a natural enthusiasm for letters."
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Herodotus appeared anxious, having lost his political status at Halicarnassus, to obtain such status elsewhere. At Athens during this period, the franchise could only be attained with great expense and difficulty. Accordingly, in the spring of the following year Herodotus sailed from Athens with the colonists who went out to found the colony of Thurii, and became a citizen of the new town.
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After Herodotus reached the age of forty, there was little further information about him.   According to his works, he seems to have made only a few journeys, one to Crotona, one to Metapontum, and one to Athens (about 430 B.C.E.).  He may also have composed at Thurii a special work on the history of Assyria, to which he refers twice in his first book, and which is quoted by Aristotle. It has been supposed by many that Herodotus lived to a great age, but the indications derived from the later touches added to his work, the sole evidence on the subject, lead to the conclusion that his life ended early.  None of the changes and additions made to the nine books point to a later date than 424 b.c.e..  Since the author promised to make certain changes which were left unfinished, it is assumed that he died at about the age of sixty. Ancient sources recount that he died at Thurii, where his tomb was shown in later ages.  
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===  Contribution to Hisotry ===
  
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At some point, Herodotus became a ''logios''—a reciter of ''logoi'' or stories, written in prose. (It is important to emphasize that his work was originally presented orally, and was designed to have an almost theatrical element to it). His subject matter often encompassed battles, other political incidents of note, and, especially, the marvels of foreign lands. He made tours of the Greek cities and the major religious and athletic festivals, where he offered performances and expected payment.  
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Herodotus has passed on to us a large amount of the information current in his own day concerning the part of the world in which he lived.
  
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In [[431 B.C.E.]], the [[Peloponnesian War]] broke out between [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]]. It may have been that conflict that inspired him to collect his stories into a continuous narrative. Centering as they do on the theme of Persia's imperial progress, which only a united Athens and Sparta had managed to resist, they may be seen as a critique of, or an attack upon, the war-mongering that threatened to engulf the entire Greek world.  
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He reports that the annual flooding of the [[Nile]] is said to be the result of melting snows far to the south, and comments that he cannot understand how there can be snow in Africa, the hottest part of the known world. Herodotus' method of comparing all known theories on a subject shows us that such hydrological speculation existed in ancient Greece. He also passes on reports from [[Phoenicia]]n sailors that, while circumnavigating [[Africa]], they 'saw the sun on the right side while sailing westwards'. Thanks to this brief mention, almost an afterthought, modern scholars have been able to establish that Africa was indeed circumnavigated by ancient seafarers—for this is precisely where the sun ought to have been.
  
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===Contribution===
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At some point, Herodotus became a ''logios,'' a reciter of ''logoi'' or stories, written in prose. His historical work was originally presented orally, and was created to have an almost theatrical element to it. His subject matter often encompassed battles, other political incidents of note, and, especially, the marvels of foreign lands. He made tours of the Greek cities and the major religious and athletic festivals, where he offered performances in return for payment.
  
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Herodotus has passed on to us a large amount of the information concerning part of the world that was current in his own day.  
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In 431 B.C.E., the [[Peloponnesian War]] broke out between [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]]. It may have been the Peloponnesian War that inspired Herodotus to collect his stories into a continuous narrative. Centering on the theme of Persia's imperial progress, which only a united Athens and Sparta had managed to resist, they may be seen as a criticism of the war-mongering that threatened to engulf the entire Greek world.  
  
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For example, he reports that the annual flooding of the [[Nile]] was said to be the result of melting snows far to the south, and comments that he cannot understand how there can be snow in Africa, the hottest part of the known world. Of course, we know that this is, in fact, not the actual cause; but if it were not for Herodotus' method of comparing all theories known to him, we might never have discovered that such hydrological speculation existed in ancient Greece. (He also passes on reports from [[Phoenicia]]n sailors that, while circumnavigating [[Africa]], they 'saw the sun on the right side while sailing westwards'. Thanks to this brief mention, which is almost an afterthought, modern scholars have been able to establish that Africa was indeed circumnavigated by ancient seafarers—for this is precisely where the sun ought to have been.)
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Written between 430 B.C.E. and 425 B.C.E.., ''The Histories'' were divided by later editors into nine books, named after the nine [[Muses]] (the 'Muse of History', Clio, represented the first book).  
  
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Written between [[430 B.C.E.]] and [[425 B.C.E.]], ''The Histories'' were divided by later editors into nine books, named after the nine [[Muses]] (the 'Muse of History', [[Clio]], represented the first book).  
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As the work progresses, it becomes apparent that Herodotus is fulfilling his opening desire to 'prevent the great and wonderful actions of the Greeks and the Barbarians from losing their due meed of glory; and to put on record what causes first brought them into conflict.' It is only from this perspective that his opening discussion of ancient wife-stealing can be understood; he is attempting to discover who first made the 'west' and the 'east' mutual antagonists, and myth is the only source for information on the subject.  
  
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As the work progresses, it becomes apparent that Herodotus is fulfilling his opening desire—to 'prevent the great and wonderful actions of the Greeks and the Barbarians from losing their due meed of glory; and to put on record what causes first brought them into conflict.' Indeed, it is only from this perspective that his opening discussion of ancient wife-stealing is comprehensible: he is attempting to discover who first made the 'west' and the 'east' mutual antagonists, and myth is the only source he can delve into for information on the subject.  
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The first six books deal broadly with the growth of the [[Persian Empire]]. The tale begins with an account of the first 'western' monarch to enter into conflict with an 'eastern' people: Croesus of Lydia attacked the Greek city-states of Ionia, and then (misinterpreting a cryptic oracle), also attacked the Persians. (As occured many times throughout ''The Histories'' to those who disregarded good advice, Croesus soon lost his kingdom, and nearly his life). Croesus was defeated by [[Cyrus]] the Great, founder of the Persian Empire, and Lydia became a Persian province.  
  
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The first six books deal broadly with the growth of the [[Persian Empire]]. The tale begins with an account of the first 'western' monarch to enter into conflict with a 'eastern' people—[[Croesus]] of [[Lydia]] attacked the Greek [[city-state]]s of Ionia, and then (misinterpreting a cryptic oracle), also attacked the Persians. (As occurs many times throughout ''The Histories'' to those who disregard good advice, Croesus soon lost his kingdom, and nearly his life). Croesus was defeated by [[Cyrus]] the Great, founder of the Persian Empire, and Lydia became a Persian province.  
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The second book forms a lengthy digression concerning the history of Egypt, which Cyrus' successor, Cambyses, annexed to the Empire. The following four books deal with the further growth of the Empire under Darius, the Ionian Revolt, and the burning of Sardis (an act participated in by Athens and at least one other Greek polis). The sixth book describes the very first Persian incursion into Greece, an attack upon those who aided the Ionians and a quest for retribution following the attack upon Sardis, which ended with the defeat of the Persians in 490 b.c.e. at the Battle of Marathon, Greece, near Athens.  
  
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The second book forms a lengthy digression concerning the history of Egypt, which Cyrus' successor, Cambyses, annexed to the Empire. The following four books deal with the further growth of the Empire under Darius, the Ionian Revolt, and the burning of Sardis (an act participated in by Athens and at least one other Greek polis). The sixth book describes the very first Persian incursion into Greece, an attack upon those who aided the Ionians and a quest for retribution following the attack upon Sardis, which ended with the defeat of the Persians in [[490 B.C.E.]] at the [[Battle of Marathon|battle]] of [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]], near Athens.  
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The last three books describe the attempt of the Persian king [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] to avenge the Persian defeat at Marathon and to finally absorb Greece into the Empire. ''The Histories'' ends in the year 479 B.C.E., with the Persian invaders having suffered both a crushing naval defeat at Salamis, and near utter-annihilation of their ground forces at Plataea. The Persian Empire thus receded to the Aegean coastline of [[Asia Minor]], still threatening but much chastened.
  
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The last three books describe the attempt of the Persian king [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] to avenge the Persian defeat at Marathon and to finally absorb Greece into the Empire. ''The Histories'' end in the year [[479 B.C.E.]], with the Persian invaders having suffered both a crushing naval defeat at [[Battle of Salamis|Salamis]], and near utter-annihilation of their ground forces at [[Battle of Plataea|Plataea]]. The Persian Empire thus receded to the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] coastline of [[Asia Minor]], still threatening but much chastened.
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It is possible to see the dialectic theme of Persian power and its various excesses running like a 'red thread' throughout the narrative—[[cause and effect]], hubris and fate, vengeance and violence. Even the strange and fantastic tales that are liberally sprinkled throughout the text reflect this theme. At every stage, a Persian monarch crosses a body of water or other liminal space and suffers the consequences: Cyrus attacks the Massagetae on the eastern bank of a river, and ends up decapitated; Cambyses attacks the Ethiopians to the south of Egypt, across the desert, and goes mad; Darius attacks the Scythians to the north and is flung back across the Danube; Xerxes lashes and then bridges the Hellespont, and his forces are crushed by the Greeks. Though Herodotus strays off of this main course, he always returns to the question of how and why the Greeks and Persians entered into the greatest conflict then known, and what the consequences were.
  
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It is possible to see the dialectic theme of Persian power and its various excesses running like a 'red thread' throughout the narrative—[[cause and effect]], [[hubris]] and [[destiny|fate]], [[vengeance]] and [[violence]]. Even the strange and fantastic tales that are liberally sprinkled throughout the text find their source in this momentum. At every stage, a Persian monarch crosses a body of water or other liminal space and suffers the consequences: Cyrus attacks the Massagetae on the eastern bank of a river, and ends up decapitated; Cambyses attacks the Ethiopians to the south of Egypt, across the desert, and goes mad; Darius attacks the Scythians to the north and is flung back across the Danube; Xerxes lashes and then bridges the Hellespont, and his forces are crushed by the Greeks. Thus, though he strays (and sometimes strays rather far) off of this main course, he always returns to the task at hand—answering the question, how and why did the Greeks and Persians enter into the greatest conflict then known, and what were the consequences?
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== Opinions ==
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Herodotus' invention has earned him the twin titles ''The Father of History'' and ''The Father of Lies.''  Dating at least from the time of [[Cicero]]'s 'On the Laws' (Book 1, Chapter 5), there has been a debate concerning the veracity of his tales, and, more importantly, concerning the extent to which he knew himself to be creating fabrications.
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Herodotus is perceived in many lights, from devious and conscious of his fictons to gullible and misled by his sources.  
  
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==Opinions==
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=== Scrutiny of His Works ===
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Herodotus' invention has earned him the twin titles ''[[List of people known as the father or mother of something#H|The Father of History]]'' and ''[[The Father of Lies]]''. As these epithets would seem to imply, there has long been a debate—at least from the time of [[Cicero]]'s 'On the Laws' (Book 1, Chapter 5)—concerning the veracity of his tales, and, more importantly, concerning the extent to which he knew himself to be creating fabrications. Indeed, every manner of argument has surfaced on this subject, from a devious and consciously-fictionalizing Herodotus to a gullible Herodotus whose sources 'saw him coming a long way off'.
 
  
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===Scrutiny of his works===
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There are many cases in which Herodotus, either uncertain of the truth of an event or unimpressed by the lackluster 'facts' presented to him, reports several prominent accounts of a given subject or process and then explains which one he believes is the most probable. ''The Histories'' were often criticized in antiquity for [[bias]], inaccuracy and even [[plagiarism]]; [[Lucian|Lucian of Samosata]] attacked Herodotus as a liar in ''Verae historiae'' and denied him a place among the famous on the Island of the Blessed. Many modern historians and philosophers see this methodology in a more positive light, especially those searching for an example of relatively objective historical writing. Some, however, argue that Herodotus exaggerated the extent of his travels and completely fabricated sources.  .
  
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There are many cases in which Herodotus, either uncertain of the truth of an event or unimpressed by the lackluster 'facts' presented to him, reports the several most prominent accounts of a given subject or process and then opines as to which he believes is the most probable. Though [[Histories (Herodotus)|''The Histories'']] were often criticized in antiquity for [[bias]], [[Accuracy and precision|inaccuracy]] and even [[plagiarism]], (for example, [[Lucian|Lucian of Samosata]] attacked Herodotus as a liar in ''[[True History|Verae historiae]]'' and went so far as to deny him a place among the famous on the Island of the Blessed) this methodology has been seen in a more positive light by many modern historians and philosophers, especially those searching for an example of relatively objective historical writing. Of course, given the sensitivity of the issue, the very founding of the discipline of history, this has not become a consensus view; attacks have been made by several scholars in modern times, a few even arguing that Herodotus exaggerated the extent of his travels and completely fabricated sources—that he made up more than one on a given topic is worse, they seem to say, not better.
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Discoveries made since the end of the nineteenth century have helped to rehabilitate Herodotus' reputation.  The archaeological study of the now submerged ancient Egyptian city of Heraklion and the recovery of the so-called 'Naucratis stela' lend substantial credence to Herodotus' previously unsupported claim that Heraklion was founded under the Egyptian [[New Kingdom]]. Because of this recent increase in respect for his accuracy, as well as the quality and content of his observations, Herodotus is now recognized as a pioneer not only in history, but in [[ethnography]] and [[anthropology]]. l.
  
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Discoveries made since the end of the 19th century have helped to rehabilitate Herodotus' reputation a great deal. The archaeological study of the now submerged ancient Egyptian city of Heraklion and the recovery of the so-called '[[Naucratis]] stela' lends substantial credence to Herodotus' previously unsupported claim that Heraklion was founded under the Egyptian [[New Kingdom]]. [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/heracleum.htm]. Because of this recent increase in respect for his accuracy, as well as the quality and content of his observations, Herodotus is now recognized as a pioneer not only in history, but in [[ethnography]] and [[anthropology]] as well.
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Admirers of Herodotus, insulated from the historical criticisms, are content in the belief that he did the best he could with the material available. They often point out that his achievement is remarkable, considering the extensive difficulties facing anyone attempting to perform historical research in the ancient world.  Herodotus’ vivid style, enhanced by his familiarity with Greek poetry and prose,  charms his readers.
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Readers of Herodotus, however, insulated from the historiographical considerations of academia, are content in the belief that he did the best he could with the material he had. They often point out that his achievement is astonishing, given the massive problems facing anyone attempting to perform historical research in the ancient world and are also quite charmed by the outcome.
 
  
 
==Further reading==
 
==Further reading==
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{{wikiquote}}
 
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{{wikisource author}}
 
 
* Several English translations of ''The Histories of Herodotus'' are readily available in multiple editions. The most readily available are those translated by:
 
* Several English translations of ''The Histories of Herodotus'' are readily available in multiple editions. The most readily available are those translated by:
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**[[A. D. Godley]], 1920; revised 1926. Reprinted 1931, 1946, 1960, 1966, 1975, 1981, 1990, 1996, 1999, 2004. Available in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library#Herodotus four volumes] from [[Loeb Classical Library]], [[Harvard University Press]]. ISBN 0-674-99130-3 Printed with Greek on the left and English on the right.  
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**Godley, A. D., 1920; revised 1926. Reprinted 1931, 1946, 1960, 1966, 1975, 1981, 1990, 1996, 1999, 2004. Available in four volumes from Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-99130-3 Printed with Greek on the left and English on the right.  
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**[[Aubrey de Sélincourt]], originally 1954; revised by [[John Marincola]] in 1972. Several editions from [[Penguin Books]] available.
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**de Sélincourt, Aubrey, originally 1954; revised by John Marincola in 1972. Several editions from Penguin Books available.
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**[[David Grene]], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.
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**Grene, David, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.
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**[[George Rawlinson]], translation 1858–1860. Public domain; many editions available, although [[Everyman Library]] and [[Wordsworth Classics]] editions are the most common ones still in print.
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**George Rawlinson, translation 1858–1860. Public domain; many editions available, although Everyman Library and Wordsworth Classics editions are the most common ones still in print.
 
**Robin Waterfield, Oxford World's Classics, 1998.
 
**Robin Waterfield, Oxford World's Classics, 1998.
  
 
* Bakker, Egbert e.a. (eds.), ''Brill's Companion to Herodotus.'' Leiden: Brill, 2002
 
* Bakker, Egbert e.a. (eds.), ''Brill's Companion to Herodotus.'' Leiden: Brill, 2002
 
* Evans, J. A. S., ''Herodotus.'' Boston: G. K. Hall, 1982.
 
* Evans, J. A. S., ''Herodotus.'' Boston: G. K. Hall, 1982.
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* —. ''Herodotus, Explorer of the Past: Three Essays.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991.
 
 
* Fehling, Detlev. ''Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art''. Translated by J.G. Howie. Arca Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers, and Monographs, 21. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989.
 
* Fehling, Detlev. ''Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art''. Translated by J.G. Howie. Arca Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers, and Monographs, 21. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989.
 
* Flory, Stewart, ''The Archaic Smile of Herodotus''. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1987.
 
* Flory, Stewart, ''The Archaic Smile of Herodotus''. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1987.
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*[[Thucydides]], ancient Greek historian who is often said to be "the father of history"
 
*[[Thucydides]], ancient Greek historian who is often said to be "the father of history"
 
*[[Life of Homer (Pseudo-Herodotus)]], a short biography of [[Homer]] that claims falsely to be the work of Herodotus
 
*[[Life of Homer (Pseudo-Herodotus)]], a short biography of [[Homer]] that claims falsely to be the work of Herodotus
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==External links==
 
==External links==

Revision as of 03:08, 2 December 2006

Bust of Herodotus

Herodotus of Halicarnassus (in Greek, Ἡρόδοτος Ἁλικαρνᾱσσεύς, Herodotos Halikarnasseus) was a Dorian Greek historian who lived in the fifth century B.C.E. (484 B.C.E. – 425 B.C.E.) Dubbed "the father of history" by the Roman orator Cicero, he was the author of the first narrative history produced in the ancient world. The Histories, was a collection of 'inquiries' (or 'ἱστορια', a word which passed into Latin and took on its modern connotation of 'history'), in nine volumes, about the places and peoples he encountered during his wide-ranging travels around the Mediterranean. The theme for this work was the conflict between the ancient Greeks and the Persians or 'Medes,' the Persian invasions of Greece in 490 and 480 B.C.E., the heroic Greek defense against the invaders, and the final Greek victory. Herodotus knowingly included myths and legends in his history because they added interest to his account.

Life

The little that is known of the life of Herodotus has been mostly gleaned from his own works. Herodotus was born a Persian subject c. 484 B.C.E. at Halicarnassus in Asia Minor (now Bodrum, Turkey), and remained a Persian subject until the age of thirty or thirty-five. At the time of Herodotus’ birth, Halicarnassus was ruled by a Queen Artemisia, who was succeeded by her son Pisindelis (born c. 498 B.C.E.). His son Lygdamis took the throne around the time that Herodotus reached adulthood. His father Lyxes and mother Rhaeo (or Dryo) belonged to the upper class. Herodotus had a brother Theodore and an uncle or cousin named Panyasis, who was an epic poet and important enough to be considered a threat and put to death by Lygdamis. Herodotus was either exiled or left Hallicarnassus voluntarily at the time of Panyasis’ execution. Herodotous received a Greek education, and being unable to enter politics because of the oppression of a tyrannical government, turned to literature His extant works demonstrate that he was intimately acquainted with the Iliad and the Odyssey and the poems of the epic cycle, including the Cypria, the Epigoni. He quotes or otherwise shows familiarity with the writings of Hesiod, Olen, Musaeus, Bacis, Lysistratus, Archilochus of Paros, Alcaeus, Sappho, Solon, Aesop, Aristeas of Proconnesus, Simonides of Ceos, Phrynichus, Aeschylus and Pindar. He quotes and criticizes Hecataeus, the best of the prose writers who had preceded him, and makes numerous allusions to other authors of the same class. Herodotus traveled across Asia Minor and European Greece more than once, and visited all the most important islands of the Archipelago, Rhodes, Cyprus, Delos, Paros, Thasos, Samothrace, Crete, Samos, Cythera and Aegina. He undertook the long and perilous journey from Sardis to the Persian capital Susa, visited Babylon, Colchis, and the western shores of the Black Sea as far as the estuary of the Dnieper; he travelled in Scythia and in Thrace, visited Zante and Magna Graecia, explored the antiquities of Tyre, coasted along the shores of Palestine, saw Ga~a, and made a long stay in Egypt. His travels are estimated to have crossed thirty-one degrees of longitude, or 1700 miles, and twenty-four of latitude, or nearly the same distance. He remained for some time at all the more interesting sites and examined, inquired, made measurements, and gathered materials for his great work. He carefully obtained by personal observation a full knowledge of the various countries. Herodotus seem to have made most of his journeys between the ages of twenty and thirty-seven (464 - 447 B.C.E.). It was probably during his early manhood he visited Susa and Babylon as a Persian subject, taking advantage of the Persian system of posts which he describes in his fifth book. His residence in Egypt must have occurred after 460 B.C.E., because he reports seeing the skulls of the Persians slain by Inarus in that year. Skulls are rarely visible on a battlefield for more than two or three years after a battle, making it probable that Herodotus visited Egypt during the reign of Inarus (460-454 B.C.E.), when the Athenians had authority in Egypt, and that he made himself known as a learned Greek. On his return from Egypt, as he proceeded along the Syrian shore, he seems to have landed at Tyre, and to have gone on to Thasos from there. His Scythian travels are thought to have taken place prior to 450 b.c.e.. Historians question what city Herodotus used as his headquarters while he was making all his travels. Up to the time of the execution of Panyasis, which is placed by chronologists in or about the year 457 B.C.E., Herodotus probably resided at Halicarnassus. His travels in Asia Minor, in European Greece, and among the islands of the Aegean, probably belonged to this period, as also his journey to Susa and Babylon. When Herodotus quitted Halicarnassus on account of the tyranny of Lygdamis, about the year 457 B.C.E., he went to Samos. That island was an important member of the Athenian confederacy, and in making it his home Herodotus would have put himself under the protection of Athens. Egypt was then largely under the influence of Athens, making it possible for him to travel there in 457 or 456 b.c.e.. The stories that he heard in Egypt of Sesostris may have inspired him to make voyages from Samos to Colchis, Scythia and Thrace. Herodotus had resided in Samos for seven or eight years, until Lygdamis was expelled from the throne and he was able to return to Hallicarnassus. According to Suidas, Herodotus was himself a rebel against Lygdamis; but no other author confirms this. Halicarnassus became a voluntary member of the Athenian confederacy, and Herodotus could now return and enjoy the rights of free citizenship in his native city. Around 447 B.C.E. he suddenly went to Athens, and there is evidence that he went there because his work was not well received in Hallicarnassus. In Athens his work won such approval that in the year 445 B.C.E., a certain Anytus, he was voted a sum of ten talents (£2400) by decree of the people. At one of the recitations, it was said, the future historian Thucydides was present with his father, Olorus, and was so moved that he burst into tears, whereupon Herodotus remarked to the father-"Olorus, your son has a natural enthusiasm for letters." Herodotus appeared anxious, having lost his political status at Halicarnassus, to obtain such status elsewhere. At Athens during this period, the franchise could only be attained with great expense and difficulty. Accordingly, in the spring of the following year Herodotus sailed from Athens with the colonists who went out to found the colony of Thurii, and became a citizen of the new town. After Herodotus reached the age of forty, there was little further information about him. According to his works, he seems to have made only a few journeys, one to Crotona, one to Metapontum, and one to Athens (about 430 B.C.E.). He may also have composed at Thurii a special work on the history of Assyria, to which he refers twice in his first book, and which is quoted by Aristotle. It has been supposed by many that Herodotus lived to a great age, but the indications derived from the later touches added to his work, the sole evidence on the subject, lead to the conclusion that his life ended early. None of the changes and additions made to the nine books point to a later date than 424 b.c.e.. Since the author promised to make certain changes which were left unfinished, it is assumed that he died at about the age of sixty. Ancient sources recount that he died at Thurii, where his tomb was shown in later ages.

Contribution to Hisotry

Herodotus has passed on to us a large amount of the information current in his own day concerning the part of the world in which he lived.

He reports that the annual flooding of the Nile is said to be the result of melting snows far to the south, and comments that he cannot understand how there can be snow in Africa, the hottest part of the known world. Herodotus' method of comparing all known theories on a subject shows us that such hydrological speculation existed in ancient Greece. He also passes on reports from Phoenician sailors that, while circumnavigating Africa, they 'saw the sun on the right side while sailing westwards'. Thanks to this brief mention, almost an afterthought, modern scholars have been able to establish that Africa was indeed circumnavigated by ancient seafarers—for this is precisely where the sun ought to have been.

At some point, Herodotus became a logios, a reciter of logoi or stories, written in prose. His historical work was originally presented orally, and was created to have an almost theatrical element to it. His subject matter often encompassed battles, other political incidents of note, and, especially, the marvels of foreign lands. He made tours of the Greek cities and the major religious and athletic festivals, where he offered performances in return for payment.

In 431 B.C.E., the Peloponnesian War broke out between Athens and Sparta. It may have been the Peloponnesian War that inspired Herodotus to collect his stories into a continuous narrative. Centering on the theme of Persia's imperial progress, which only a united Athens and Sparta had managed to resist, they may be seen as a criticism of the war-mongering that threatened to engulf the entire Greek world.

Written between 430 B.C.E. and 425 B.C.E., The Histories were divided by later editors into nine books, named after the nine Muses (the 'Muse of History', Clio, represented the first book).

As the work progresses, it becomes apparent that Herodotus is fulfilling his opening desire to 'prevent the great and wonderful actions of the Greeks and the Barbarians from losing their due meed of glory; and to put on record what causes first brought them into conflict.' It is only from this perspective that his opening discussion of ancient wife-stealing can be understood; he is attempting to discover who first made the 'west' and the 'east' mutual antagonists, and myth is the only source for information on the subject.

The first six books deal broadly with the growth of the Persian Empire. The tale begins with an account of the first 'western' monarch to enter into conflict with an 'eastern' people: Croesus of Lydia attacked the Greek city-states of Ionia, and then (misinterpreting a cryptic oracle), also attacked the Persians. (As occured many times throughout The Histories to those who disregarded good advice, Croesus soon lost his kingdom, and nearly his life). Croesus was defeated by Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Empire, and Lydia became a Persian province.

The second book forms a lengthy digression concerning the history of Egypt, which Cyrus' successor, Cambyses, annexed to the Empire. The following four books deal with the further growth of the Empire under Darius, the Ionian Revolt, and the burning of Sardis (an act participated in by Athens and at least one other Greek polis). The sixth book describes the very first Persian incursion into Greece, an attack upon those who aided the Ionians and a quest for retribution following the attack upon Sardis, which ended with the defeat of the Persians in 490 B.C.E. at the Battle of Marathon, Greece, near Athens.

The last three books describe the attempt of the Persian king Xerxes to avenge the Persian defeat at Marathon and to finally absorb Greece into the Empire. The Histories ends in the year 479 B.C.E., with the Persian invaders having suffered both a crushing naval defeat at Salamis, and near utter-annihilation of their ground forces at Plataea. The Persian Empire thus receded to the Aegean coastline of Asia Minor, still threatening but much chastened.

It is possible to see the dialectic theme of Persian power and its various excesses running like a 'red thread' throughout the narrative—cause and effect, hubris and fate, vengeance and violence. Even the strange and fantastic tales that are liberally sprinkled throughout the text reflect this theme. At every stage, a Persian monarch crosses a body of water or other liminal space and suffers the consequences: Cyrus attacks the Massagetae on the eastern bank of a river, and ends up decapitated; Cambyses attacks the Ethiopians to the south of Egypt, across the desert, and goes mad; Darius attacks the Scythians to the north and is flung back across the Danube; Xerxes lashes and then bridges the Hellespont, and his forces are crushed by the Greeks. Though Herodotus strays off of this main course, he always returns to the question of how and why the Greeks and Persians entered into the greatest conflict then known, and what the consequences were.

Opinions

Herodotus' invention has earned him the twin titles The Father of History and The Father of Lies. Dating at least from the time of Cicero's 'On the Laws' (Book 1, Chapter 5), there has been a debate concerning the veracity of his tales, and, more importantly, concerning the extent to which he knew himself to be creating fabrications. Herodotus is perceived in many lights, from devious and conscious of his fictons to gullible and misled by his sources.

Scrutiny of His Works

There are many cases in which Herodotus, either uncertain of the truth of an event or unimpressed by the lackluster 'facts' presented to him, reports several prominent accounts of a given subject or process and then explains which one he believes is the most probable. The Histories were often criticized in antiquity for bias, inaccuracy and even plagiarism; Lucian of Samosata attacked Herodotus as a liar in Verae historiae and denied him a place among the famous on the Island of the Blessed. Many modern historians and philosophers see this methodology in a more positive light, especially those searching for an example of relatively objective historical writing. Some, however, argue that Herodotus exaggerated the extent of his travels and completely fabricated sources. .

Discoveries made since the end of the nineteenth century have helped to rehabilitate Herodotus' reputation. The archaeological study of the now submerged ancient Egyptian city of Heraklion and the recovery of the so-called 'Naucratis stela' lend substantial credence to Herodotus' previously unsupported claim that Heraklion was founded under the Egyptian New Kingdom. Because of this recent increase in respect for his accuracy, as well as the quality and content of his observations, Herodotus is now recognized as a pioneer not only in history, but in ethnography and anthropology. l.

Admirers of Herodotus, insulated from the historical criticisms, are content in the belief that he did the best he could with the material available. They often point out that his achievement is remarkable, considering the extensive difficulties facing anyone attempting to perform historical research in the ancient world. Herodotus’ vivid style, enhanced by his familiarity with Greek poetry and prose, charms his readers.

Further reading

  • Several English translations of The Histories of Herodotus are readily available in multiple editions. The most readily available are those translated by:
    • Godley, A. D., 1920; revised 1926. Reprinted 1931, 1946, 1960, 1966, 1975, 1981, 1990, 1996, 1999, 2004. Available in four volumes from Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-99130-3 Printed with Greek on the left and English on the right.
    • de Sélincourt, Aubrey, originally 1954; revised by John Marincola in 1972. Several editions from Penguin Books available.
    • Grene, David, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.
    • George Rawlinson, translation 1858–1860. Public domain; many editions available, although Everyman Library and Wordsworth Classics editions are the most common ones still in print.
    • Robin Waterfield, Oxford World's Classics, 1998.
  • Bakker, Egbert e.a. (eds.), Brill's Companion to Herodotus. Leiden: Brill, 2002
  • Evans, J. A. S., Herodotus. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1982.
  • Fehling, Detlev. Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Translated by J.G. Howie. Arca Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers, and Monographs, 21. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989.
  • Flory, Stewart, The Archaic Smile of Herodotus. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1987.
  • Fornara, Charles W. Herodotus: An Interpretative Essay. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971.
  • Hartog, F., The Mirror of Herodotus. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988.
  • Lateiner, D., The Historical Method of Herodotus. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989.
  • Momigliano, A., The Classical Foundations of Modern Historiography. University of California Press, 1992.
  • Pritchett, W. K., The Liar School of Herodotus. Amsterdam: Gieben, 1991.
  • Thomas, R., 'Herodotus in Context; ethnography, science and the art of persusion'. Oxford University Press 2000.

See also

  • Pharaoh (historical novel by Bolesław Prus, incorporating scenes involving the ancient Egyptian Labyrinth described in Book II of The Histories of Herodotus)
  • Thucydides, ancient Greek historian who is often said to be "the father of history"
  • Life of Homer (Pseudo-Herodotus), a short biography of Homer that claims falsely to be the work of Herodotus


External links

Online translations

An earlier version of this article by James Allan Evans was posted at Nupedia.

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