Difference between revisions of "Cartography" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Cartography''' or '''mapmaking''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]] ''chartis'' = map and ''graphein'' = write) is the study and practice of making representations of the Earth on a flat surface.  The discipline of cartography combines science, aesthetics, and technical ability to create a balanced and readable representation that is capable of communicating information effectively and quickly.
  
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'''Cartography''' or '''mapmaking''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]] ''chartis'' = map and ''graphein'' = write) is the study and practice of making [[map]]s or [[globe]]s.  Maps have traditionally been made using [[pen]] and [[paper]], but the advent and spread of [[computer]]s has revolutionized cartography. Most commercial quality maps are now made with map making [[software]] that falls into one of three main types; [[computer-aided design |CAD]], [[geographic information system | GIS]], and specialized map illustration software.
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One problem in creating maps is the simple reality that the surface of the Earth, a curved surface in three-dimensional space, must be represented in two dimensions as a flat surface.  This necessarily entails some degree of distortion, which can be dealt with by utilizing [[map projection|projections]] that minimize distortion in certain areas. Furthermore, the Earth is not a regular [[sphere]], but its shape is instead known as a [[geoid]], which is a highly irregular but exactly knowable and calculable shape.
  
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Maps function as [[visualization]] tools for spatial data. Spatial data is acquired from measurement and can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted for a variety of purposes. Current trends in this field are moving away from analog methods of mapmaking and toward the creation of increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally. The cartographic process rests on the premise that there is an objective reality and that we can make reliable representations of that reality by adding levels of abstraction.
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Maps of all [[scale]]s have traditionally been drawn and made by hand, but the recent advent and spread of [[computer]]s has revolutionized cartography. Most commercial-quality maps are now made with [[software]] that falls into one of three main types: [[computer-aided design|CAD]], [[geographic information systems|GIS]], and specialized illustration software.
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Functioning as tools, maps communicate spatial [[information]] by making it visible. Spatial information is acquired from [[measurement]] of space and can be stored in a [[database]], from which it can be extracted for a variety of purposes. Current trends in this field are moving away from analog methods of mapmaking and toward the creation of increasingly dynamic, [[interactive maps]] that can be manipulated digitally.
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Cartographic representation involves the use of symbols and lines to illustrate geographic phenomena.  This can aid in visualizing space in an abstract and portable format.  The cartographic process rests on the premise that the [[world]] is measurable and that we can make reliable representations or models of that reality.  
  
 
== History ==  
 
== History ==  
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{{globalize}}
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{{main|History of cartography}}
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[[Image:TO map.gif|thumb|Copy (1475) of St. Isidore's TO map of the world]]
  
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[[Image:Radkarte_MKL1888.png|thumb|World map from the [[Middle Age]]s.]]
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Maps have been a large part of the human story for a long time (maybe 8,000 years - nobody knows exactly, but longer than written words).<ref>http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/100mono.html Article: The earliest known maps</ref> They were known to have existed in societies of Europe, the Middle East, China, India, and others.
  
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Mapmaking involves advanced skills and attitudes, particularly the use of symbols to represent certain geographic phenomena, as well as the ability to visualize the world in an abstract and scaled down form.
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The earliest known map to date is a wall painting of the ancient Turkish city of [[Catal Huyuk|Çatal Hüyük]] which has been dated to the late [[7th millennium B.C.E.]].<ref>http://www.atamanhotel.com/catalhoyuk/oldest-map.html</ref> Other known maps of the ancient world include the [[Minoan]] “House of the Admiral” wall painting from c. 1600 B.C.E. showing a seaside community in an oblique perspective, and an engraved map of the holy [[Babylonian]] city of [[Nippur]], from the Kassite period ([[14th century B.C.E.|14th]] &ndash; [[12th century B.C.E.|12th centuries B.C.E.]]).<ref>http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/PROJ/NIP/PUB93/NSC/NSCFIG7.html
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The Nippur Expedition</ref> The [[ancient Greeks]] and [[Roman Empire|Romans]] created maps beginning with [[Anaximander]] in the 6th century B.C.E. In [[ancient China]], although geographical literature spans back to the 5th century B.C.E., the drawing of true geographical maps were not begun in earnest until the first half of the [[Han Dynasty]] (202 B.C.E.-202 C.E.), largely with the works of  Prince [[Liu An]] (179 B.C.E.-122 B.C.E.).
  
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Maps have been an integral part of the human story for long time (maybe 8,000 years - nobody knows exactly, but longer than a written words). From cave/wall partings, ancient maps of [[Babylon]] and [[Greek philosophers]], through the [[Age of Exploration]], and on into the 21st century, people have created and used maps as the essential tools to help them define, explain and navigate their way through the world (and beyond). According to some scholars, mapping represented a significant step forward in the intellectual development of human beings and it serves as a record of the advancing knowledge of the human race.  
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[[Mappa mundi]] is the general term used to describe Medieval European maps of the world.  Approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents (Woodward, p. 286).
  
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In the [[Age of Exploration]] from the 15th century to the 17th century, cartographers both copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own based on explorers' observations and new [[surveying]] techniques. The invention of the [[magnetic compass]], [[telescope]] and [[sextant]] enabled increasing accuracy.
  
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The oldest extant picture that resembles a map was created in the late 7th millennium b.c.e. in [[Anatolia]], modern [[Turkey]]. This wall painting represents a plan of an early-civilized city that prospered by trading obsidian. Whoever created this ‘mental map’ may have been encouraged by the fact that houses in Çatal Hűyűk were clustered together and were entered via flat roofs. Therefore, it was normal for the inhabitants to view their city from a bird’s eye view. Having said this, I think that this painting influenced in some way all-later civilizations with their mapmaking endeavours. Today, almost all maps are drawn as if we are looking down from the sky instead of from the more natural horizontal or oblique perspective. Nevertheless, one of the early-survived [[Hellenic]] ‘quasi-maps’ of the [[Minoan]] civilization on Crete, the so-called “House of the Admiral” c. 1600 b.c.e. is a wall painting representing view of a seaside community in an oblique perspective.
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Due to the sheer physical difficulties inherent in cartography, map-makers frequently lifted material from earlier works without giving credit to the original cartographer. For example, one of the most famous early maps of North America is unofficially known as the [[Beaver Map]], published in 1715 by [[Herman Moll]]. This map is an exact reproduction of a 1698 work by [[Nicolas de Fer]]. De Fer in turn had copied images that were first printed in books by [[Louis Hennepin]], published in 1697, and [[François Du Creux]], in 1664. By the 1700s, map-makers started to give credit to the original engraver by printing the phrase "After [the original cartographer]" on the work.<ref>"Map Imitation" in [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/forgery/002035-300-e.html?PHPSESSID=el7bd0vpd8cto0amsqqq5kaj22 Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery], a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada </ref>
  
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Predecessors of mapping could be also found in [[Babylonia]] around the 23rd century B.C.E. An engraved map of the holy city of [[Nippur]], from the Kassite period (14th-12th centuries B.C.E.) of Babylonian history, was found at Nippur.
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== Technological changes ==
  
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The early attempts at maps were severely limited by lack of knowledge of anything other than very local features. Whereas early world maps reflected mostly religious beliefs of the form of the world. For example, the [[Babylonian]] World Map — the earliest surviving map of the world (c. 600 B.C.E.) — is very much Mesopotamia-centred, ignoring peoples such as the [[Persians]] and [[Egyptians]], who were well known to the Babylonians. The area shown is depicted as a circular shape surrounded by water, which fits the religious image of the world in which the Babylonians believed.  
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In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the [[compass]] and much later [[magnetic storage]] devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally.
  
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Maps were quite rare in ancient [[Egypt]]. The [[Egyptians]] seem to have preferred written words to plans. Still, what might have later influenced human mapmaking were the geometrical methods that were used for land measurements, which were stimulated by the need to re-establish the exact boundaries of properties after the annual Nile floods. The most interesting artefact that has survived from this period is the [[Turin Papyrus]], dated c. 1300 B.C.E. It shows the mountains east of the Nile where gold and silver were mined, along with the location of the miners’ shelters, wells, and the road network that linked the region with the mainland. Its originality can be seen in the map’s inscriptions, its precise orientation and the use of colour.
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Advances in mechanical devices such as the [[printing press]], [[quadrant]] and [[vernier]] allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the [[telescope]], [[sextant]] and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their [[latitude]] by measuring angles to the [[North Star]] at night or the [[sun]] at noon.  
  
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Ancient Greeks were the first people to adopt a scientific approach to mapping. They were excellent observers of natural phenomena. Observations of the sun, the moon, and the curvature of the earth were fundamental to the theoretical thinking of early [[Greek philosophers]], scientists, and geographers. The Greeks’ philosophical conception of the world and their growing knowledge in [[geography]] contributed to establishing the concept of mapmaking and to the development of cartographic techniques.
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Advances in photochemical technology, such as the [[lithography|lithographic]] and [[photography|photochemical processes]], have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps.  
  
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This chapter presents one of the most momentous periods in the history of cartography by illustrating the works of early Greek philosophers who pioneered the concept of mapping. It traces the evolution of Greek ideas concerning the geography of the earth and cartographic techniques of representing natural phenomena in a map form. In addition to an examination of reconstructed maps  of the world as conceived by [[Anaximander of Miletus]], Hecataeus, [[Herodotus]], [[Eratosthenes]], and [[Ptolemy]], this paper also assesses the writings of early Greek poets who tried to give a written picture of the known world of the time. This section will hopefully allow the reader to comprehend the stages through which the Greeks developed their geographical ideas and cartographic knowledge; from blurry and obscure notions of [[Mediterranean]] mariners — as related by [[Homer]] — to more scientific and mathematical approach of Claudius Ptolemy’s geography.
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In the late 20th century and early 21st century advances in electronic technology led to a new revolution in cartography. Specifically, [[computer hardware]] devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials. See also [[digital raster graphic]].
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== Map types ==
  
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In reviewing the literature of early geography and early conceptions of the earth, all sources lead to Homer, who is considered by many (Strabo, Kish and Dilke) as the founding father of Geography. Regardless of the doubts about Homer’s existence, one thing is certain he never was a mapmaker. The enclosed map (soon), which represents the conjectural view of the Homeric world was never created by him. It is an imaginary reconstruction of the world as Homer described it in his two poems the Iliad and the Odyssey. It is worth mentioning that each of these writings involves strong geographic symbolism. They can be seen as descriptive pictures of life and warfare in the Bronze Age  and the illustrated plans of actual journeys. Thus, each one develops a philosophical view of the world, which makes it possible to show this information in the form of a map. Additional written statements about ancient geography can be found in [[Hesiod]] poems, written probably during the 7th century B.C.E..
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In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography.  General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features.  General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series.  For example the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. The government of the UK produces the classic 1:63,360 (1 inch to 1 mile) "Ordnance Survey" maps of the entire UK and with a range of correlated larger- and smaller-scale maps of great detail.
  
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The first steps in the development of scientific thought in ancient Greece belonged to [[Ionians]] from their well-known city of [[Miletus]] in [[Asia Minor]]. Miletus was favourably placed to absorb aspects of Babylonian science and culture and to profit from the expanding commerce of the Mediterranean.  
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A [[topographic map]] is primarily concerned with the [[topography|topographic]] description of a place, including (especially in the 20th century) the use of [[contour line]]s showing elevation. [[Terrain]] or relief can be shown in a variety of ways (see [[Cartographic relief depiction]]).
  
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[[Thales]] of Miletus (c. 600 B.C.E.) thought that the earth was a disk supported by water.  
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A [[topological map]] is a very general type of map, the kind you might sketch on a napkin. It often disregards scale in the interest of clarity of communicating specific route or relational information.
  
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[[Anaximander]] of Miletus (c. 611–546 B.C.E.) was a pupil of Thales. It has been said that he believed that the earth was a cylindrical form like a stone pillar and suspended in space. The inhabited part of his world was a circular, disk-shaped, and presumably located on the upper surface of the cylinder. Anaximander was the first ancient Greek to draw a map of the known world. It is for this reason that he is considered by many to be the first mapmaker (Dilke). A scarcity of archaeological and written evidence prevents us from giving any assessment of his map. What we can assume is that he portrayed land and sea in a map form. Unfortunately, any definite geographical knowledge that he included in his map is lost. What is certain is that 50 years after Anaximander’s alleged map, Hecataeus of Miletus (550–475 B.C.E.) produced another map that he claimed was an improved version of the map of his illustrious predecessor.  
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[[Thematic map|Thematic cartography]] involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented toward specific audiences. A couple of examples might be a [[Thematic_map#Dot|dot map]] showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties divided into numerical [[Choropleth map|choropleth]] classes. As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial cultural and social data.
  
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Another interesting figure in that era was [[Anaximenes]] of Miletus (6th century B.C.E.), who studied under Anaximander. He rejected the views of his teacher regarding the shape of the earth and instead, he visualized the earth as a rectangular form supported by compressed air. What is interesting here is that his incorrect idea about the shape of the world somehow persisted in the form of how the contemporary maps are presented today. Extend of the current maps are always kind of limited to this rectangular shape (i.e., border of the map [neatline], computer screen, or any document page).
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== Map design ==
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{{seealso|Map projection}}
  
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Although, only a very limited portion of the Earth was known to these ancient Greeks, the shape of the Earth was always going to be of fundamental importance in world maps. For example, [[Pythagoras]] of Samos (c. 560–480 B.C.E.) first speculated about the notion of a spherical earth  with a central fire at its core. He is also credited with the introduction of a model that divides a spherical earth into five zones. One hot, two temperate, and two cold — northern and southern. It seems likely that he illustrated his division in the form of a map, however, no evidence of this has survived to the present.  
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[[Arthur H. Robinson]], an American cartographer influential in thematic cartography, stated that a map not properly designed "will be a cartographic failure."  He also claimed, when considering all aspects of cartography, that "map design is perhaps the most complex."<ref>{{cite book | author=Robinson, A.H. | title=Elements of Cartography | location=New York | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | year=1953 | id=ISBN}}</ref> Robinson codified the mapmaker's understanding that a map must be must be designed foremost with consideration to the audience and its needs.
  
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Whereas a number of previous philosophers assumed the earth to be spherical, [[Aristotle]] (384 – 322B.C.E.) is the one to be credited with proving the earth’s sphericity. Those arguments can be summarized as follows:
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From the very beginning of mapmaking, maps "have been made for some particular purpose or set of purposes".<ref>{{cite book | author=Robinson, A.H. | title=Early Thematic Mapping:  In the History of Cartography. | location=Chicago | publisher=The University of Chicago Press. | year=1982 | id=ISBN}}</ref> The intent of the map should be illustrated in a manner in which the percipient acknowledges its purpose in a timely fashion. The term ''percipient'' refers to the person receiving information and was coined by Robinson.<ref>{{cite book | author=MacEachren, A.M. | title=How Maps Work | location=New York | publisher=The Guilford Press | year=1995 | id=ISBN}}</ref> The principle of [[Figure-ground in map design|figure-ground]] refers to this notion of engaging the user by presenting a clear presentation, leaving no confusion concerning the purpose of the map.  This will enhance the user’s experience and keep his attention. If the user is unable to identify what is being demonstrated in a reasonable fashion, the map may be regarded as useless.
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[[Image:Al-Idrisi's world map.JPG|thumb|[[Muhammad al-Idrisi]]'s world map from 1154. Note that south is at the top of the map.]]
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[[Image:Livingston-Greenwich-map.jpg|thumb|270px|right|Illustrated map]]
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*The [[lunar eclipse]] is always circular.  
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Making a meaningful map is the ultimate goal.  MacEachren explains that a well designed map "is convincing because it implies authenticity" (1994, pp. 9).  An interesting map will no doubt engage a reader. Information richness or a map that is multivariate shows relationships within the map.  Showing several variables allows comparison, which adds to the meaningfulness of the map. This also generates hypothesis and stimulates ideas and perhaps further research. In order to convey the message of the map, the creator must design it in a manner which will aid the reader in the overall understanding of its purpose.  The title of a map may provide the "needed link" necessary for communicating that message, but the overall design of the map fosters the manner in which the reader interprets it (Monmonier, 1993, pp. 93).
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*Ships seem to sink as they move away from view and pass the horizon.
 
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*Some stars can only be seen from certain parts of the earth.   
 
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It is unclear if he ever produced a map of the world according to his specifications, but if he did, we have yet to find it.  
 
  
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In 288 B.C.E., [[Aristarchus]] of Samos was the first to say that the sun was the center of universe (see [[heliocentric theory]]). Also [[Hipparchus]] (astronomer)
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In the [[21st Century]] it is possible to find a map of virtually anything from the inner workings of the [[human body]] to the [[virtual world]]s of [[cyberspace]]. Therefore there are now a huge variety of different styles and types of map - for example, one area which has evolved a specific and recognisable variation are those used by [[transit]] organisations to guide [[passengers]], namely [[Urban rail and metro maps]], many of which are losely based on 45 degree angles as originally perfected by [[Harry Beck]] and [[George Dow]]. 
  
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A vital contribution to mapping the reality of the world came with a scientific estimate of the circumference of the earth. This event has been described as the first scientific attempt to give geographical studies a mathematical basis. The man credited for this achievement was [[Eratosthenes]]  (275-195 B.C.E.). He was a devoted geographer who set out to reform and perfect the map of the world. Eratosthenes argued that accurate mapping, even if in two dimensions only, depends upon the establishment of an accurate linear measurements.
 
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His great achievement in the field of cartography was the use of new techniques called (A) meridian  — his imaginary north/south line — and (B) parallel — his imaginary west/east line. These axis lines were placed over the map of the earth with their origin in the city of Rhodes  and divided the world into sectors. Then, Eratosthenes used these earth partitions to reference places on the map.
 
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He provided the logical framework of reference for all future maps, which ensures that every city, area, and ocean is drawn in its proper place on the map — one accurately located in relation to the other. Although not as precise as the latter, his earth partitions were the forerunners of parallels and meridians. Eratosthenes’ map of the world was a very striking achievement and may be considered as the first scientific map, a map that laid the basis to produce accurate maps, which were implemented in the work of all later cartographers and geographers.
 
  
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The accumulated cartographic achievements of the early Greeks and their predecessors that have been presented up to this point culminate with the contribution of the famous Greek scholar named Claudius [[Ptolemy]] (90-168 C.E.). This pivotal figure in geography concluded that with the aid of astronomy and mathematics the earth could be mapped very accurately. Ptolemy revolutionized the depiction of the spherical earth on the map by using [[projection]], and suggested precise methods for fixing the position of geographic features on its surface using [[coordinate system]] — parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude.
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=== Naming conventions ===
  
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His great work ''[[Geographia]]'' comprises of eight books and by today’s standards, it would be called a geographic atlas.  The form of his atlas and the maps themselves are the prototypes of modern mapmaking. And the listing of place-names, with the latitude and longitude of each place to guide the search, is not so different from the system employed by today’s user. Additional standard features on modern maps that are Ptolemaic in origin are: a scale that is used for precise interpretation of phenomena, conventional signs with legends, a table  that contains supplemental information about the specific places on the map, and the practice of orienting maps so that North is at the top and East to the right of the map — a universal custom today. But for all his important innovations Ptolemy was not infallible. His most important error was a miscalculation of the circumference of the earth. He believed that [[Eurasia]] covered 180° of the globe, which convinced Christopher [[Columbus]] to sail across the Atlantic to look for a simpler and faster way to travel to India. Had Columbus known that the true figure was much greater, it is conceivable that he would never have set out on his momentous voyage.  
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Most maps use text to label places and for such things as a map title, legend, and other information.  Maps are often made in specific languages, though names of places often differ between languages. So a map made in English may use the name ''Germany'' for that country, while a German map would use ''Deutschland'', and French map ''Allemagne''.  A word that describes a place using a non-native terminology or language is referred to as an [[exonym]].
  
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It is undeniable that Ptolemy made a fundamental contribution to the development of cartography and proved to be a decisive influence on accurate mapmaking in the future.  
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In some cases the proper name is not clear. For example, the nation of Burma officially changed its name to [[Myanmar]], but many nations do not recognize the ruling junta and continue to use ''Burma''. Sometimes an official name change is resisted in other languages and the older name may remain in common use. Examples include the use of ''Saigon'' for [[Ho Chi Minh City]], ''Bangkok'' for [[Bangkok|Krung Thep]], and ''Ivory Coast'' for [[Côte d'Ivoire]].
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His work determined world exploration and dominated mapping of the world for almost 1,400 years — until the scientific achievements of another great mapmaker Gerhardus [[Mercator]] (1512-94). He was a Flemish cartographer who in his quest to make the world “look right” on the maps developed new projection (called [[Mercator projection]]) using mathematical formulas. From then on, the image of the world that he produced on his map in 1569 becomes a conventional view of the world that we are accustomed
 
  
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European scientific cartography slept through the [[Middle Ages]], when philosophical thought turned toward religion. Though the field advanced in some ways, such as [[Roger Bacon]]'s investigations of map projections and the appearance of [[portolano]] and then [[portolan chart]]s for plying the European trade routes, there was little impetus for systematic study or application of cartography. Most world 'maps' of the period were Christian cosmological diagrams not intended as rigorous geographical representations. Typically rectangular or circular, they followed the style of the so-called "[[T and O map]]," which represents the earth's single land mass as disk-shaped and surrounded by [[ocean]]. Large-scale mapping tended toward diagrammatic as well, since cadastral needs generally were met by descriptions of landmarks rather than by measurements. In contrast, the Chinese during this time were using a rectangular [[coordinate system]] suitable for real, if rough, surveying. The Chinese did not produce world maps because their cosmology supplied no dogma describing distant lands outside their experience. Writings suggest that Chinese philosophers believed the earth to be flat. With the exception of a few theologians of minority opinion, notably [[Lactantius]], Christian and Islamic philosophers adhered to the Greek conception of a spherical earth.
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Difficulties arise when [[transliteration]] or [[Transcription (linguistics)|transcription]] between [[writing systems]] is required. National names tend to have well established names in other languages and writing systems, such as ''Russia'' for Росси́я, but for many placenames a system of transliteration or transcription is required. In transliteration the symbols of one language are represented by symbols in another. For example, the [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] letter ''Р'' is traditionally written as ''R'' in the [[Latin alphabet]]. Systems exist for transliteration of [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], but the results may vary. For example, the Yemeni city of [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]] is written variously in English as Mocha, Al Mukha, al-Mukhā, Mocca, and Moka. Transliteration systems are based on relating written symbols to one another, while transcription is the attempt to spell in one language the phonetic sounds of another. Chinese writing is transformed into the Latin alphabet through the [[Pinyin]] phonetic transcription systems. Other systems were used in the past, such as [[Wade-Giles]], resulting in the city being spelled ''Beijing'' on newer English maps and ''Peking'' on older ones.
  
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[[Image:Kepler-world.jpg|thumb|left|World map by [[Johannes Kepler]].]]
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Further difficulties arise when countries, especially former colonies, do not have a strong national geographic naming standard. In such cases cartographers may have to choose between various phonetic spellings of local names versus older imposed, sometimes resented, colonial names. Some counties have multiple official languages, resulting in multiple official placenames. For example, the capital of Belgium is both ''Brussel'' and ''Bruxelles''. In Canada, English and French are official languages and places have names in both languages. [[British Columbia]] is also officially named ''la Colombie-Britannique''. English maps rarely show the French names outside Quebec, which itself is spelled ''Québec'' in French.<ref>This section based on: {{cite encyclopedia | title = Transliteration Systems | encyclopedia = Illustrated Atlas of the World | publisher = [[Rand McNally]] | date = 1992 | id = ISBN 0-528-83492-4 | pages = A16-A17}}</ref>
  
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The discovery of the Americas by Europeans and the subsequent effort to control and divide those lands necessitated the invention of scientific mapping methods. The trend of globalism that was started with the [[Age of Exploration]] would continue during the [[Renaissance]]. This would, in turn, eventually lead to [[the Enlightenment]] a concern for scientific accuracy and a desire to classify the world would further develop scientific mapmaking.
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The study of placenames is called [[toponymy]], while that of the origin and historical usage of placenames as words is [[etymology]].
  
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Those early mapmakers were the first to show to us the potential values of maps for putting things in perspective, both factually and symbolically. Through their maps, they opened the door for future generations, by allowing people to make informative decisions based on their work. For example, one of the differences between [[the West]] and the other parts of the world, and one of the reasons for the global spread of western power, is that [[Europeans]] recorded their knowledge on maps while others did not. Or, as Peter Whitfield, the author of several books on the history of maps, points out "Men in Seville, Amsterdam or London had access to knowledge of America, Brazil, or India, while the [[native peoples]] knew only their own immediate environment" (Whitfield).
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=== Map symbology ===
  
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The quality of a map’s design affects its reader’s ability to extract information, and
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to learn from the map. Cartographic [[symbology]] has been developed in an effort to portray the world accurately and effectively convey information to the map reader. A legend explains the pictorial language of the map known as its symbology. The title indicates the region the map portrays; the map image portrays the region and so on. Although every map element serves some purpose, convention only dictates inclusion of some elements while others are considered optional. A menu of map elements includes the neatline (border), [[compass rose]] or north arrow, overview map, scale bar, [[map projection|projection]], and information about the map sources, accuracy and publication.
  
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===Technological changes===
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When examining a landscape, scale can be intuited from trees, houses and cars. Not so with a map. Even such a simple thing as a north arrow is crucial. It may seem obvious that the top of a map should point north but this might not be the case.  
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In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later [[magnetic storage]] devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally.  
 
  
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Advances in mechanical devices such as the [[printing press]], [[quadrant]] and [[vernier]] allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the [[telescope]], [[sextant]] and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their [[latitude]] by measuring angles to the [[North Star]] at night or the [[sun]] at noon.  
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Color likewise is equally important. How the cartographer displays the data in different hues can greatly affect the understanding or feel of the map. Different intensities of hue portray different objectives the cartographer is attempting to get across to the audience. Today, personal computers can display up to 16 million distinct colors at a time even though the human eye can distinguish only a minimum number of these (Jeer, 1997).  This fact allows for a multitude of color options for even for the most demanding maps. Moreover, computers can easily hatch patterns in colors to give even more options. This is very beneficial when symbolizing data in categories such as quintile and equal interval classifications.
  
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Advances in photochemical technology, such as the [[lithography|lithographic]] and [[photography | photochemical processes]], have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps.  
+
Quantitative symbols give a visual measure of the relative size/importance/number that a symbol represents and to symbolize this data on a map there are two major classes of symbols used for portraying quantitative properties: Proportional symbols change their visual weight according to a quantitative property. These are appropriate for extensive statistics. [[Choropleth map]]s portray data collection areas (such as counties, or census tracts) with color. Using color this way, the darkness and intensity (or value) of the color is evaluated by the eye as a measure of intensity or concentration (Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2005).
  
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In the mid to late 20th century advances in electronic technology have led to a new revolution in cartography. Specifically [[computer hardware]] devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps.  See also [[digital raster graphic]].
+
=== Map generalisation ===
  
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== Map types ==
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A good map has to provide a compromise between portraying the items of interest (or [[thematic map|themes]]) in the ''right place'' for the map [[scale (map)|scale]] used, against the need to annotate that item with text or a symbol, which takes up space on the map medium and very likely will cause some other item of interest to be displaced.  The cartographer is thus constantly making judgements about what to include, what to leave out and what to show in a ''slightly'' incorrect place - because of the demands of the annotation.  This issue assumes more importance as the scale of the map gets smaller (i.e the map shows a larger area), because relatively, the annotation on the map, takes up more space ''on the ground''.  A good example from the late 1980's was the [[Ordnance Survey]]'s first digital maps, where the ''absolute'' positions of major roads shown at scales of 1:1250 and 1:2500 were sometimes a scale distance of hundreds of metres away from [[ground truth]], when shown on digital maps at scales of 1:250000 and 1:625000, because of the overriding need to annotate the features.
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In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography.  General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features.  General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series.  For example the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps.  
 
  
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A [[topographic map]] is primarily concerned with the topography of a place, and is typically different from other maps by its use of [[contour line]]s showing elevation.
+
==In popular culture==
 +
[[Nicholas Crane]]'s [[television]] series the [[Map Man]], made originally for [[BBC TWO|BBC 2]], portrays cartography and [[cartographers]].
  
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A [[topological map]] is a very general type of map, the kind you might sketch on a napkin.
+
== See also ==
 +
<div style="-moz-column-count:3; column-count:3;">
 +
* [[Aerial photography]]
 +
* [[Animated mapping]]
 +
* [[Cartogram]]
 +
* [[Cartographic relief depiction]]
 +
* [[Cybercartography]]
 +
* [[Digital Cadastral DataBase]]
 +
* [[Figure-ground in map design]]
 +
* [[Geocode]]
 +
* [[Geographic information system|Geographic Information System]] (GIS)
 +
* [[Geovisualization]]
 +
* [[Here be dragons]]
 +
* [[Isolines]]
 +
* [[Isostasy]]
 +
* [[Japanese map symbols]]
 +
* [[List of cartographers]]
 +
* [[Map projection]]
 +
* [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]]
 +
* [[OpenStreetMap]], a free project mapping the world's roads using [[Global Positioning System|GPS]]
 +
* [[Orthophoto]]
 +
* [[Pictorial maps]]
 +
* [[Point of Beginning]]
 +
* [[Sea level]]
 +
* [[Terra incognita]]
 +
</div>
  
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Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented toward specific audiences.  A couple of examples might be a dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties divided into numerical [[Choropleth map|choropleth]] classes.  As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial cultural and social data.
+
==Footnotes==
 +
<references/>
  
 +
==References==
  
−
== Naming conventions ==
+
*Belyea, B. 1992. Amerindian Maps: the Explorer as Translator. ''Journal of Historical Geography'' 18, no.3 :267-277.
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There are several ways to name the places on a map. Early explorers named them in several ways &mdash; after themselves, people in their homeland, and the ruler(s) of their countries. Features were also named by appearance, local climate, incidents that happened in the vicinity, and location. Many places along the coast of [[Brazil]] were named by [[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorers in the early [[1500s]] after the [[saint]] of the day of discovery in the [[Catholic]] [[calendar of saints]] (so that the detailed timetable of their expeditions can often be recovered from the list of assigned names).
+
*Bender, B. 1999. Subverting the Western Gaze: mapping alternative worlds. In The Archaeology and Anthropology of Landscape: Shaping your landscape (eds) P.J. Ucko & R. Layton. London: Routledge.
 +
*Crawford, P.V. 1973. The perception of graduated squares as cartographic symbols. ''Cartographic Journal'' 10, no.2:85-88.
 +
* {{cite book | author=J. B. Harley and [[David Woodward]] (eds) | title=The History of Cartography Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. | location=Chicago and London | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1987 | id=ISBN 0-226-31633-5}}
 +
* {{cite book | author=J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) | title=The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 1: Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies. | location=Chicago and London | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1992| id=ISBN 0-226-31635-1}}
 +
* {{cite book | author=J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) | title=The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 2: Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies. | location=Chicago and London | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1994| id=ISBN 0-226-31637-8}}
 +
* {{cite book | author=J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) | title=The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 3: Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies. [Full text of the Introduction by David Woodward and G. Malcolm Lewis]| location=Chicago and London | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1998| id=ISBN 0-226-90728-7}}
 +
* {{cite book | author=J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) | title=The History of Cartography Volume 3 (in press, 2005): Cartography in the European Renaissance. | location=Chicago and London | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=2005| id=ISBN 0-226-90733-3}}
 +
* {{cite book | author=J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) | title=The History of Cartography Volume 4 (edited by D. Graham Burnett, Matthew Edney, and Mary G. Sponberg Pedley with Founding Editor David Woodward): Cartography in the European Enlightenment. | location=Chicago and London | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1987| id=ISBN 0-226-31633-5}}
 +
* {{cite book | author=J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) | title=The History of Cartography Volume 5: Cartography in the Nineteenth Century | location=Chicago and London | publisher=University of Chicago Press | id=ISBN}}
 +
* {{cite book | author=J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) | title=The History of Cartography Volume 4: Cartography in the Twentieth Century | location=Chicago and London | publisher=University of Chicago Press | id=ISBN}}
 +
* {{cite book | author=MacEachren, A.M. | title=Some Truth with Maps: A Primer on Symbolization & Design | location=University Park | publisher=The Pennsylvania State University | year=1994 | id=ISBN}}
 +
* {{cite book | author=Monmonier, Mark | title=How to Lie with Maps | location=Chicago | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-226-53421-9}}
 +
* {{cite book | author=Monmonier, Mark | title=Mapping It Out | location=Chicago | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1993 | id=ISBN}}
 +
*ESRI. 2004. ESRI Cartography: ''Capabilities and Trends''. Redlands, CA. White Paper
 +
*Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2005. http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/gis/manual/style/index.htm
 +
*Jeer, S. 1997. Traditional Color Coding for Land Uses. ''American Planning Association''. pp. 4-5
 +
*Kent, A.J. 2005. "Aesthetics: A Lost Cause in Cartographic Theory?" The Cartographic Journal 42(2) pp.182-188
 +
*Imus, D. and Dunlavey, P. 2002. ''Back to the Drawing Board: Cartography vs the Digital Workflow''. MT. Hood, Oregon.
 +
*Oliver, J. 2007. The Paradox of Progress: Land Survey and the Making of Agrarian Society in Colonial British Columbia. In Contemporary and Historical Archaeology in Theory (eds) L. McAtackney, M. Palus & A. Piccini. Oxford: BAR, International Series.
 +
*Olson, Judy M. 1975. Experience and the improvement of cartographic communication. ''Cartographic Journal'' 12, no. 2:94-108
 +
*Phillips, R., De Lucia, A., and Skelton, A. 1975. Some Objective Tests of the Legibility of Relief Maps. ''The Cartographic Journal''. 12, pp. 39-46
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*Phillips, R. 1980. A Comparison of Color and Visual Texture as Codes for use as Area Symbols on Relief Maps. ''Ergonomics''. 23, pp. 1117-1128.
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* {{cite book | author=Pickles, John | title=A History of Spaces: Cartographic Reason, Mapping, and the Geo-Coded World | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-415-14497-3}}
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*Rice, M., Jacobson, R., Jones. D. 2003. ''Object Size Discrimination and Non-visual Cartographic Symbolization''. CA. pp. 1-12.
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* {{cite book | author=Slocum, T. | title=Thematic Cartography and Geographic Visualization | location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey | publisher=Prentice Hall | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-130-35123-7}}
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* {{cite book | author=Wilford, John Noble | title=The Mapmakers | publisher=Vintage Books | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0-375-70850-2}}
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*"Map Imitations" in [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/forgery/ Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery], a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
  
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Cartographers also borrowed native names, sometimes by [[transliteration|transliterating]] the written form into the [[Latin alphabet]], but most often by transcribing the sound, or attempting to do so. Often the explorer would address the nearest native, pointing at the landmark in question and speaking in a loud voice; whatever the native said was then written down as its name. The [[Yucatán|Yucatan Peninsula]] was named in this way as was Nome, Alaska, according to legend.
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== External links ==
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{{Commons|Historical maps}}
  
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<!— The article titled ''[[great circle distance]]'' explains how to find that quantity if one knows the two latitudes and longitudes. -->
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* [http://www.ncc.org.ir/ National Cartographic Center of Iran (NCC), Tehran]
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* [http://www.cartography.org.uk/ British Cartographic Society]
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* [http://www.bl.uk/learning/artimages/maphist/mappinghistory.html Mapping History] - a learning resource from the British Library
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* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/guide/gmilltoc.html Geography and Maps, an Illustrated Guide], by the staff of the US [[Library of Congress]].
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* [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Cartography.html The history of cartography] at the School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland
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* [http://www.antiquemaps.co.uk/contents.html Antique Maps] by Carl Moreland and David Bannister - complete text of the book, with information both on mapmaking and on mapmakers, including short biographies of many cartographers
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* [http://www.nacis.org/ North American Cartographic Information Society]
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* [http://www.soc.org.uk/ Society of Cartographers]supports the practising cartographer and encourages and maintains a high standard of cartographic illustration
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* [http://www.newberry.org/collections/conbib.html Concise Bibliography of the History of Cartography], Newberry Library
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* [http://www.upct.org/ UPCT] : project aimed at creating a world map (a French map to begin) with voluntaries using [[Global positioning system|GPS]]
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*[http://openstreetmap.org OpenStreetMap] : project aimed squarely at creating and providing free geographic data such as street maps to anyone who wants them.
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*[http://www.gitta.info GITTA] - A webbased open content eLearning course with basic and intermediate cartography lessons based on the [[eLML]] XML framework.
  
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See [[Maps#External links|Maps]] for more links to modern and historical maps; however, most of the largest sites are listed at the sites linked below.
  
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== External links ==
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* [http://www.maphistory.info/index.html Map history] has extensive links to online map resources, including several large [http://www.maphistory.info/webimages.html collections of images online] and articles on the [http://www.maphistory.info/webtexts.html history of cartography].
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* [http://www.populationdata.net/cartes/cartes.html List of maps of all countries]
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* [http://oddens.geog.uu.nl/index.php Odden's fascinating world of maps and mapping] has a huge database of links on maps and cartography (under "Literature").
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* [http://www.sunysb.edu/libmap/libcats.htm  Online Map Catalogs in North America and Europe] Lists some good places to search for online maps
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* [http://www.sunysb.edu/libmap/libcats.htm  Online map catalogs in North America and Europe] lists some good places to search for online maps.
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* [http://oddens.geog.uu.nl The fascinating world of maps and mapping] Lists all kinds of maps
 
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* [http://www.maphistory.info/collections.html Map collections] Introductory page to help navigate the online map resources
 
 
* [http://www.uidaho.edu/special-collections/Other.Repositories.html  A listing of over 5000 websites] describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources for the research scholar
 
* [http://www.uidaho.edu/special-collections/Other.Repositories.html  A listing of over 5000 websites] describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources for the research scholar
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* [http://www.mapref.org MapRef] The Collection of Map Projections and Reference Systems for Europe - Zusammenstellung Europäischer Referenzsysteme und Kartenprojektionen
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* [http://www.mapref.org MapRef] A collection of map projections and reference systems for Europe - Zusammenstellung Europäischer Referenzsysteme und Kartenprojektionen
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* [http://www.links4maps.com Links for maps] Directory for maps and cartography links
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*[http://maps.grida.no UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library], web-site from the UN Environment Programme with hundreds of examples of thematic maps
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* [http://www.rare-maps.com/links.cfm Antique and Rare Maps - Art Source International] - Links to rare and antique maps and to cartography resources.
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*[http://compsoc.bandungfe.net/kartografi-indonesia/ Kartografi-Indonesia] A website displaying cartograms of various Indonesian-related data made by the Dept. Computational Sociology of Bandung Fe Institute.
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* [http://www.openstreetmap.org OpenStreetMap] - A free project mapping the worlds roads using GPS
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*[http://islamic-cartography.blogspot.com/ IslamicCartography] A weblog on Islamic cartography by Tarek Kahlaoui a PhD student in the University of Pennsylvania
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* [http://www.freemaps.de/ FreeMaps.de] Free Maps Germany & Europe
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*[http://www.photoshoproadmap.com/Photoshop-blog/2006/07/17/rendering-a-map-using-relief-shading-technique-in-photoshop/ Rendering a map using relief shading technique in Photoshop]
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* [http://www.nacis.org/ nacis.org] North American Cartographic Information Society
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*[http://www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/mappingourworld/ Mapping Our World]  Oxfam's interactive site to help pupils develop geography skills through activities all about maps, globes and how we view the world
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*[http://www.platial.com/ Platial, The People's Atlas] User-created maps
  
  
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Revision as of 03:36, 6 October 2007

Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write) is the study and practice of making representations of the Earth on a flat surface. The discipline of cartography combines science, aesthetics, and technical ability to create a balanced and readable representation that is capable of communicating information effectively and quickly.

One problem in creating maps is the simple reality that the surface of the Earth, a curved surface in three-dimensional space, must be represented in two dimensions as a flat surface. This necessarily entails some degree of distortion, which can be dealt with by utilizing projections that minimize distortion in certain areas. Furthermore, the Earth is not a regular sphere, but its shape is instead known as a geoid, which is a highly irregular but exactly knowable and calculable shape.

Maps of all scales have traditionally been drawn and made by hand, but the recent advent and spread of computers has revolutionized cartography. Most commercial-quality maps are now made with software that falls into one of three main types: CAD, GIS, and specialized illustration software.

Functioning as tools, maps communicate spatial information by making it visible. Spatial information is acquired from measurement of space and can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted for a variety of purposes. Current trends in this field are moving away from analog methods of mapmaking and toward the creation of increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally.

Cartographic representation involves the use of symbols and lines to illustrate geographic phenomena. This can aid in visualizing space in an abstract and portable format. The cartographic process rests on the premise that the world is measurable and that we can make reliable representations or models of that reality.

History

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Copy (1475) of St. Isidore's TO map of the world

Maps have been a large part of the human story for a long time (maybe 8,000 years - nobody knows exactly, but longer than written words).[1] They were known to have existed in societies of Europe, the Middle East, China, India, and others.

The earliest known map to date is a wall painting of the ancient Turkish city of Çatal Hüyük which has been dated to the late 7th millennium B.C.E..[2] Other known maps of the ancient world include the Minoan “House of the Admiral” wall painting from c. 1600 B.C.E. showing a seaside community in an oblique perspective, and an engraved map of the holy Babylonian city of Nippur, from the Kassite period (14th – 12th centuries B.C.E.).[3] The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps beginning with Anaximander in the 6th century B.C.E. In ancient China, although geographical literature spans back to the 5th century B.C.E., the drawing of true geographical maps were not begun in earnest until the first half of the Han Dynasty (202 B.C.E.-202 C.E.), largely with the works of Prince Liu An (179 B.C.E.-122 B.C.E.).

Mappa mundi is the general term used to describe Medieval European maps of the world. Approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents (Woodward, p. 286).

In the Age of Exploration from the 15th century to the 17th century, cartographers both copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own based on explorers' observations and new surveying techniques. The invention of the magnetic compass, telescope and sextant enabled increasing accuracy.

Due to the sheer physical difficulties inherent in cartography, map-makers frequently lifted material from earlier works without giving credit to the original cartographer. For example, one of the most famous early maps of North America is unofficially known as the Beaver Map, published in 1715 by Herman Moll. This map is an exact reproduction of a 1698 work by Nicolas de Fer. De Fer in turn had copied images that were first printed in books by Louis Hennepin, published in 1697, and François Du Creux, in 1664. By the 1700s, map-makers started to give credit to the original engraver by printing the phrase "After [the original cartographer]" on the work.[4]

Technological changes

In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later magnetic storage devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally.

Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, quadrant and vernier allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their latitude by measuring angles to the North Star at night or the sun at noon.

Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps.

In the late 20th century and early 21st century advances in electronic technology led to a new revolution in cartography. Specifically, computer hardware devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials. See also digital raster graphic.

Map types

In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. The government of the UK produces the classic 1:63,360 (1 inch to 1 mile) "Ordnance Survey" maps of the entire UK and with a range of correlated larger- and smaller-scale maps of great detail.

A topographic map is primarily concerned with the topographic description of a place, including (especially in the 20th century) the use of contour lines showing elevation. Terrain or relief can be shown in a variety of ways (see Cartographic relief depiction).

A topological map is a very general type of map, the kind you might sketch on a napkin. It often disregards scale in the interest of clarity of communicating specific route or relational information.

Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented toward specific audiences. A couple of examples might be a dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties divided into numerical choropleth classes. As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial cultural and social data.

Map design

Arthur H. Robinson, an American cartographer influential in thematic cartography, stated that a map not properly designed "will be a cartographic failure." He also claimed, when considering all aspects of cartography, that "map design is perhaps the most complex."[5] Robinson codified the mapmaker's understanding that a map must be must be designed foremost with consideration to the audience and its needs.

From the very beginning of mapmaking, maps "have been made for some particular purpose or set of purposes".[6] The intent of the map should be illustrated in a manner in which the percipient acknowledges its purpose in a timely fashion. The term percipient refers to the person receiving information and was coined by Robinson.[7] The principle of figure-ground refers to this notion of engaging the user by presenting a clear presentation, leaving no confusion concerning the purpose of the map. This will enhance the user’s experience and keep his attention. If the user is unable to identify what is being demonstrated in a reasonable fashion, the map may be regarded as useless.

Illustrated map

Making a meaningful map is the ultimate goal. MacEachren explains that a well designed map "is convincing because it implies authenticity" (1994, pp. 9). An interesting map will no doubt engage a reader. Information richness or a map that is multivariate shows relationships within the map. Showing several variables allows comparison, which adds to the meaningfulness of the map. This also generates hypothesis and stimulates ideas and perhaps further research. In order to convey the message of the map, the creator must design it in a manner which will aid the reader in the overall understanding of its purpose. The title of a map may provide the "needed link" necessary for communicating that message, but the overall design of the map fosters the manner in which the reader interprets it (Monmonier, 1993, pp. 93).

In the 21st Century it is possible to find a map of virtually anything from the inner workings of the human body to the virtual worlds of cyberspace. Therefore there are now a huge variety of different styles and types of map - for example, one area which has evolved a specific and recognisable variation are those used by transit organisations to guide passengers, namely Urban rail and metro maps, many of which are losely based on 45 degree angles as originally perfected by Harry Beck and George Dow.


Naming conventions

Most maps use text to label places and for such things as a map title, legend, and other information. Maps are often made in specific languages, though names of places often differ between languages. So a map made in English may use the name Germany for that country, while a German map would use Deutschland, and French map Allemagne. A word that describes a place using a non-native terminology or language is referred to as an exonym.

In some cases the proper name is not clear. For example, the nation of Burma officially changed its name to Myanmar, but many nations do not recognize the ruling junta and continue to use Burma. Sometimes an official name change is resisted in other languages and the older name may remain in common use. Examples include the use of Saigon for Ho Chi Minh City, Bangkok for Krung Thep, and Ivory Coast for Côte d'Ivoire.

Difficulties arise when transliteration or transcription between writing systems is required. National names tend to have well established names in other languages and writing systems, such as Russia for Росси́я, but for many placenames a system of transliteration or transcription is required. In transliteration the symbols of one language are represented by symbols in another. For example, the Cyrillic letter Р is traditionally written as R in the Latin alphabet. Systems exist for transliteration of Arabic, but the results may vary. For example, the Yemeni city of Mocha is written variously in English as Mocha, Al Mukha, al-Mukhā, Mocca, and Moka. Transliteration systems are based on relating written symbols to one another, while transcription is the attempt to spell in one language the phonetic sounds of another. Chinese writing is transformed into the Latin alphabet through the Pinyin phonetic transcription systems. Other systems were used in the past, such as Wade-Giles, resulting in the city being spelled Beijing on newer English maps and Peking on older ones.

Further difficulties arise when countries, especially former colonies, do not have a strong national geographic naming standard. In such cases cartographers may have to choose between various phonetic spellings of local names versus older imposed, sometimes resented, colonial names. Some counties have multiple official languages, resulting in multiple official placenames. For example, the capital of Belgium is both Brussel and Bruxelles. In Canada, English and French are official languages and places have names in both languages. British Columbia is also officially named la Colombie-Britannique. English maps rarely show the French names outside Quebec, which itself is spelled Québec in French.[8]

The study of placenames is called toponymy, while that of the origin and historical usage of placenames as words is etymology.

Map symbology

The quality of a map’s design affects its reader’s ability to extract information, and to learn from the map. Cartographic symbology has been developed in an effort to portray the world accurately and effectively convey information to the map reader. A legend explains the pictorial language of the map known as its symbology. The title indicates the region the map portrays; the map image portrays the region and so on. Although every map element serves some purpose, convention only dictates inclusion of some elements while others are considered optional. A menu of map elements includes the neatline (border), compass rose or north arrow, overview map, scale bar, projection, and information about the map sources, accuracy and publication.

When examining a landscape, scale can be intuited from trees, houses and cars. Not so with a map. Even such a simple thing as a north arrow is crucial. It may seem obvious that the top of a map should point north but this might not be the case.

Color likewise is equally important. How the cartographer displays the data in different hues can greatly affect the understanding or feel of the map. Different intensities of hue portray different objectives the cartographer is attempting to get across to the audience. Today, personal computers can display up to 16 million distinct colors at a time even though the human eye can distinguish only a minimum number of these (Jeer, 1997). This fact allows for a multitude of color options for even for the most demanding maps. Moreover, computers can easily hatch patterns in colors to give even more options. This is very beneficial when symbolizing data in categories such as quintile and equal interval classifications.

Quantitative symbols give a visual measure of the relative size/importance/number that a symbol represents and to symbolize this data on a map there are two major classes of symbols used for portraying quantitative properties: Proportional symbols change their visual weight according to a quantitative property. These are appropriate for extensive statistics. Choropleth maps portray data collection areas (such as counties, or census tracts) with color. Using color this way, the darkness and intensity (or value) of the color is evaluated by the eye as a measure of intensity or concentration (Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2005).

Map generalisation

A good map has to provide a compromise between portraying the items of interest (or themes) in the right place for the map scale used, against the need to annotate that item with text or a symbol, which takes up space on the map medium and very likely will cause some other item of interest to be displaced. The cartographer is thus constantly making judgements about what to include, what to leave out and what to show in a slightly incorrect place - because of the demands of the annotation. This issue assumes more importance as the scale of the map gets smaller (i.e the map shows a larger area), because relatively, the annotation on the map, takes up more space on the ground. A good example from the late 1980's was the Ordnance Survey's first digital maps, where the absolute positions of major roads shown at scales of 1:1250 and 1:2500 were sometimes a scale distance of hundreds of metres away from ground truth, when shown on digital maps at scales of 1:250000 and 1:625000, because of the overriding need to annotate the features.

In popular culture

Nicholas Crane's television series the Map Man, made originally for BBC 2, portrays cartography and cartographers.

See also

  • Aerial photography
  • Animated mapping
  • Cartogram
  • Cartographic relief depiction
  • Cybercartography
  • Digital Cadastral DataBase
  • Figure-ground in map design
  • Geocode
  • Geographic Information System (GIS)
  • Geovisualization
  • Here be dragons
  • Isolines
  • Isostasy
  • Japanese map symbols
  • List of cartographers
  • Map projection
  • National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
  • OpenStreetMap, a free project mapping the world's roads using GPS
  • Orthophoto
  • Pictorial maps
  • Point of Beginning
  • Sea level
  • Terra incognita

Footnotes

  1. ↑ http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancient%20Web%20Pages/100mono.html Article: The earliest known maps
  2. ↑ http://www.atamanhotel.com/catalhoyuk/oldest-map.html
  3. ↑ http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/PROJ/NIP/PUB93/NSC/NSCFIG7.html The Nippur Expedition
  4. ↑ "Map Imitation" in Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery, a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
  5. ↑ Robinson, A.H. (1953). Elements of Cartography. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN. 
  6. ↑ Robinson, A.H. (1982). Early Thematic Mapping: In the History of Cartography.. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.. ISBN. 
  7. ↑ MacEachren, A.M. (1995). How Maps Work. New York: The Guilford Press. ISBN. 
  8. ↑ This section based on: "Transliteration Systems". Illustrated Atlas of the World: A16-A17. (1992). Rand McNally. ISBN 0-528-83492-4.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

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  • Crawford, P.V. 1973. The perception of graduated squares as cartographic symbols. Cartographic Journal 10, no.2:85-88.
  • J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1987). The History of Cartography Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean.. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-31633-5. 
  • J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1992). The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 1: Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies.. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-31635-1. 
  • J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1994). The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 2: Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies.. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-31637-8. 
  • J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1998). The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 3: Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies. [Full text of the Introduction by David Woodward and G. Malcolm Lewis]. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-90728-7. 
  • J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (2005). The History of Cartography Volume 3 (in press, 2005): Cartography in the European Renaissance.. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-90733-3. 
  • J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds) (1987). The History of Cartography Volume 4 (edited by D. Graham Burnett, Matthew Edney, and Mary G. Sponberg Pedley with Founding Editor David Woodward): Cartography in the European Enlightenment.. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-31633-5. 
  • J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds). The History of Cartography Volume 5: Cartography in the Nineteenth Century. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN. 
  • J. B. Harley and David Woodward (eds). The History of Cartography Volume 4: Cartography in the Twentieth Century. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN. 
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  • Monmonier, Mark (1991). How to Lie with Maps. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-53421-9. 
  • Monmonier, Mark (1993). Mapping It Out. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN. 
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  • "Map Imitations" in Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery, a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada

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