Encyclopedia, Difference between revisions of "Herman Melville" - New World
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[[Image:HermanMelville55.jpg|thumb|190px|right|Herman Melville]] | [[Image:HermanMelville55.jpg|thumb|190px|right|Herman Melville]] | ||
| − | '''Herman Melville''' ( | + | '''Herman Melville''' (August 1 1819 – September 28 1891) was an [[United States|American]] novelist, essayist, and poet. Side-by-side with [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], Melville is one of the most important and widely read American novelists of the 19th century. During his lifetime his early novels were popular, but as Melville grew older he began to write in an increasingly psychological style, culminating in his dense, symbolic masterpiece ''[[Moby-Dick]]'' and the unfinished novella ''Billy Budd''. Melville pushed the limits of his readers in the 19th century, and as a result he fell out of popularity and was not rediscovered until the early 1920's. Today, critics have the reason why: most scholars agree that Melville was the first truly modern novelist writing in English or, debatably, in any language. His late style broke compeltely with the expectation of readers in his own time and it would take decades after his death for the world to catch up with him. |
| + | |||
| + | Unlike his contemporary and fellow author [[Nathaniel Hawthorne|Hawthorne]], Melville was relatively uneducated. He learned about the sea from the sea. When he wrote his great novel about life aboard a whaling vessel, he does not speak from hearsay but from raw experience; he worked as a whaler; he sailed the seas; in the words of [[Walt Whitman|Whitman]]: he was the man, he suffered, he was there. Yet, Melville was no ordinary sea-dog. In the intensity of the struggle and the beauty of his language, one discerns the two major influences on Melville's style: the soliloquys of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] and the [[Bible]] of [[King James I|King James]]. In his novels, one finds and a subtle and searching philosophical mind, probing, through the allegory of the sea, some of the greatest and most enduring questions of time: How do we live? What we do know? Who shall we be? | ||
==Life== | ==Life== | ||
| − | Herman Melville was born in [[New York City]] on | + | Herman Melville was born in [[New York City]] on August 1, 1819 as the third child to Allan and Maria Gansevoort Melvill (Maria would later add an 'e' to the surname), and received his early education in that city. One of his grandfathers, Major Thomas Melvill, participated in the [[Boston Tea Party]]. Another was General [[Peter Gansevoort]] who was acquainted with [[James Fenimore Cooper]] and defended Fort Stanwix in 1777. His father had described the young Melville as being somewhat slow as a child and Melville was also weakened by the [[scarlet fever]], permanently affecting his eyesight. The family importing business went bankrupt in 1830, and the family went to Albany, New York, with Herman entering Albany Academy. Prior to that year, he attended Columbia Grammar and Preparatory School in [[New York City|Manhattan]]. After the death of his father in 1832, the family (with eight children) moved again to the village of Lansingburgh on the Hudson River. Herman and his brother Gansevoort were forced to work to help support the family. There Herman remained until 1835, when he attended the Albany Classical School for some months. |
| − | Melville's roving disposition, and a desire to support himself independently of family assistance, led him to seek work as a surveyor on the [[Erie Canal]]. This effort failed, and his brother helped him get a job as a | + | Melville's roving disposition, and a desire to support himself independently of family assistance, led him to seek work as a surveyor on the [[Erie Canal]]. This effort failed, and his brother helped him get a job as a cabin boy in a New York vessel bound for Liverpool. He made the voyage, visited London, and returned in the same ship. ''Redburn: His First Voyage'', published in 1849, is partly founded on the experiences of this trip. A good part of the succeeding three years, from 1837 to 1840, was occupied with school-teaching. At any rate, he once more signed a ship's articles, and on January 1, 1841, sailed from New Bedford, Massachusetts harbour in the whaler ''Acushnet'', bound for the Pacific Ocean and the sperm fishery. The vessel sailed around Cape Horn and traveled to the South Pacific. He has left very little direct information as to the events of this eighteen months' cruise, although his whaling romance, ''Moby-Dick; or, the Whale,'' probably gives many pictures of life on board the Acushnet. Melville decided to abandon the vessel on reaching the Marquesas Islands. He lived among the natives of the island for several weeks and the narrative of ''Typee'' and its sequel, ''Omoo'', tell this tale. After a sojourn at the Society Islands, Melville shipped for Honolulu. There he remained for four months, employed as a clerk. He joined the crew of the American frigate United States, which reached Boston, stopping on the way at one of the Peruvian ports, in October of 1844. Upon his return, he recorded his experiences in the books, ''Typee'', ''Omoo'', ''Mardi'', ''Redburn'', and ''White-Jacket'', published in the following six years. All of these early "adventure story" novels of Melville's were relatively well-received, and for a time Melville was a minor literary celebrity in 19th century America. |
| − | Melville married Elizabeth Shaw (daughter of noted jurist, | + | Melville married Elizabeth Shaw (daughter of noted jurist, Lemuel Shaw) on August 4, |
| − | 1847. The Melvilles resided in New York City until 1850, when they purchased | + | 1847. The Melvilles resided in New York City until 1850, when they purchased Arrowhead, a farm house in Pittsfield, Massachusetts which is today a museum. Here Melville remained for thirteen years, occupied with his writing, and managing his farm. While there he befriended [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], who lived nearby. While there he wrote ''Moby Dick'' and ''Pierre'', works that did not achieve the same popular and critical success of his earlier books, but which later be rediscovered as his most profound. |
| − | Here Melville remained for thirteen years, occupied with his writing, and managing his farm. | ||
| − | While at Pittsfield, because of financial reasons, Melville was induced to enter the lecture field. From 1857 to 1860 he spoke at lyceums, chiefly speaking of his adventures in the South Seas. He also became a customs inspector for the City of New York, | + | While at Pittsfield, because of financial reasons, Melville was induced to enter the lecture field. From 1857 to 1860 he spoke at lyceums, chiefly speaking of his adventures in the South Seas. He also became a customs inspector for the City of New York,. He loathed his work at the customs house and he desperately wanted more time to write, but financial needs pressed him and he continued on in the post for 19 years. Not having the time to compose sprawling novels like ''Moby-Dick'', during these long years in his late life Melville primarily wrote poetry, including his moderatley populary book of war poetry ''Battle Pieces'', and his epic religious poem ''Clarel''. During this time he also wrote his last (and some argue, greatest) prose work, the novella ''Billy Budd''. |
| + | |||
| + | After an illness that lasted a number of months, Herman Melville died at his home in New York City early on the morning of September 28, 1891. He was interred in the Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx. In his later life, his works no longer accessible to a broad audience, he was not able to make money from writing. He depended on his wife's family for money along with his other attempts at employment. | ||
==Literature== | ==Literature== | ||
| − | [[Moby Dick]] has become Melville's most famous work and is often considered one of the greatest American novels. It was dedicated to Melville's friend Nathaniel Hawthorne. Melville also wrote '' | + | [[Moby-Dick]] has become Melville's most famous work and is often considered one of the greatest American novels. It was dedicated to Melville's friend Nathaniel Hawthorne. Melville also wrote ''White-Jacket, Typee, Omoo, Pierre: or, The Ambiguities, The Confidence-Man'' and many short stories and works of various genres. His short story "Bartleby the Scrivener" is among his most important pieces, and has been considered a precursor to [[Existentialism|Existentialist]] and Absurdist literature. Melville is less well known as a poet and did not publish poetry until late in life; after the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], he published ''Battle-Pieces'', which sold well. But again tending to outrun the tastes of his readers, Melville's epic length verse-narrative ''Clarel'', about a student's pilgrimage to the [[Holy Land]], was also quite unknown in his own time. His poetry is not as highly critically esteemed as his fiction, although a handful of poets have esteemed his poetry, including [[Robert Lowell]]. |
| + | |||
| + | ===''Bartleby the Scrievener''=== | ||
| + | |||
| + | ====Themes and Analysis==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | '''"Bartleby the Scrivener"''' is easily Melville's most famous short-story, and one of the most influential American short stories of the 19th century. The story first appeared, anonymously, in ''Putnam's Magazine'' in two parts. The first part appeared in November 1853, with the conclusion published in December of the same year. It was reprinted in Melville's ''The Piazza Tales'' in 1856 with minor textual alterations. The work is said to have been inspired, in part, by Melville's reading of [[Ralph Waldo Emerson|Emerson]], and some have pointed to specific parallels to Emerson's essay, "The Transcendentalist." The story was adapted into a movie starring [[Crispin Glover]] in [[2001]]. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ====Plot Summary==== | ||
| + | |||
| + | The narrator of the story is an unnamed lawyer with offices on [[Wall Street]] in [[New York City]]. He describes himself as doing "a snug business among rich men's bonds and mortgages and title-deeds." He has three employees: "First, Turkey; second, Nippers; third, Ginger Nut," each of whom is described. Turkey and Nippers are copyists or scriveners while Ginger Nut does delivery work or other assorted jobs around the office, and the lawyer decides his business needs a third scrivener. Bartleby responds to his advertisement and arrives at the office, "pallidly neat, pitiably respectable, incurably forlorn!" | ||
| + | |||
| + | At first Bartleby appears to be a competent worker, but later he refuses to work when requested, repeatedly uttering the phrase "I would prefer not to." He is also found to be living in the lawyer's office. Bartleby refuses to explain his behavior, and also refuses to leave when dismissed. The lawyer moves offices to avoid any further confrontation, and Bartleby is taken away to The Tombs—that is, the city's penitentiary. At the end of the story, Bartleby slowly starves in prison, still preferring not to eat, and finally expiring just prior to a visit by the lawyer. The lawyer suspects Bartleby's conjectured previous career in the Dead Letter Office in [[Washington, DC]] drove him to his bizarre behavior. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Another explanation is that since Bartleby was paid per page of copied documents, that, at least in the beginning, he was unwilling to work at tasks such as checking the work for accuracy, and running errands to the post-office for his employer, since he would not be paid for these activities. This does not explain his gradual decision to stop working altogether, and his apparent total withdrawal from life, leading to his inevitable death, presumably by starvation. | ||
| − | == | + | ====Influence==== |
| + | "Bartleby the Scrivener" is among the most famous of American short stories. It has been considered a precursor to [[Existentialism|existentialist]] and absurdist literature even though at the time that this story was published it was not very popular. "Bartleby" touches on many of the themes extant in the work of [[Franz Kafka]], particularly in ''The Trial'' and "A Hunger Artist". However, there exists nothing to indicate that the Czech writer was at all familiar with Melville, who was largely forgotten until after Kafka's death. | ||
| + | [[Albert Camus]] cites Melville (explicitly over Kafka) as one of his key influences in a personal letter to Liselotte Dieckmann printed in the ''French Review'' in 1998. | ||
| + | ==Bibliography== | ||
=== Novels === | === Novels === | ||
| − | * '' | + | * ''Typee: [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Typee] A Peep at Polynesian Life'' (1846) |
| − | * '' | + | * ''Omoo: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas'' (1847) |
| − | * '' | + | * ''Mardi: And a Voyage Thither'' (1849) |
| − | * '' | + | * ''Redburn: His First Voyage'' (1849) |
| − | * '' | + | * ''White-Jacket: or, The World in a Man-of-War'' (1850) |
| − | * '' | + | * ''Moby-Dick'' (1851) |
| − | * '' | + | * ''Pierre: or, The Ambiguities'' (1852) |
| − | * '' | + | * ''Israel Potter: His Fifty Years of Exile'' (1855) |
| − | * '' | + | * ''The Confidence-Man: His Masquerade'' (1857) |
| − | * '' | + | * ''Billy Budd, Sailor: An Inside Narrative'' (1924) |
=== Short Stories === | === Short Stories === | ||
| − | * '' | + | * ''The Piazza Tales'' (1856) |
| − | ** " | + | ** "The Piazza" — the only story specifically written for the collection. (The other five had previously been published in Putnam's Monthly Magazine.) |
| − | ** " | + | ** "Bartleby the Scrivener" [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bartleby_the_Scrivener] |
| − | ** " | + | ** "Benito Cereno" |
| − | ** " | + | ** "The Lightning-Rod Man" |
| − | ** " | + | ** "The Encantadas, or Enchanted Isles" |
| − | ** " | + | ** "The Bell-Tower" |
| Line 79: | Line 99: | ||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
| − | |||
* [http://www.bibliomania.com/0/0/36/1006 ''Billy Budd'' — the whole text, free] | * [http://www.bibliomania.com/0/0/36/1006 ''Billy Budd'' — the whole text, free] | ||
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2701 Moby-Dick] Gutenberg EText | * [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2701 Moby-Dick] Gutenberg EText | ||
| − | * [http://www.glbtq.com/literature/melville_h.html Review by glbtq] | + | * [http://www.glbtq.com/literature/melville_h.html Review by glbtq] |
* [http://www.egwald.com/ubcstudent/theory/billybudd.php Poststructuralist analysis of Billy Budd] by Elmer G. Wiens | * [http://www.egwald.com/ubcstudent/theory/billybudd.php Poststructuralist analysis of Billy Budd] by Elmer G. Wiens | ||
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Revision as of 16:49, 23 April 2006
Herman Melville (August 1 1819 – September 28 1891) was an American novelist, essayist, and poet. Side-by-side with Nathaniel Hawthorne, Melville is one of the most important and widely read American novelists of the 19th century. During his lifetime his early novels were popular, but as Melville grew older he began to write in an increasingly psychological style, culminating in his dense, symbolic masterpiece Moby-Dick and the unfinished novella Billy Budd. Melville pushed the limits of his readers in the 19th century, and as a result he fell out of popularity and was not rediscovered until the early 1920's. Today, critics have the reason why: most scholars agree that Melville was the first truly modern novelist writing in English or, debatably, in any language. His late style broke compeltely with the expectation of readers in his own time and it would take decades after his death for the world to catch up with him.
Unlike his contemporary and fellow author Hawthorne, Melville was relatively uneducated. He learned about the sea from the sea. When he wrote his great novel about life aboard a whaling vessel, he does not speak from hearsay but from raw experience; he worked as a whaler; he sailed the seas; in the words of Whitman: he was the man, he suffered, he was there. Yet, Melville was no ordinary sea-dog. In the intensity of the struggle and the beauty of his language, one discerns the two major influences on Melville's style: the soliloquys of Shakespeare and the Bible of King James. In his novels, one finds and a subtle and searching philosophical mind, probing, through the allegory of the sea, some of the greatest and most enduring questions of time: How do we live? What we do know? Who shall we be?
Life
Herman Melville was born in New York City on August 1, 1819 as the third child to Allan and Maria Gansevoort Melvill (Maria would later add an 'e' to the surname), and received his early education in that city. One of his grandfathers, Major Thomas Melvill, participated in the Boston Tea Party. Another was General Peter Gansevoort who was acquainted with James Fenimore Cooper and defended Fort Stanwix in 1777. His father had described the young Melville as being somewhat slow as a child and Melville was also weakened by the scarlet fever, permanently affecting his eyesight. The family importing business went bankrupt in 1830, and the family went to Albany, New York, with Herman entering Albany Academy. Prior to that year, he attended Columbia Grammar and Preparatory School in Manhattan. After the death of his father in 1832, the family (with eight children) moved again to the village of Lansingburgh on the Hudson River. Herman and his brother Gansevoort were forced to work to help support the family. There Herman remained until 1835, when he attended the Albany Classical School for some months.
Melville's roving disposition, and a desire to support himself independently of family assistance, led him to seek work as a surveyor on the Erie Canal. This effort failed, and his brother helped him get a job as a cabin boy in a New York vessel bound for Liverpool. He made the voyage, visited London, and returned in the same ship. Redburn: His First Voyage, published in 1849, is partly founded on the experiences of this trip. A good part of the succeeding three years, from 1837 to 1840, was occupied with school-teaching. At any rate, he once more signed a ship's articles, and on January 1, 1841, sailed from New Bedford, Massachusetts harbour in the whaler Acushnet, bound for the Pacific Ocean and the sperm fishery. The vessel sailed around Cape Horn and traveled to the South Pacific. He has left very little direct information as to the events of this eighteen months' cruise, although his whaling romance, Moby-Dick; or, the Whale, probably gives many pictures of life on board the Acushnet. Melville decided to abandon the vessel on reaching the Marquesas Islands. He lived among the natives of the island for several weeks and the narrative of Typee and its sequel, Omoo, tell this tale. After a sojourn at the Society Islands, Melville shipped for Honolulu. There he remained for four months, employed as a clerk. He joined the crew of the American frigate United States, which reached Boston, stopping on the way at one of the Peruvian ports, in October of 1844. Upon his return, he recorded his experiences in the books, Typee, Omoo, Mardi, Redburn, and White-Jacket, published in the following six years. All of these early "adventure story" novels of Melville's were relatively well-received, and for a time Melville was a minor literary celebrity in 19th century America.
Melville married Elizabeth Shaw (daughter of noted jurist, Lemuel Shaw) on August 4, 1847. The Melvilles resided in New York City until 1850, when they purchased Arrowhead, a farm house in Pittsfield, Massachusetts which is today a museum. Here Melville remained for thirteen years, occupied with his writing, and managing his farm. While there he befriended Nathaniel Hawthorne, who lived nearby. While there he wrote Moby Dick and Pierre, works that did not achieve the same popular and critical success of his earlier books, but which later be rediscovered as his most profound.
While at Pittsfield, because of financial reasons, Melville was induced to enter the lecture field. From 1857 to 1860 he spoke at lyceums, chiefly speaking of his adventures in the South Seas. He also became a customs inspector for the City of New York,. He loathed his work at the customs house and he desperately wanted more time to write, but financial needs pressed him and he continued on in the post for 19 years. Not having the time to compose sprawling novels like Moby-Dick, during these long years in his late life Melville primarily wrote poetry, including his moderatley populary book of war poetry Battle Pieces, and his epic religious poem Clarel. During this time he also wrote his last (and some argue, greatest) prose work, the novella Billy Budd.
After an illness that lasted a number of months, Herman Melville died at his home in New York City early on the morning of September 28, 1891. He was interred in the Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx. In his later life, his works no longer accessible to a broad audience, he was not able to make money from writing. He depended on his wife's family for money along with his other attempts at employment.
Literature
Moby-Dick has become Melville's most famous work and is often considered one of the greatest American novels. It was dedicated to Melville's friend Nathaniel Hawthorne. Melville also wrote White-Jacket, Typee, Omoo, Pierre: or, The Ambiguities, The Confidence-Man and many short stories and works of various genres. His short story "Bartleby the Scrivener" is among his most important pieces, and has been considered a precursor to Existentialist and Absurdist literature. Melville is less well known as a poet and did not publish poetry until late in life; after the Civil War, he published Battle-Pieces, which sold well. But again tending to outrun the tastes of his readers, Melville's epic length verse-narrative Clarel, about a student's pilgrimage to the Holy Land, was also quite unknown in his own time. His poetry is not as highly critically esteemed as his fiction, although a handful of poets have esteemed his poetry, including Robert Lowell.
Bartleby the Scrievener
Themes and Analysis
"Bartleby the Scrivener" is easily Melville's most famous short-story, and one of the most influential American short stories of the 19th century. The story first appeared, anonymously, in Putnam's Magazine in two parts. The first part appeared in November 1853, with the conclusion published in December of the same year. It was reprinted in Melville's The Piazza Tales in 1856 with minor textual alterations. The work is said to have been inspired, in part, by Melville's reading of Emerson, and some have pointed to specific parallels to Emerson's essay, "The Transcendentalist." The story was adapted into a movie starring Crispin Glover in 2001.
Plot Summary
The narrator of the story is an unnamed lawyer with offices on Wall Street in New York City. He describes himself as doing "a snug business among rich men's bonds and mortgages and title-deeds." He has three employees: "First, Turkey; second, Nippers; third, Ginger Nut," each of whom is described. Turkey and Nippers are copyists or scriveners while Ginger Nut does delivery work or other assorted jobs around the office, and the lawyer decides his business needs a third scrivener. Bartleby responds to his advertisement and arrives at the office, "pallidly neat, pitiably respectable, incurably forlorn!"
At first Bartleby appears to be a competent worker, but later he refuses to work when requested, repeatedly uttering the phrase "I would prefer not to." He is also found to be living in the lawyer's office. Bartleby refuses to explain his behavior, and also refuses to leave when dismissed. The lawyer moves offices to avoid any further confrontation, and Bartleby is taken away to The Tombs—that is, the city's penitentiary. At the end of the story, Bartleby slowly starves in prison, still preferring not to eat, and finally expiring just prior to a visit by the lawyer. The lawyer suspects Bartleby's conjectured previous career in the Dead Letter Office in Washington, DC drove him to his bizarre behavior.
Another explanation is that since Bartleby was paid per page of copied documents, that, at least in the beginning, he was unwilling to work at tasks such as checking the work for accuracy, and running errands to the post-office for his employer, since he would not be paid for these activities. This does not explain his gradual decision to stop working altogether, and his apparent total withdrawal from life, leading to his inevitable death, presumably by starvation.
Influence
"Bartleby the Scrivener" is among the most famous of American short stories. It has been considered a precursor to existentialist and absurdist literature even though at the time that this story was published it was not very popular. "Bartleby" touches on many of the themes extant in the work of Franz Kafka, particularly in The Trial and "A Hunger Artist". However, there exists nothing to indicate that the Czech writer was at all familiar with Melville, who was largely forgotten until after Kafka's death.
Albert Camus cites Melville (explicitly over Kafka) as one of his key influences in a personal letter to Liselotte Dieckmann printed in the French Review in 1998.
Bibliography
Novels
- Typee: [1] A Peep at Polynesian Life (1846)
- Omoo: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas (1847)
- Mardi: And a Voyage Thither (1849)
- Redburn: His First Voyage (1849)
- White-Jacket: or, The World in a Man-of-War (1850)
- Moby-Dick (1851)
- Pierre: or, The Ambiguities (1852)
- Israel Potter: His Fifty Years of Exile (1855)
- The Confidence-Man: His Masquerade (1857)
- Billy Budd, Sailor: An Inside Narrative (1924)
Short Stories
- The Piazza Tales (1856)
- "The Piazza" — the only story specifically written for the collection. (The other five had previously been published in Putnam's Monthly Magazine.)
- "Bartleby the Scrivener" [2]
- "Benito Cereno"
- "The Lightning-Rod Man"
- "The Encantadas, or Enchanted Isles"
- "The Bell-Tower"
Poetry
- Battle Pieces: And Aspects of the War (1866)
- Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land (poems) (1876)
- John Marr and Other Sailors (1888)
- Timoleon (1891) Online edition
Uncollected
- Fragments from a Writing Desk, No. 1 (Published in Democratic Press, and Lansingburgh Advertiser, May 4 1839)
- Fragments from a Writing Desk, No. 2 (Published in Democratic Press, and Lansingburgh Advertiser, May 18 1839)
- Etchings of a Whaling Cruise (Published in New York Literary World, March 6 1847)
- Authentic Anecdotes of "Old Zack" (Published in Yankee Doodle, II, weekly (September 4 excepted) from July 24 to September 11 1847)
- Mr Parkman's Tour (Published in New York Literary World, March 31 1849)
- Cooper's New Novel (Published in New York Literary World, April 28 1849)
- A Thought on Book-Binding (Published in New York Literary World, March 16 1850)
- Hawthorne and His Mosses (Published in New York Literary World, August 17 and August 24 1850)
- Cock-A-Doodle-Doo! (Published in Harper's New Monthly Magazine, December 1853)
- Poor Man's Pudding and Rich Man's Crumbs (Published in Harper's New Monthly Magazine, June 1854)
- The Happy Failure (Published in Harper's New Monthly Magazine, July 1854)
- The Fiddler (Published in Harper's New Monthly Magazine, September 1854)
- The Paradise of Bachelors and the Tartarus of Maids (Published in Harper's New Monthly Magazine, April 1855)
- Jimmy Rose (Published in Harper's New Monthly Magazine, November 1855)
- The 'Gees (Published in Harper's New Monthly Magazine, March 1856)
- I and My Chimney (Published in Putnam's Monthly Magazine, March 1856)
- The Apple-Tree Table (Published in Putnam's Monthly Magazine, May 1856)
- Uncollected Prose (1856)
- The Two Temples (unpublished in Melville's lifetime)
External links
- Billy Budd — the whole text, free
- Moby-Dick Gutenberg EText
- Review by glbtq
- Poststructuralist analysis of Billy Budd by Elmer G. Wiens
Credits
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Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.
Credits
New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:
The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:
Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.
