Difference between revisions of "Donkey" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{Taxobox_begin | color = pink | name = Donkey}}<br><small>'''[[Wikipedia:Conservation status|Conservation status:]] Domesticated'''</small>[[Category:Domesticated animals]]
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{{Taxobox_begin | color = pink | name = Donkey}}<br><small>'''[[Wikipedia:Conservation status|Conservation status:]] Domesticated'''</small>
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{{Taxobox_image | image = [[Image:Donkey.jpg|220px|Donkey]]
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{{Taxobox_image | image = [[Image:Donkey 1 arp 750px.jpg|220px|Donkey]]
 
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The '''donkey''' or '''ass''', ''Equus asinus'',  is a member of the horse family, Equidae, of the order Perissodactyla, odd-toed [[ungulate]]s (hoofed [[mammal]]s). The word donkey refers to the [[domestication|domesticated]] ''E. asinus'', while its wild ancestor, also ''E. asinus'', is called the wild ass.  
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The '''donkey''' or '''ass,''' ''Equus asinus,'' is a member of the [[horse]] family, [[Equidae]], of the order Perissodactyla, odd-toed [[ungulate]]s (hoofed [[mammal]]s). The word donkey and ass refers to the domesticated taxonomic group. This taxon often is listed as a subspecies of its presumed wild ancestor, the African wild ass, which itself is variously designated as ''Equus africanus'' or ''Equus asinus''. Some taxonomic schemes list the donkey as its own species, ''Equus asinus'', and the African wild ass as ''Equus africanus''.  
  
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Donkeys were first domesticated around 4000 BC and have spread around the world in the company of [[human]]s. They continue to fill important roles in many places today and are increasing in numbers and popularity.
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Donkeys were first domesticated around 4000 <small>B.C.E.</small> or before and have spread around the world in the company of [[human]]s. They continue to fill important roles in many places today and are increasing in numbers (although the African wild ass is an [[endangered species]], as a result of anthropogenic factors). As "beasts of burden" and companions, donkeys have worked together with humans for centuries, reflecting the nature of all organisms to fulfill both a [[Biology#Interactions: Harmony and dual purposes|purpose for the whole]] and a [[Biology#Interactions: Harmony and dual purposes|purpose for the individual]] (the latter contributing to their reputation for stubbornness; see [[#Donkey traits|donkey traits]]).
  
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==The wild ass==
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A male donkey is called a ''jack,'', a female a ''jennet'' or ''jenny,'' and a baby a ''colt.'' In the western [[United States]], a donkey is often called a '''burro.''' A '''[[mule]]''' is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. The mating of a male horse and a female donkey produces a '''hinny.''' While different species of the horse family can interbreed, offspring, such as the mule and hinny, are almost invariably sterile.
  
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The wild ass
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==The African wild ass and related species==
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==Traits==
 
  
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Most wild donkeys are between 102 cm (10 hands) and 142 cm (14 hands) in length.
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African wild asses are native to North [[Africa]] and perhaps the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. They are well suited to life in a [[desert]] or semi-desert environment. They stand about 125 to 145 cm (4.2 to 5.5 ft) tall at the shoulder and weigh about 275 kg (605 lb). They have tough [[digestive system]]s, which can break down desert vegetation and extract moisture from food efficiently. They can also go without water for a fairly long time. Their large ears give them an excellent sense of hearing and help in cooling.
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Domestic donkeys stand under 91 cm ( 9 hands) to over 142 cm (over 14 hands) tall. The Andalucian-Cordobesan breed of southern Spain can reach up to 16 hands high. Donkeys are adapted to marginal desert lands, and have many traits that are unique to the species as a result. They need less food than horses. Overfed donkeys can suffer from a disease called Laminitis. Unlike horses, donkey fur is not waterproof, and so must have shelter especially when it rains. Wild donkeys live separated from each other, unlike tight wild horse herds. Donkeys have developed very loud voices, which can be heard for over three kilometres, to keep in contact with other donkeys of their herd over the wide spaces of the desert. Donkeys have larger ears than horses to hear the distant calls of fellow donkeys, and to help cool the donkey's blood. Donkeys' tough digestive system can break down inedible vegetation and extract moisture from food more efficiently. Donkeys can defend themselves with a powerful kick of their hind legs.
 
  
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Because of the sparse vegetation in their environment, wild asses live separated from each other (except for mothers and young), unlike the tightly grouped herds of wild [[horse]]s. They have very loud voices, which can be heard for over 3 km (2 miles), which helps them to keep in contact with other asses over the wide spaces of the desert.
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[[Image:Somali Wild Ass.JPG|thumb|right|Somali wild ass]]
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Wild asses can run swiftly, almost as fast as a horse. However, unlike most hoofed [[mammal]]s, their tendency is to not to flee right away from a potentially dangerous situation, but to investigate first before deciding what to do. When they need to they can defend themselves with kicks from both their front and hind legs.
  
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The African wild ass today is found only in small areas in northeast Africa and is an [[endangered species]], because of being hunted and because of [[war]] and political instability in its native range. At one time there were at least four subspecies of African wild ass. Today, only the Somali wild ass (''E. asinius somalicus'') survives. It is thought that the donkey is derived from the Nubian wild ass (''E. asinus africanus''), which became extinct in the twentieth century.
  
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==History==
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Closely related to the African wild ass are the other members of the horse family (all of which are endangered in the wild): the [[horse]] (''Equus caballus''), the onager (''E. hemionus''), the kiang (''E. kiang''), Grevy's [[zebra]] (''E. greyi''), Burcell's zebra (''E. burchelli''), and the mountain zebra (''E. zebra''). All of these species can interbreed with each other, although the offspring are sterile, except in extremely rare individual cases.  
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[[Image:Donkeys in Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|Donkeys ridden in Afghanistan]]
 
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It is commonly believed that the [[ancestor]] of the modern donkey is the Nubian subspecies of [[African]] wild ass, a medium sized donkey with a grey and white coat, strips on back and legs and a tall, upright [[mane]] with a black tip. The African Wild Ass was [[domesticate]]d around 4,000 B.C. The donkey became an important [[pack animal]] for people living in the [[Egyptian]] and [[Nubian]] regions as they can easily carry 20% to 30% of their own body weight and can also be used as a farming and dairy animal.  By 1800 B.C.E., the ass had reached the [[Middle East]] where the trading city of [[Damascus]] was referred to as the “City of Asses” in [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts.  [[Syria]] produced at least three breeds of donkeys, including a saddle breed with a graceful, easy gait.  These were favored by women.
 
  
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For the [[Greeks]], the donkey was associated with the Syrian God of wine, [[Dionysius]]; in fact, the [[Disney]] [[film]] [[Fantasia (film)|Fantasia]] ([[1940]]) features a Dionysian character on a donkey. The [[Romans]] also valued the ass and would use it as a [[sacrificial]] animal
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Another horse family species, the quagga (''Equus quagga''), which today is often classified as a subspecies (''E. quagga quagga'') of the plains zebra (''E. quagga), became extinct in 1883. There are large populations of feral donkeys and horses&mdash;that is domesticated animals that have returned to the wild&mdash;on several continents. However, the only true wild horse still living is Przewalski's wild horse of central Asia. In the past, it was given the name ''E. przewalskii,'' but now many authorities consider it to be the same species as the domestic horse, ''E. caballus.'' It is now recovering from near [[extinction]] and being reintroduced to the wild (Nowak 1986; Huffman 2006).
  
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The donkey makes a number of appearances in the [[Christian]] [[Bible]].  In fact, the most common Greek word for ass, Hamor, appears roughly 100 times in the Biblical text. In the [[Old Testament]], [[God]] chose to speak through a donkey to show Balaam the folly of his ways.  In the [[New Testament]], [[Christ]] rode into [[Jerusalem]] on the back of a donkey’s colt. Legend has it that the cross on the donkey’s shoulders comes from the shadow of Christ’s [[crucifixion]], placing the donkey at the foot of the cross.  It was once believed that hair cut from this cross and hung from a child’s neck in a bag would prevent fits and convulsions.  The Bible often specifies if a person rode donkeys, since this was used to indicate that a person’s wealth in much the same way luxury cars do today.
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==Donkey history==
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[[Image:Maler der Grabkammer des Panehsi 001.jpg|thumb|left|Ancient Egyptian donkey]]
  
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In [[1495]], the ass first appeared in the [[New World]]. The four males and two females brought by [[Christopher Columbus]] gave birth to the mules which the [[Conquistador]]s rode as they explored the [[Americas]]. Shortly after America won her independence, President [[George Washington]] imported the first mammoth jackstock into the young country.  Because the Jack donkeys in the New World lacked the size and strength he required to produce quality work mules, he imported donkeys from [[Spain]] and [[France]], some standing over 16 hands tall. One of the donkeys Washington received from the Marquis de Lafayette named “Knight of Malta" stood only 14 hands and was regarded as a great disappointment. Viewing this donkey as unfit for producing mules, Washington instead bred The Knight to his Jennets and, in doing so, created an American line of Mammoth Jackstock.
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Wild asses were hunted by humans for their meat and skins. It is thought that hunters sometimes found orphaned colts and took them to their homes to keep as pets. Asses adapted well to conditions in human settlements and were able to breed in captivity. Over time this gave rise to the domesticated donkey. The first evidence of the donkey comes from [[Egypt]] around 4000 <small>B.C.E.</small> (Clutton-Brock 1999).
  
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Despite these early appearances of donkeys in American society, the donkey did not find widespread favor in America until the [[miner]]s and [[gold]] [[prospector]]s of the [[1800s]]. Miners preferred this animal due to its ability to carry tools, supplies, and [[ore]].  Their sociable disposition and fondness for human companionship allowed the miners to lead their donkeys without ropes. They simply followed behind their master.  Sadly, with the introduction of the [[steam train]], these donkeys lost their jobs and many were turned loose into the American deserts. Descendents of these donkeys can still be seen roaming the Southwest in herds to this day.  
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Donkeys became important pack animals for people living in the Egyptian and Nubian regions and were also used to pull plows and for milk and meat. By 1800 <small>B.C.E.</small>, donkeys had reached the [[Middle East]] where the trading city of [[Damascus]] was referred to as the “City of Asses” in [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts. [[Syria]] produced at least three breeds of donkeys, including a saddle breed with a graceful, easy gait. These were favored by women.
  
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By the early [[Twentieth Century]], the donkey became more of a pet then a work animal. This is best portrayed by the appearance of the miniature donkey in [[1929]]. Robert Green imported miniature donkeys to the United States and was a lifetime advocator of the breed. Mr. Green is perhaps best quoted when he said “Miniature Donkeys possess the affectionate nature of a Newfoundland, the resignation of a cow, the durability of a mule, the courage of a tiger, and the intellectual capability only slightly inferior to man's.”  Standing only 32-40 inches, many families were quick to recognize the potential these tiny equines possessed as pets and companions for their children.
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Soon after the domesticated horse was introduced to the Middle East, around 1500 <small>B.C.E.</small>, donkeys and horses began to be bred together, giving birth to mules (offspring of male donkey and female horse). As a work animal, the mule in some ways is superior to both the donkey and the horse. Domestic animal expert Juliet Clutton-Brook (1999) writes:
  
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Although, the donkey fell from public notice and became viewed as a comical, stubborn beast who was considered “cute” at best, the donkey has recently regained some popularity in [[North America]] as a mount, for pulling wagons, and even as a guard animal.  Some standard species are ideal for guarding herds of sheep against predators since 90% of donkeys hate canines and will keep them away from the herd.
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<blockquote>The mule is a perfect example of hybrid vigour&mdash;as a beast of burden it has more stamina and endurance, can carry heavier loads, and is more sure-footed than either the ass or the horse.</blockquote>
  
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==Economic use==
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[[Image:Baudet du Poitou.jpg|thumb|left|Poitou Donkey]]
  
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[[Image:Skegness4web.jpg|right|thumb|Classic British seaside donkeys in [[Skegness]]]]
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Donkeys, along with horses and mules, gradually spread around the world. In 43 <small>C.E.</small>, the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] brought the first donkeys to [[Britain]] (DS 2006). In 1495, the donkey was introduced to the New World by [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]. Different breeds of donkeys were developed, including the Poitou of [[France]] and the Mammoth Jack Stock of the [[United States]] (said to be originally developed by [[George Washington]]), both of which were bred to sire mules. They are larger than average donkeys, around 130 to 150 cm (51 to 59 inches) tall at the shoulders. In the twentieth century, miniature donkeys, 90 cm (36 inches) tall or shorter, became popular as pets (OSU 2006).
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Donkeys have a reputation for stubbornness, but this is due to some handlers' misinterpretation of their highly-developed sense of self preservation. It is difficult to force or frighten a donkey into doing something it sees as contrary to its own best interest, as opposed to horses who are much more willing to, for example, go along a path with unsafe footing.  
 
  
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Although formal studies of their [[ethology|behaviour]] and [[animal cognition|cognition]] are rather limited, donkeys appear to be quite intelligent, cautious, friendly, playful, and eager to learn. They are many times fielded with horses due to a perceived calming effect on nervous horses.  If a donkey is introduced to a mare and foal, the foal will often turn to the donkey for support after it has left its mother.<ref>[http://www.yptenc.org.uk/docs/factsheets/animal_facts/donkeys.html Donkeys]</ref>
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==Donkey traits==
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[[Image:Donkeys in Afghanistan.jpg|thumb|right|Donkeys in [[Afghanistan]]]]
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The average donkey is somewhat smaller than its wild ancestors, standing 90 to 120 cm (3 to 4 feet) tall at the shoulder. Donkey colors vary from the most common dun (grayish brown), from which the word "donkey" comes, to reddish, white, black, and spotted (IMH 2006).
  
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Once a person has earned their confidence they can be willing and companionable partners and very dependable in work and recreation. For this reason, they are now commonly kept as [[pet]]s in countries where their use as beasts of burden has disappeared. They are also popular for giving rides to children in holiday resorts or other leisure contexts.
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Donkeys have become much slower with domestication and very rarely break into a gallop. They can survive on poor food and water and can endure great heat. Cold and rain, however, are problems for them and donkeys in cooler, wetter climates need shelter from bad weather. They are sure-footed and can carry heavy loads, as much as 30 percent of their own weight. Donkeys have an advantage over [[cattle|oxen]] as work animals in that they do not have to stop and ruminate (Blench 2000).  
  
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In prosperous countries, the welfare of donkeys both at home and abroad has recently become a concern, and a number of sanctuaries for retired donkeys have been set up.
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Although formal studies of their [[behavior]] and [[cognition]] are rather limited, most observers feel that donkeys are intelligent, cautious, friendly, playful, and eager to learn. Donkeys have a reputation for stubbornness, but much of this is due to some handlers' misinterpretation of their highly-developed sense of self-preservation. It is difficult to force or frighten a donkey into doing something it sees as contrary to its own best interest, as opposed to horses who are much more willing to, for example, go along a path with unsafe footing. Once a person has earned their confidence, donkeys can be willing and companionable partners and very dependable in work and recreation.
  
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==Types of donkeys==
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==Donkeys in culture and religion==
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[[Image:Baudet du Poitou.jpg|left|thumb|Poitou Donkey]]
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[[Image:Giotto - Scrovegni - -20- - Flight into Egypt.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] and [[Jesus]] riding a donkey, painting by Giotto]]
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In [[ancient Greece]], the donkey was associated with [[Dionysus]], the god of wine. In [[ancient Rome]], donkeys were used as sacrificial animals.
  
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===Domestic donkey breeds===
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In the [[Bible]], donkeys are mentioned about 100 times, most famously in the stories of [[Samson]] and [[Balaam]] in the [[Old Testament]] and in the story of [[Jesus]] in the [[New Testament]]. According to the Bible, Jesus rode into [[Jerusalem]] on a donkey, fulfilling an Old Testament prophecy. His mother, [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]], is often pictured riding a donkey and donkeys are a traditional part of nativity scenes at [[Christmas]] time.
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An incomplete list of domestic donkey breeds includes the:
 
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# '''Mammoth Donkey'''
 
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# '''Poitou Donkey'''
 
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# '''American Spotted Donkey'''
 
  
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The [[Poitou]] Donkey breed was developed in France for the sole purpose of producing [[mule]]s. It is a large donkey breed with a very long shaggy coat and no dorsal stripe.
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==Present status==
  
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===Burro===
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[[Image:Skegness4web.jpg|right|thumb|Classic British seaside donkeys at Skegness]]
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[[image:Adopted_Burro.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Adopted wild burro]]
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There are about 44 million donkeys today. [[China]] has the most with 11 million, followed by [[Ethiopia]] and [[Mexico]]. Some researchers think the real number is higher since many donkeys go uncounted.
  
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The Spanish brought burros to North America beginning in the late fifteenth century. These burros were used as pack animals, but also for riding and pulling carts. These pack animals were prized for their hardiness in arid country and became the beast of burden of choice by early prospectors in the Southwest United States. The wild burros on the western rangelands descend from burros that escaped, were abandoned, or were freed.  
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Most donkeys (probably over 95 percent) are used for the same types of work that they have been doing for six thousand years. Their most common role is for transport, whether riding, pack transport, or pulling carts. They may also be used for farm tillage, threshing, raising water, milling, and other jobs. Other donkeys are used to sire mules, as companions for [[horse]]s, to guard [[sheep]], and as pets. A few are milked or raised for meat (Starkey 1997).
  
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Wild burros in the United States are protected by Public Law 92-195, The Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971. These animals, considered to be a living legacy, have lately been at risk due to drought. The [[Bureau of Land Management]] conducts round-ups of endangered herds, and holds public auctions. More information can be obtained from [[U.S. Department of the Interior]], Bureau of Land Management.
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The number of donkeys in the world continues to grow, as it has steadily throughout most of history. Some factors that today are contributing to this are increasing human population, progress in economic development and social stability in some poorer nations, conversion of [[forest]]s to farm and range land, rising prices of motor vehicles and gasoline, and the donkeys' popularity as pets (Starkey 1997; Blench 2000).  
  
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Wild burros make good pets when treated well and cared for properly. They are clever and curious. When trust has been established, they appreciate, and even seek, attention and grooming.
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In prosperous countries, the welfare of donkeys both at home and abroad has recently become a concern and a number of sanctuaries for retired and rescued donkeys have been set up. The largest is the Donkey Sanctuary of [[England]], which also supports donkey welfare projects in [[Egypt]], Ethiopia, [[India]], [[Kenya]], and Mexico (DS 2006).
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=== Donkey hybrids ===
 
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A male donkey (jack) can be crossed with a female horse to produce a [[mule]]. A male horse can be crossed with a female donkey (jennet or jenny) to produce a [[hinny]]. This is North American nomenclature; in the United Kingdom, the word ''hinny'' is not used.  A female donkey in the U.K. is called a ''mare,'' or ''jenny'' and the word ''jennet'' is more commonly applied to the offspring of a female donkey and a male horse, regardless of whether the foal is female or male.
 
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Horse-donkey [[hybrid]]s are almost always [[sterility|sterile]] because horses have 64 [[chromosome]]s whereas donkeys have 62, producing offspring with 63 chromosomes. Due to different [[mating]] behavior, jacks are often more willing to cover mares than stallions are to breed jennets. Mules are much more common than hinnies.  This is believed to be caused by two factors, the first being proven in cat hybrids, that when the chromosome count of the male is the higher, fertility rates drop (as in the case of stallion x jennet).  The lower progesterone production of the jennet may also lead to early embryonic loss.  Although it is commonly believed that  mules are more easily handled and also physically stronger than hinnies, making them more desirable for breeders to produce, it is simply that mules are more common in total number.
 
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The offspring of a [[zebra]]-donkey cross is called a ''zonkey, zebroid, zebrass,'' or ''zedonk,''<ref>[http://www.lovelongears.com/zorse.html American Donkey and Mule Society: Zebra Hybrids]</ref>; ''Zebra mule'' is an outdated term.  The foregoing terms generally refer to hybrids produced by breeding a male zebra to a female donkey.  ''Zebra hinny, zebret'' and ''zebrinny'' all refer to the cross of a female zebra with a male donkey. Zebrinnies are rarer than zedonkies because female zebras in captivity are most valuable when used to produce full-blooded zebras.  <ref>[http://www.geocities.com/zedonknzorse/allabout.html All About Zebra Hybrids]</ref> There are not enough female zebras breeding in captivity to spare them for hybridizing; there is no such limitation on the number of female donkeys breeding.
 
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For at least the past century, a few donkeys and burros in Mexico have been painted with white stripes to amuse tourists. These are not hybrids.
 
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An animal which may look like a zebra-donkey hybrid because of its distinctly striped hindquarters and hind legs is the [[okapi]], which has no relationship to either of those species.  Okapi are most closely related to the [[giraffe]].  In addition to the rear stripes, okapi have some striping near the top of their forelegs.
 
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===Wild Ass, Onager, and Kiang===
 
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With domestication of almost all donkeys, few species now exist in the wild. Some of them are the [[African Wild Ass]] (''Equus africanus'') and its subspecies Somalian Wild Ass (''Equus africanus somaliensis''). The Asiatic wild ass or [[Onager]], ''Equus hemionus'', and its relative the [[Kiang]], ''Equus kiang'', are closely related wild species.
 
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There was another extinct subspecies called the [[Yukon Wild Ass]] (''Equus asinus lambei''). In the wild the asses can reach top speeds equalling [[zebra]]s and even most [[horse]]s.
 
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[[Image:Giotto - Scrovegni - -20- - Flight into Egypt.jpg|thumb|Mary and Jesus riding a donkey by Giotto]]
 
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==Cultural references==
 
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[[Image:Chile Donkey.jpg|thumb|240px|right|A donkey in [[Santiago de Chile|Santiago]], [[Chile]]]]
 
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The long history of human use of donkeys means that there is a rich store of cultural references to them.
 
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===Religion and myth===
 
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*The ass may have been the symbol of the Egyptian god, [[Set (mythology)|Seth]]
 
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*Several were buried in [[Hor-Aha]]'s tomb <ref name=egypt/>
 
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*The ass was a symbol of the Greek god [[Dionysus]], particularly in relationship to his companion, [[Silenus]].
 
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*[[Greek mythology]] includes the story of King [[Midas]] who judged against [[Apollo]] in favor of [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] during a musical contest, and had his ears changed to those of a donkey as punishment.
 
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*There are numerous references to donkeys (chamor) in the [[Hebrew Bible]], including Numbers 22:22-41 where the "Lord opened the mouth of the donkey" (vs. 28) and it speaks to [[Balaam]] and Judges 15:13-17 where the hero [[Samson]] slays Philistines with the jawbone of an ass.  Additional references can be found in Deuteronomy 22:10, Job 11:12, Proverbs 26:3 and elsewhere.
 
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*In the [[Gospel]]s, [[Jesus]] rides a donkey into [[Jerusalem]] (Mark 11:1 in which ''colt'' refers to a donkey colt). Traditionally, [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]] is portrayed as riding a donkey while pregnant. These beliefs have given rise to legends explaining the origin of the cross on a donkey's shoulders {{citation needed}}.
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
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*Blench, R. 2000. "The history and spread of donkeys in Africa ". Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA)
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* Blench, R. 2000. ''The History and Spread of Donkeys in Africa.'' Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA).
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*Clutton-Brook, J. 1999. ''A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521634954
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* Clutton-Brook, J. 1999. ''A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals.'' Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521634954
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*The Donkey Sanctuary. 2006. Website. [http://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/site/1/Home.html]
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* The Donkey Sanctuary (DS). 2006. [http://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/site/1/Home.html Website]. Accessed December 2, 2006.
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*Huffman, B. 2006. ''The Ultimate Ungulate Page''. "Equus asinus" [http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Perissodactyla/Equus_asinus.html]
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* Huffman, B. 2006. [http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Perissodactyla/Equus_asinus.html ''The Ultimate Ungulate Page: Equus asinus.''] Accessed December 2, 2006.
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*Huggins, B. 2002. "Equus asinus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed November 29, 2006 at [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Equus_asinus.html.]
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* International Museum of the Horse (IMH). 1998. [http://www.imh.org/imh/bw/donkey.html#toc ''Donkey.''] Accessed December 3, 2006.
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*International Museum of the Horse (IMH). 1998. "Donkey" [http://www.imh.org/imh/bw/donkey.html#toc]
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* Nowak, R. M., and J. L. Paradiso. 1983. ''Walker's Mammals of the World.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801825253
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*Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG). 2006. "Global Invasive Species Database: Equus asinus" [http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=639&fr=1&sts=sss]
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* Oklahoma State University (OSU). 2006. [http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/other ''Breeds of Livestock.''] Accessed December 3, 2006.
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*Nowak, R.M. and Paradiso, J.L. 1983. ''Walker's Mammals of the World''. Baltimore, Maryland, USA : The Johns Hopkins University Press ISBN 0801825253
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* Starkey, P., and M. Starkey. 1997. [http://www.atnesa.org/donkeys/donkeys-starkey-populations.pdf ''Regional and World trends in Donkey Populations.''] Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA).
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*Oklahoma State University (OSU). 2006. ''Breeds of Livestock''. [http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/other]
 
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*Starkey, P. and M. 1997 "Regional and world trends in donkey populations". Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA) [http://216.109.125.130/search/cache?p=donkey+population&fr=yfp-t-501&toggle=1&ei=UTF-8&u=www.atnesa.org/donkeys/donkeys-starkey-populations.pdf&w=donkey+population&d=NKJ_s5IFNnz9&icp=1&.intl=us]
 
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*Voelker, W. 1986. ''The Natural History of Living Mammals''. Medford, New Jersey, USA : Plexus Publishing, Inc. ISBN 0937548081
 
  
  
 
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[[Category:Mammals]][[Category:Ungulates]]

Latest revision as of 19:13, 18 August 2008

Donkey
Conservation status: Domesticated
Donkey
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Equidae
Genus: Equus
Species: E. asinus
Binomial name
Equus asinus
Linnaeus, 1758

The donkey or ass, Equus asinus, is a member of the horse family, Equidae, of the order Perissodactyla, odd-toed ungulates (hoofed mammals). The word donkey and ass refers to the domesticated taxonomic group. This taxon often is listed as a subspecies of its presumed wild ancestor, the African wild ass, which itself is variously designated as Equus africanus or Equus asinus. Some taxonomic schemes list the donkey as its own species, Equus asinus, and the African wild ass as Equus africanus.

Donkeys were first domesticated around 4000 B.C.E. or before and have spread around the world in the company of humans. They continue to fill important roles in many places today and are increasing in numbers (although the African wild ass is an endangered species, as a result of anthropogenic factors). As "beasts of burden" and companions, donkeys have worked together with humans for centuries, reflecting the nature of all organisms to fulfill both a purpose for the whole and a purpose for the individual (the latter contributing to their reputation for stubbornness; see donkey traits).

A male donkey is called a jack,, a female a jennet or jenny, and a baby a colt. In the western United States, a donkey is often called a burro. A mule is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. The mating of a male horse and a female donkey produces a hinny. While different species of the horse family can interbreed, offspring, such as the mule and hinny, are almost invariably sterile.

The African wild ass and related species

African wild asses are native to North Africa and perhaps the Arabian Peninsula. They are well suited to life in a desert or semi-desert environment. They stand about 125 to 145 cm (4.2 to 5.5 ft) tall at the shoulder and weigh about 275 kg (605 lb). They have tough digestive systems, which can break down desert vegetation and extract moisture from food efficiently. They can also go without water for a fairly long time. Their large ears give them an excellent sense of hearing and help in cooling.

Because of the sparse vegetation in their environment, wild asses live separated from each other (except for mothers and young), unlike the tightly grouped herds of wild horses. They have very loud voices, which can be heard for over 3 km (2 miles), which helps them to keep in contact with other asses over the wide spaces of the desert.

Somali wild ass

Wild asses can run swiftly, almost as fast as a horse. However, unlike most hoofed mammals, their tendency is to not to flee right away from a potentially dangerous situation, but to investigate first before deciding what to do. When they need to they can defend themselves with kicks from both their front and hind legs.

The African wild ass today is found only in small areas in northeast Africa and is an endangered species, because of being hunted and because of war and political instability in its native range. At one time there were at least four subspecies of African wild ass. Today, only the Somali wild ass (E. asinius somalicus) survives. It is thought that the donkey is derived from the Nubian wild ass (E. asinus africanus), which became extinct in the twentieth century.

Closely related to the African wild ass are the other members of the horse family (all of which are endangered in the wild): the horse (Equus caballus), the onager (E. hemionus), the kiang (E. kiang), Grevy's zebra (E. greyi), Burcell's zebra (E. burchelli), and the mountain zebra (E. zebra). All of these species can interbreed with each other, although the offspring are sterile, except in extremely rare individual cases.

Another horse family species, the quagga (Equus quagga), which today is often classified as a subspecies (E. quagga quagga) of the plains zebra (E. quagga), became extinct in 1883. There are large populations of feral donkeys and horses—that is domesticated animals that have returned to the wild—on several continents. However, the only true wild horse still living is Przewalski's wild horse of central Asia. In the past, it was given the name E. przewalskii, but now many authorities consider it to be the same species as the domestic horse, E. caballus. It is now recovering from near extinction and being reintroduced to the wild (Nowak 1986; Huffman 2006).

Donkey history

Ancient Egyptian donkey

Wild asses were hunted by humans for their meat and skins. It is thought that hunters sometimes found orphaned colts and took them to their homes to keep as pets. Asses adapted well to conditions in human settlements and were able to breed in captivity. Over time this gave rise to the domesticated donkey. The first evidence of the donkey comes from Egypt around 4000 B.C.E. (Clutton-Brock 1999).

Donkeys became important pack animals for people living in the Egyptian and Nubian regions and were also used to pull plows and for milk and meat. By 1800 B.C.E., donkeys had reached the Middle East where the trading city of Damascus was referred to as the “City of Asses” in cuneiform texts. Syria produced at least three breeds of donkeys, including a saddle breed with a graceful, easy gait. These were favored by women.

Soon after the domesticated horse was introduced to the Middle East, around 1500 B.C.E., donkeys and horses began to be bred together, giving birth to mules (offspring of male donkey and female horse). As a work animal, the mule in some ways is superior to both the donkey and the horse. Domestic animal expert Juliet Clutton-Brook (1999) writes:

The mule is a perfect example of hybrid vigour—as a beast of burden it has more stamina and endurance, can carry heavier loads, and is more sure-footed than either the ass or the horse.

Poitou Donkey

Donkeys, along with horses and mules, gradually spread around the world. In 43 C.E., the Romans brought the first donkeys to Britain (DS 2006). In 1495, the donkey was introduced to the New World by Columbus. Different breeds of donkeys were developed, including the Poitou of France and the Mammoth Jack Stock of the United States (said to be originally developed by George Washington), both of which were bred to sire mules. They are larger than average donkeys, around 130 to 150 cm (51 to 59 inches) tall at the shoulders. In the twentieth century, miniature donkeys, 90 cm (36 inches) tall or shorter, became popular as pets (OSU 2006).

Donkey traits

Donkeys in Afghanistan

The average donkey is somewhat smaller than its wild ancestors, standing 90 to 120 cm (3 to 4 feet) tall at the shoulder. Donkey colors vary from the most common dun (grayish brown), from which the word "donkey" comes, to reddish, white, black, and spotted (IMH 2006).

Donkeys have become much slower with domestication and very rarely break into a gallop. They can survive on poor food and water and can endure great heat. Cold and rain, however, are problems for them and donkeys in cooler, wetter climates need shelter from bad weather. They are sure-footed and can carry heavy loads, as much as 30 percent of their own weight. Donkeys have an advantage over oxen as work animals in that they do not have to stop and ruminate (Blench 2000).

Although formal studies of their behavior and cognition are rather limited, most observers feel that donkeys are intelligent, cautious, friendly, playful, and eager to learn. Donkeys have a reputation for stubbornness, but much of this is due to some handlers' misinterpretation of their highly-developed sense of self-preservation. It is difficult to force or frighten a donkey into doing something it sees as contrary to its own best interest, as opposed to horses who are much more willing to, for example, go along a path with unsafe footing. Once a person has earned their confidence, donkeys can be willing and companionable partners and very dependable in work and recreation.

Donkeys in culture and religion

Mary and Jesus riding a donkey, painting by Giotto

In ancient Greece, the donkey was associated with Dionysus, the god of wine. In ancient Rome, donkeys were used as sacrificial animals.

In the Bible, donkeys are mentioned about 100 times, most famously in the stories of Samson and Balaam in the Old Testament and in the story of Jesus in the New Testament. According to the Bible, Jesus rode into Jerusalem on a donkey, fulfilling an Old Testament prophecy. His mother, Mary, is often pictured riding a donkey and donkeys are a traditional part of nativity scenes at Christmas time.

Present status

Classic British seaside donkeys at Skegness

There are about 44 million donkeys today. China has the most with 11 million, followed by Ethiopia and Mexico. Some researchers think the real number is higher since many donkeys go uncounted.

Most donkeys (probably over 95 percent) are used for the same types of work that they have been doing for six thousand years. Their most common role is for transport, whether riding, pack transport, or pulling carts. They may also be used for farm tillage, threshing, raising water, milling, and other jobs. Other donkeys are used to sire mules, as companions for horses, to guard sheep, and as pets. A few are milked or raised for meat (Starkey 1997).

The number of donkeys in the world continues to grow, as it has steadily throughout most of history. Some factors that today are contributing to this are increasing human population, progress in economic development and social stability in some poorer nations, conversion of forests to farm and range land, rising prices of motor vehicles and gasoline, and the donkeys' popularity as pets (Starkey 1997; Blench 2000).

In prosperous countries, the welfare of donkeys both at home and abroad has recently become a concern and a number of sanctuaries for retired and rescued donkeys have been set up. The largest is the Donkey Sanctuary of England, which also supports donkey welfare projects in Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Kenya, and Mexico (DS 2006).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Blench, R. 2000. The History and Spread of Donkeys in Africa. Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA).
  • Clutton-Brook, J. 1999. A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521634954
  • The Donkey Sanctuary (DS). 2006. Website. Accessed December 2, 2006.
  • Huffman, B. 2006. The Ultimate Ungulate Page: Equus asinus. Accessed December 2, 2006.
  • International Museum of the Horse (IMH). 1998. Donkey. Accessed December 3, 2006.
  • Nowak, R. M., and J. L. Paradiso. 1983. Walker's Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801825253
  • Oklahoma State University (OSU). 2006. Breeds of Livestock. Accessed December 3, 2006.
  • Starkey, P., and M. Starkey. 1997. Regional and World trends in Donkey Populations. Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA).


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