Difference between revisions of "Cartography" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
(claimed for Betsy Brooks)
 
(24 intermediate revisions by 6 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
−
{{claimed}}
+
{{Paid}}{{Approved}}{{Submitted}}{{Images OK}}{{Copyedited}}
 +
[[Image:Planisphæri cœleste.jpg|thumb|350px|A celestial map from the seventeenth century, by the Dutch cartographer Frederik de Wit.]]
  
−
'''Cartography''' or '''mapmaking''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]] ''chartis'' = map and ''graphein'' = write) is the study and practice of making [[map]]s or [[globe]]s. Maps have traditionally been made using [[pen]] and [[paper]], but the advent and spread of [[computer]]s has revolutionized cartography. Most commercial quality maps are now made with map making [[software]] that falls into one of three main types;  [[computer-aided design |CAD]], [[geographic information system | GIS]], and specialized map illustration software.
+
'''Cartography''' or '''mapmaking''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]] ''chartis'' - map and ''graphein'' - write) is the study and practice of making representations of the [[Earth]] on a flat surface. The discipline of cartography combines [[science]], [[aesthetics]], and technical ability to create a balanced and readable representation that is capable of communicating information effectively and quickly.
  
−
Maps function as [[visualization]] tools for spatial data. Spatial data is acquired from measurement and can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted for a variety of purposes. Current trends in this field are moving away from analog methods of mapmaking and toward the creation of increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally. The cartographic process rests on the premise that there is an objective reality and that we can make reliable representations of that reality by adding levels of abstraction.
+
Cartography, however mechanized it becomes, remains both a science and an art. The aesthetics of any given map will always be a critical component essential to the conveyance of information. A map must provide accuracy and in the best of solutions, an inventive presentation of data or analysis of data, but always in a form that is readily comprehensible and inviting to the reader. A map is both more, and less, than simply geographical or physical space. And it is always a result of artistic and technical judgments, creating something both useful and, occasionally, beautiful.  
  
−
== History ==
+
One problem in creating maps is the simple reality that the surface of the Earth, a curved surface in three-dimensional space, must be represented in two dimensions as a flat surface. This necessarily entails some degree of distortion, which can be dealt with by utilizing [[map projection|projections]] that minimize distortion in certain areas. Furthermore, the Earth is not a regular [[sphere]], but its shape is instead known as a [[geoid]], which is a highly irregular but exactly knowable and calculable shape.
  
−
[[Image:Radkarte_MKL1888.png|thumb|World map from the [[Middle Age]]s.]]
+
Maps of all [[scale]]s have traditionally been drawn and made by hand, but the use of [[computer]]s has revolutionized cartography. Most commercial-quality maps are now made with [[software]] that falls into one of three main types: [[computer-aided design|CAD]], [[geographic information systems|GIS]], and specialized illustration software.
 +
{{toc}}
 +
Functioning as tools, maps communicate spatial [[information]] by making it visible. Spatial information is acquired from [[measurement]] of space and can be stored in a [[database]], from which it can be extracted for a variety of purposes. Current trends in this field are moving away from analog methods of mapmaking and toward the creation of increasingly dynamic, [[interactive maps]] that can be manipulated digitally.
  
−
Mapmaking involves advanced skills and attitudes, particularly the use of symbols to represent certain geographic phenomena, as well as the ability to visualize the world in an abstract and scaled down form.
+
Cartographic representation involves the use of symbols and lines to illustrate geographic phenomena. This can aid in visualizing space in an abstract and portable format. The cartographic process rests on the premise that the [[world]] is measurable and that we can make reliable representations or models of that reality.  
  
−
Maps have been an integral part of the human story for long time (maybe 8,000 years - nobody knows exactly, but longer than a written words). From cave/wall partings, ancient maps of [[Babylon]] and [[Greek philosophers]], through the [[Age of Exploration]], and on into the 21st century, people have created and used maps as the essential tools to help them define, explain and navigate their way through the world (and beyond). According to some scholars, mapping represented a significant step forward in the intellectual development of human beings and it serves as a record of the advancing knowledge of the human race.  
+
==Etymology==
 +
The term "Cartography" was coined in 1859, from the French, ''carta'' meaning card and -''graphie,'' from the Greek, meaning to write, or to draw.<ref> ''Online Etymological Dictionary''. [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cartography Cartography] Retrieved December 21, 2007.</ref>  A slightly different version finds the term deriving from Old French ''carte,'' or map, with its roots in Latin ''charta,'' or ''carta,'' meaning paper made from papyrus. ''Graphie'' is the French for ''graphia,'' from the Greek for writing. <ref>''The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language,'' Fourth Ed. (Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006) </ref>
  
 +
== History ==
 +
[[Image:TO map.gif|thumb|Copy (1475) of St. Isidore's TO map of the world]]
  
−
The oldest extant picture that resembles a map was created in the late 7th millennium B.C.E.. in [[Anatolia]], modern [[Turkey]]. This wall painting represents a plan of an early-civilized city that prospered by trading obsidian. Whoever created this ‘mental map’ may have been encouraged by the fact that houses in Çatal Hűyűk were clustered together and were entered via flat roofs. Therefore, it was normal for the inhabitants to view their city from a bird’s eye view. Having said this, I think that this painting influenced in some way all-later civilizations with their mapmaking endeavours. Today, almost all maps are drawn as if we are looking down from the sky instead of from the more natural horizontal or oblique perspective. Nevertheless, one of the early-survived [[Hellenic]] ‘quasi-maps’ of the [[Minoan]] civilization on Crete, the so-called “House of the Admiral” c. 1600 B.C.E. is a wall painting representing view of a seaside community in an oblique perspective.
+
Maps have been a large part of the human story for a long time (perhaps 8,000 years - nobody knows exactly, but longer than written words). They were known to have existed in societies of [[Europe]], the [[Middle East]], [[China]], [[India]], and others.
  
−
Predecessors of mapping could be also found in [[Babylonia]] around the 23rd century b.c.e. An engraved map of the holy city of [[Nippur]], from the Kassite period (14th-12th centuries b.c.e.) of Babylonian history, was found at Nippur.
+
The earliest known map to date is a wall painting of the ancient Turkish city of [[Catal Huyuk|Çatal Hüyük]] which has been dated to the late seventh millennium B.C.E. <ref> ''Ataman Ministry of Culture''. [http://www.atamanhotel.com/catalhoyuk/oldest-map.html The Oldest Map of the World]. Retrieved December 21, 2007. </ref> Other known maps of the ancient world include the [[Minoan]] “House of the Admiral” wall painting from c. 1600 B.C.E.. showing a seaside community in an oblique perspective, and an engraved map of the holy [[Babylonian]] city of [[Nippur]], from the Kassite period (fourteenth – twelfth centuries B.C.E.). <ref> ''Oriental Institute, University of Chicago''. [http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/PROJ/NIP/PUB93/NSC/NSCFIG7.html Nippur - Sacred City Of Enlil] Retrieved December 21, 2007. </ref> The [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] and [[Roman Empire|Romans]] created maps beginning with [[Anaximander]] in the sixth century B.C.E. In [[ancient China]], although geographical literature spans back to the fifth century B.C.E., the drawing of true geographical maps was not begun in earnest until the first half of the [[Han Dynasty]] (202 B.C.E.-202 C.E.), with the works of Prince [[Liu An]] (179 B.C.E.-122 B.C.E.).
  
−
The early attempts at maps were severely limited by lack of knowledge of anything other than very local features. Whereas early world maps reflected mostly religious beliefs of the form of the world. For example, the [[Babylonian]] World Map — the earliest surviving map of the world (c. 600 B.C.E..) — is very much Mesopotamia-centred, ignoring peoples such as the [[Persians]] and [[Egyptians]], who were well known to the Babylonians. The area shown is depicted as a circular shape surrounded by water, which fits the religious image of the world in which the Babylonians believed.  
+
[[Mappa mundi]] is the general term used to describe Medieval European maps of the world. Approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the [[Middle Ages]]. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents <ref>J. B. Harley, and David Woodward (eds.) ''The History of Cartography Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean.'' (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 286</ref>.
  
−
Maps were quite rare in ancient [[Egypt]]. The [[Egyptians]] seem to have preferred written words to plans. Still, what might have later influenced human mapmaking were the geometrical methods that were used for land measurements, which were stimulated by the need to re-establish the exact boundaries of properties after the annual Nile floods. The most interesting artefact that has survived from this period is the [[Turin Papyrus]], dated c. 1300 B.C.E. It shows the mountains east of the Nile where gold and silver were mined, along with the location of the miners’ shelters, wells, and the road network that linked the region with the mainland. Its originality can be seen in the map’s inscriptions, its precise orientation and the use of colour.
+
In the [[Age of Exploration]] from the fifteenth century to the seventeenth century, cartographers copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own based on explorers' observations and new [[surveying]] techniques. The invention of the [[magnetic compass]], [[telescope]], and [[sextant]] increased accuracy.
  
−
Ancient Greeks were the first people to adopt a scientific approach to mapping. They were excellent observers of natural phenomena. Observations of the sun, the moon, and the curvature of the earth were fundamental to the theoretical thinking of early [[Greek philosophers]], scientists, and geographers. The Greeks’ philosophical conception of the world and their growing knowledge in [[geography]] contributed to establishing the concept of mapmaking and to the development of cartographic techniques.
+
Due to the sheer physical difficulties inherent in cartography, map-makers frequently lifted material from earlier works without giving credit to the original cartographer. For example, one of the most famous early maps of [[North America]] is unofficially known as the [[Beaver Map]], published in 1715 by [[Herman Moll]]. This map is an exact reproduction of a 1698 work by [[Nicolas de Fer]]. De Fer in turn had copied images that were first printed in books by [[Louis Hennepin]], published in 1697, and [[François Du Creux]], in 1664. By the 1700s, map-makers started to give credit to the original engraver by printing the phrase "After [the original cartographer]" on the work. <ref> ''Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery''. [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/forgery/002035-300-e.html? Map Imitations] ''www.collectionscanada.ca''. Retrieved December 21, 2007. </ref>
  
−
This chapter presents one of the most momentous periods in the history of cartography by illustrating the works of early Greek philosophers who pioneered the concept of mapping. It traces the evolution of Greek ideas concerning the geography of the earth and cartographic techniques of representing natural phenomena in a map form. In addition to an examination of reconstructed maps  of the world as conceived by [[Anaximander of Miletus]], Hecataeus, [[Herodotus]], [[Eratosthenes]], and [[Ptolemy]], this paper also assesses the writings of early Greek poets who tried to give a written picture of the known world of the time. This section will hopefully allow the reader to comprehend the stages through which the Greeks developed their geographical ideas and cartographic knowledge; from blurry and obscure notions of [[Mediterranean]] mariners — as related by [[Homer]] — to more scientific and mathematical approach of Claudius Ptolemy’s geography.
+
Not all maps were drawn on paper. Well researched examples include the navigational stick charts of the Marshall Islanders, interwoven sticks arranged to depict distances across seas, wave fronts, and elevations of islands. Native Alaskans carved intricate [[sculpture]]s that recreated coastlines and elevations in a portable, and quite accurate, three dimensional form. <ref>Michael Southworth, and Susan Southworth. ''Maps, a visual survey and design guide.'' (Boston: Little Brown, 1982. ISBN 0821215035) </ref>
  
−
In reviewing the literature of early geography and early conceptions of the earth, all sources lead to Homer, who is considered by many (Strabo, Kish and Dilke) as the founding father of Geography. Regardless of the doubts about Homer’s existence, one thing is certain he never was a mapmaker. The enclosed map (soon), which represents the conjectural view of the Homeric world was never created by him. It is an imaginary reconstruction of the world as Homer described it in his two poems the Iliad and the Odyssey. It is worth mentioning that each of these writings involves strong geographic symbolism. They can be seen as descriptive pictures of life and warfare in the Bronze Age  and the illustrated plans of actual journeys. Thus, each one develops a philosophical view of the world, which makes it possible to show this information in the form of a map. Additional written statements about ancient geography can be found in [[Hesiod]] poems, written probably during the 7th century B.C.E.
+
== Technological changes ==
  
−
The first steps in the development of scientific thought in ancient Greece belonged to [[Ionians]] from their well-known city of [[Miletus]] in [[Asia Minor]]. Miletus was favourably placed to absorb aspects of Babylonian science and culture and to profit from the expanding commerce of the Mediterranean.  
+
In cartography, new technology has been incorporated into the production of the maps of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment, were varied in quality and of limited distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, like the [[compass]] and, much later, [[magnetic storage]] devices, led to the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate those maps digitally.
  
−
[[Thales]] of Miletus (c. 600 B.C.E.) thought that the earth was a disk supported by water.  
+
Advances in mechanical devices such as the [[printing press]], [[quadrant]], and [[vernier]] calipers allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the [[telescope]], [[sextant]], and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and gave the mapmakers and navigators the ability to find their [[latitude]] by measuring angles to the [[North Star]] at night or the [[sun]] at noon.  
  
−
[[Anaximander]] of Miletus (c. 611–546 B.C.E.) was a pupil of Thales. It has been said that he believed that the earth was a cylindrical form like a stone pillar and suspended in space. The inhabited part of his world was a circular, disk-shaped, and presumably located on the upper surface of the cylinder. Anaximander was the first ancient Greek to draw a map of the known world. It is for this reason that he is considered by many to be the first mapmaker (Dilke). A scarcity of archaeological and written evidence prevents us from giving any assessment of his map. What we can assume is that he portrayed land and sea in a map form. Unfortunately, any definite geographical knowledge that he included in his map is lost. What is certain is that 50 years after Anaximander’s alleged map, Hecataeus of Miletus (550–475 B.C.E.) produced another map that he claimed was an improved version of the map of his illustrious predecessor.  
+
Advances in photochemical technology, such as the [[lithography|lithographic]] and [[photography|photochemical processes]], have allowed for the creation of maps that are finely detailed, do not distort in shape, and resist moisture and wear. These advances eliminated the need for engraving, further shortening the time it takes to make and reproduce maps.  
  
−
Another interesting figure in that era was [[Anaximenes]] of Miletus (6th century B.C.E.), who studied under Anaximander. He rejected the views of his teacher regarding the shape of the earth and instead, he visualized the earth as a rectangular form supported by compressed air. What is interesting here is that his incorrect idea about the shape of the world somehow persisted in the form of how the contemporary maps are presented today. Extend of the current maps are always kind of limited to this rectangular shape (i.e., border of the map [neatline], computer screen, or any document page).  
+
In the late twentieth century and early twenty-first century, advances in electronic technology led to another revolution in cartography. Specifically, [[computer hardware]] devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document), and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials.
  
−
Although, only a very limited portion of the Earth was known to these ancient Greeks, the shape of the Earth was always going to be of fundamental importance in world maps. For example, [[Pythagoras]] of Samos (c. 560–480 B.C.E.) first speculated about the notion of a spherical earth  with a central fire at its core. He is also credited with the introduction of a model that divides a spherical earth into five zones. One hot, two temperate, and two cold — northern and southern. It seems likely that he illustrated his division in the form of a map, however, no evidence of this has survived to the present.
+
== Map types ==
  
−
Whereas a number of previous philosophers assumed the earth to be spherical, [[Aristotle]] (384 – 322B.C.E.) is the one to be credited with proving the earth’s sphericity. Those arguments can be summarized as follows:
+
The field of cartography can be divided into two broad categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features, like topographic maps. [[Topography|Topographic]] maps depict natural and built features of a place, with relief and elevation shown by drawn contours or shading techniques. These relatively general maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example, [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) has produced a full series of 1:24,000 scale topographic maps; Canada has the same, at 1:50,000 scale. The government of the UK produces 1:63,360 (1 inch to 1 mile) "Ordnance Survey" maps of the entire UK and a range of correlated larger- and smaller-scale maps of great detail.
−
[[Image:Al-Idrisi's world map.JPG|thumb|[[Muhammad al-Idrisi]]'s world map from 1154. Note that south is at the top of the map.]]
 
−
*The [[lunar eclipse]] is always circular.
 
−
*Ships seem to sink as they move away from view and pass the horizon.
 
−
*Some stars can only be seen from certain parts of the earth. 
 
−
It is unclear if he ever produced a map of the world according to his specifications, but if he did, we have yet to find it.  
 
  
−
In 288 B.C.E., [[Aristarchus]] of Samos was the first to say that the sun was the center of universe (see [[heliocentric theory]]). Also [[Hipparchus]] (astronomer)
+
[[Thematic map|Thematic cartography]] involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented toward specific audiences. Examples might be a [[Thematic_map#Dot|dot map]] showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties divided into numerical [[Choropleth map|choropleth]] classes. As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial cultural and social data. Epidemiological data are represented on specialized maps, a particularly useful way to illustrate exposure patterns, or occurrence. Most applied cartography could be well be described as thematic mapping. Points of view can be represented thematically as well, and the user of a given map must be informed of the objectives of the cartographer in order to judge the value of the presentation.
  
−
A vital contribution to mapping the reality of the world came with a scientific estimate of the circumference of the earth. This event has been described as the first scientific attempt to give geographical studies a mathematical basis. The man credited for this achievement was [[Eratosthenes]]  (275-195 B.C.E.). He was a devoted geographer who set out to reform and perfect the map of the world. Eratosthenes argued that accurate mapping, even if in two dimensions only, depends upon the establishment of an accurate linear measurements.
+
== Map design ==
−
His great achievement in the field of cartography was the use of new techniques called (A) meridian  — his imaginary north/south line — and (B) parallel — his imaginary west/east line. These axis lines were placed over the map of the earth with their origin in the city of Rhodes  and divided the world into sectors. Then, Eratosthenes used these earth partitions to reference places on the map.
+
[[Image:Livingston-Greenwich-map.jpg|thumb|270px|right|Illustrated map]]
−
He provided the logical framework of reference for all future maps, which ensures that every city, area, and ocean is drawn in its proper place on the map — one accurately located in relation to the other. Although not as precise as the latter, his earth partitions were the forerunners of parallels and meridians. Eratosthenes’ map of the world was a very striking achievement and may be considered as the first scientific map, a map that laid the basis to produce accurate maps, which were implemented in the work of all later cartographers and geographers.
 
  
−
The accumulated cartographic achievements of the early Greeks and their predecessors that have been presented up to this point culminate with the contribution of the famous Greek scholar named Claudius [[Ptolemy]] (90-168 C.E..). This pivotal figure in geography concluded that with the aid of astronomy and mathematics the earth could be mapped very accurately. Ptolemy revolutionized the depiction of the spherical earth on the map by using [[projection]], and suggested precise methods for fixing the position of geographic features on its surface using [[coordinate system]] -- parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude.
+
[[Arthur H. Robinson]], an American cartographer influential in thematic cartography, stated that a poorly designed map "will be a cartographic failure." He also declared that "map design is perhaps the most complex" aspect of cartography. <ref>Arthur Howard Robinson. ''Elements of cartography.'' (New York: Wiley, 1995. ISBN 0471555797) </ref> Robinson codified the mapmaker's understanding that a map must be designed with consideration of the audience and its needs foremost. A well designed map would address each of these basic elements: 
 +
*ease of use, with respect to the intended audience, both physically and cognitively; *accuracy, meaning a minimum amount of distortion or errors;
 +
*strong relationship between the object and the map, meaning that the translation of physical space to a different medium should be readily recognizable;
 +
*appropriate labeling and symbol use; 
 +
*legibility and clarity - very important points. <ref> Southworth and Southworth </ref>
  
−
His great work ''[[Geographia]]'' comprises of eight books and by today’s standards, it would be called a geographic atlas. The form of his atlas and the maps themselves are the prototypes of modern mapmaking. And the listing of place-names, with the latitude and longitude of each place to guide the search, is not so different from the system employed by today’s user. Additional standard features on modern maps that are Ptolemaic in origin are: a scale that is used for precise interpretation of phenomena, conventional signs with legends, a table  that contains supplemental information about the specific places on the map, and the practice of orienting maps so that North is at the top and East to the right of the map — a universal custom today. But for all his important innovations Ptolemy was not infallible. His most important error was a miscalculation of the circumference of the earth. He believed that [[Eurasia]] covered 180° of the globe, which convinced Christopher [[Columbus]] to sail across the Atlantic to look for a simpler and faster way to travel to India. Had Columbus known that the true figure was much greater, it is conceivable that he would never have set out on his momentous voyage.  
+
From the very beginning of mapmaking, maps "have been made for some particular purpose or set of purposes." <ref>Arthur Howard Robinson. ''Early thematic mapping in the history of cartography.'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. ISBN 0226722856) </ref> The intent of the map should be illustrated in a manner in which the 'percipient' acknowledges its purpose in a timely fashion. The term ''percipient'' refers to the person receiving information and was used by Robinson. The figure-ground principle refers to this notion of engaging the user by clear presentation, leaving no confusion concerning the purpose of the map. Clear presentation enhances the user’s experience and keeps his attention. If the user is unable to identify what is being demonstrated, the map may be useless.
  
−
It is undeniable that Ptolemy made a fundamental contribution to the development of cartography and proved to be a decisive influence on accurate mapmaking in the future.  
+
Making a meaningful map is the ultimate goal. MacEachren explains that a well designed map "is convincing because it implies authenticity" <ref>A.M. MacEachren. ''Some Truth with Maps: A Primer on Symbolization & Design.'' (University Park: The Pennsylvania State University, 1994), 9</ref>. A thoughtfully designed, interesting map engages a reader. Information richness or a map that is multivariate will show relationships within the map. Showing several variables allows comparison, adding to the meaningfulness of the map. This also generates hypotheses, stimulates ideas, and perhaps, further research. 
−
His work determined world exploration and dominated mapping of the world for almost 1,400 years — until the scientific achievements of another great mapmaker Gerhardus [[Mercator]] (1512-94). He was a Flemish cartographer who in his quest to make the world “look right” on the maps developed new projection (called [[Mercator projection]]) using mathematical formulas. From then on, the image of the world that he produced on his map in 1569 becomes a conventional view of the world that we are accustomed
 
  
−
European scientific cartography slept through the [[Middle Ages]], when philosophical thought turned toward religion. Though the field advanced in some ways, such as [[Roger Bacon]]'s investigations of map projections and the appearance of [[portolano]] and then [[portolan chart]]s for plying the European trade routes, there was little impetus for systematic study or application of cartography. Most world 'maps' of the period were Christian cosmological diagrams not intended as rigorous geographical representations. Typically rectangular or circular, they followed the style of the so-called "[[T and O map]]," which represents the earth's single land mass as disk-shaped and surrounded by [[ocean]]. Large-scale mapping tended toward diagrammatic as well, since cadastral needs generally were met by descriptions of landmarks rather than by measurements. In contrast, the Chinese during this time were using a rectangular [[coordinate system]] suitable for real, if rough, surveying. The Chinese did not produce world maps because their cosmology supplied no dogma describing distant lands outside their experience. Writings suggest that Chinese philosophers believed the earth to be flat. With the exception of a few theologians of minority opinion, notably [[Lactantius]], Christian and Islamic philosophers adhered to the Greek conception of a spherical earth.
+
In order to convey the message of the map, the creator must design it in a manner that will facilitate the overall understanding of its purpose. The title of a map may provide the "needed link" necessary for communicating that message, but the overall design of the map fosters the manner in which the reader interprets it <ref>Mark Monmonier. ''Mapping It Out.'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 93</ref>).
  
−
[[Image:Kepler-world.jpg|thumb|left|World map by [[Johannes Kepler]].]]
+
=== Naming conventions ===
  
−
The discovery of the Americas by Europeans and the subsequent effort to control and divide those lands necessitated the invention of scientific mapping methods. The trend of globalism that was started with the [[Age of Exploration]] would continue during the [[Renaissance]]. This would, in turn, eventually lead to [[the Enlightenment]] a concern for scientific accuracy and a desire to classify the world would further develop scientific mapmaking.
+
Most maps use text to label places and for such things as a map title, legend, and other information. Maps are typically created in specific [[language]]s, though names of places often differ among languages. So a map made in English may use the name ''Germany'' for that country, where a German map would use ''Deutschland,'' and a French map ''Allemagne.'' A word that describes a place using a non-native terminology or language is referred to as an [[exonym]].
  
−
Those early mapmakers were the first to show to us the potential values of maps for putting things in perspective, both factually and symbolically. Through their maps, they opened the door for future generations, by allowing people to make informative decisions based on their work. For example, one of the differences between [[the West]] and the other parts of the world, and one of the reasons for the global spread of western power, is that [[Europeans]] recorded their knowledge on maps while others did not. Or, as Peter Whitfield, the author of several books on the history of maps, points out "Men in Seville, Amsterdam or London had access to knowledge of America, Brazil, or India, while the [[native peoples]] knew only their own immediate environment" (Whitfield).  
+
In some cases, the 'correct' name is unclear. For example, the nation of Burma officially changed its name to [[Myanmar]], but many nations do not recognize the ruling junta and continue to use ''Burma.'' Sometimes an official name change is resisted in other languages and the older name may remain in common use. Examples include the use of ''Saigon'' for [[Ho Chi Minh City]], ''Bangkok'' for [[Bangkok|Krung Thep]], and ''Ivory Coast'' for [[Côte d'Ivoire]].
  
 +
Difficulties arise when [[transliteration]] or [[Transcription (linguistics)|transcription]] between [[writing systems]] is required. National names tend to have well established names in other languages and writing systems, such as ''Russia'' for Росси́я, but for many placenames a system of transliteration or transcription is required. In transliteration the symbols of one language are represented by symbols in another. For example, the [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] letter ''Р'' is traditionally written as ''R'' in the [[Latin alphabet]]. Systems exist for transliteration of [[Arabic language|Arabic]], but the results may vary. For example, the Yemeni city of [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]] is written variously in English as Mocha, Al Mukha, al-Mukhā, Mocca, and Moka. Transliteration systems are based on relating written symbols to one another, while transcription is the attempt to spell the phonetic sounds of one language in another. Chinese writing is transformed into the Latin alphabet through the [[Pinyin]] phonetic transcription systems, for example. Other systems were used in the past, such as [[Wade-Giles]], resulting in the city being spelled ''Beijing'' on newer English maps and ''Peking'' on older ones.
  
−
===Technological changes===
+
Further difficulties arise when countries, especially former colonies, do not have a strong national geographic naming standard. In such cases cartographers may have to choose between various phonetic spellings of local names versus older imposed, sometimes resented, colonial names. Some countries have multiple official languages, resulting in multiple official placenames. For example, the capital of [[Belgium]] is both ''Brussels'' and ''Bruxelles.'' In [[Canada]], [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]] are official languages and places are named in both languages. [[British Columbia]] is also officially named ''la Colombie-Britannique.'' English maps rarely show the French names outside [[Quebec]], which itself is spelled ''Québec'' in French. <ref> This section based on: "Transliteration Systems." ''Illustrated Atlas of the World.'' (Rand McNally, 1992. ISBN 0528834924), A16-A17 </ref>
−
In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later [[magnetic storage]] devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally.  
 
  
−
Advances in mechanical devices such as the [[printing press]], [[quadrant]] and [[vernier]] allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the [[telescope]], [[sextant]] and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their [[latitude]] by measuring angles to the [[North Star]] at night or the [[sun]] at noon.  
+
The study of placenames is called [[toponymy]], while that of the origin and historical usage of placenames as words is [[etymology]].
  
−
Advances in photochemical technology, such as the [[lithography|lithographic]] and [[photography | photochemical processes]], have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps.
+
=== Map symbolization ===
  
−
In the mid to late 20th century advances in electronic technology have led to a new revolution in cartography. Specifically [[computer hardware]] devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps.  See also [[digital raster graphic]].
+
The quality of a map’s design affects its reader’s ability to comprehend and extract information from the map. Cartographic [[symbolization]] has been developed in an effort to portray the world accurately and effectively convey information to the map reader. A legend explains the pictorial language of the map, or its symbolization. The title indicates the region the map portrays or the map's intent; the map image portrays the region and so on. Although every map element serves some purpose, convention dictates inclusion of only certain elements while others are considered optional. A menu of map elements includes the neatline (border), [[compass rose]] or north arrow, overview map, scale bar, [[map projection|projection]], and information about the map sources, accuracy, and publication.
  
−
== Map types ==
+
When examining a landscape, scale can be intuited from trees, houses, and cars. Not so with a map. Thus a simple thing as a north arrow can be crucial; the top of a map does not necessarily indicate north.  
−
In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features.  General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series.  For example the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps.  
 
  
−
A [[topographic map]] is primarily concerned with the topography of a place, and is typically different from other maps by its use of [[contour line]]s showing elevation.
+
Color is equally important. How the cartographer uses color to display the data can greatly affect the clarity or intent of the map. Different intensities of hue portray the cartographer's various objectives. Computers can display up to 16 million distinct colors at a time even though the human eye can distinguish only a minimum number of these (Jeer, 1997). This allows for a multitude of color options for even for the most complex maps. Moreover, computers can easily hatch patterns in colors to give even more options. This can be very useful when symbolizing data in categories like quintile and equal interval classifications.
  
−
A [[topological map]] is a very general type of map, the kind you might sketch on a napkin.
+
Quantitative symbols give a visual measure of the relative size/importance/number that a symbol represents. There are two major classes of symbols used for portraying quantitative properties on a map: Proportional symbols change their visual weight according to a quantitative property. These are appropriate for extensive statistics. [[Choropleth map]]s portray data collection areas (such as counties, or census tracts) with color. Using color this way, the darkness and intensity (or value) of the color is evaluated by the eye as a measure of intensity or concentration <ref> Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2005. [http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/gis/manual/style/index.htm].Retrieved February 29, 2008.
 +
</ref>.
  
−
Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented toward specific audiences.  A couple of examples might be a dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties divided into numerical [[Choropleth map|choropleth]] classes.  As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial cultural and social data.
+
=== Map generalization ===
  
 +
A good map is a compromise between portraying the items of interest (or [[thematic map|themes]]) in the ''right place'' for the map [[scale (map)|scale]] used, and the need to annotate that item with text or a symbol, taking up space on the map medium and very likely causing some other item of interest to be displaced. The cartographer is thus constantly making judgments about what to include, what to leave out, and what to show in a ''slightly'' incorrect place - because of the demands of the annotation. This issue assumes more importance as the scale of the map gets smaller (i.e., the map shows a larger area), because relatively, the annotation on the map takes up more space ''on the ground.'' A good example from the late 1980s was the British Government [[Ordnance Survey]]'s first digital maps, where the ''absolute'' positions of major roads shown at scales of 1:1250 and 1:2500 were sometimes a scale distance of hundreds of meters away from [[ground truth]], when shown on digital maps at scales of 1:250000 and 1:625000, because of the overriding need to annotate the features.
  
−
== Naming conventions ==
+
==Notes==
−
There are several ways to name the places on a map. Early explorers named them in several ways &mdash; after themselves, people in their homeland, and the ruler(s) of their countries. Features were also named by appearance, local climate, incidents that happened in the vicinity, and location. Many places along the coast of [[Brazil]] were named by [[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorers in the early [[1500s]] after the [[saint]] of the day of discovery in the [[Catholic]] [[calendar of saints]] (so that the detailed timetable of their expeditions can often be recovered from the list of assigned names).
+
<references/>
  
−
Cartographers also borrowed native names, sometimes by [[transliteration|transliterating]] the written form into the [[Latin alphabet]], but most often by transcribing the sound, or attempting to do so. Often the explorer would address the nearest native, pointing at the landmark in question and speaking in a loud voice; whatever the native said was then written down as its name. The [[Yucatán|Yucatan Peninsula]] was named in this way as was Nome, Alaska, according to legend.
+
==References==
−
 
 
−
<!-- The article titled ''[[great circle distance]]'' explains how to find that quantity if one knows the two latitudes and longitudes. —>
 
  
 +
*Belyea, B. 1992. Amerindian Maps: the Explorer as Translator. ''Journal of Historical Geography'' 18(3) :267-277.
 +
*Bender, B. 1999. Subverting the Western Gaze: mapping alternative worlds. In ''The Archaeology and Anthropology of Landscape: Shaping your landscape,'' (eds) P.J. Ucko & R. Layton. London: Routledge.
 +
*Crawford, P.V. 1973. The perception of graduated squares as cartographic symbols. ''Cartographic Journal'' 10(2):85-88.
 +
* Harley, J. B. and [[David Woodward]] (eds) ''The History of Cartography Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean.'' Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1987. ISBN 0226316335
 +
* Harley, J. B. and David Woodward (eds) ''The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 1: Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies.'' Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1992. ISBN 0226316351
 +
* Harley, J. B. and David Woodward (eds) ''The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 2: Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies.'' Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1994. ISBN 0226316378
 +
* Harley, J. B. and David Woodward (eds) ''The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 3: Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies.'' Full text of the Introduction by David Woodward and G. Malcolm Lewis. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1998. ISBN 0226907287
 +
* Harley, J. B. and David Woodward (eds) ''The History of Cartography Volume 3 : Cartography in the European Renaissance.'' Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2005. ISBN 0226907333
 +
* Harley, J.B. and David Woodward (eds) ''The History of Cartography Volume 4, edited by D. Graham Burnett, Matthew Edney, and Mary G. Sponberg Pedley with Founding Editor David Woodward: Cartography in the European Enlightenment.'' Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1987. ISBN 0226316335
 +
* Harley, J. B. and David Woodward (eds) ''The History of Cartography Volume 5: Cartography in the Nineteenth Century.'' Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
 +
* Harley, J.B. and David Woodward (eds) ''The History of Cartography Volume 4: Cartography in the Twentieth Century.'' Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
 +
* MacEachren, A.M. ''Some Truth with Maps: A Primer on Symbolization & Design.'' University Park: The Pennsylvania State University, 1994.
 +
* Monmonier, Mark. ''How to Lie with Maps.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991. ISBN 0226534219
 +
* Monmonier, Mark. ''Mapping It Out.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
 +
*ESRI. 2004. ESRI Cartography: ''Capabilities and Trends.'' Redlands, CA: White Paper
 +
*Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2005. [http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/gis/manual/style/index.htm Elements of Cartographic Style]
 +
*Jeer, S. 1997. Traditional Color Coding for Land Uses. ''American Planning Association''. pp. 4-5
 +
*Kent, A. J. 2005. "Aesthetics: A Lost Cause in Cartographic Theory?" The Cartographic Journal 42(2): 182-188
 +
*Imus, D. and Dunlavey, P. 2002. ''Back to the Drawing Board: Cartography vs the Digital Workflow.'' MT. Hood, Oregon.
 +
*Oliver, J. 2007. The Paradox of Progress: Land Survey and the Making of Agrarian Society in Colonial British Columbia. In Contemporary and Historical Archaeology in Theory (eds) L. McAtackney, M. Palus & A. Piccini. Oxford: BAR, International Series.
 +
*Olson, Judy M. 1975. Experience and the improvement of cartographic communication. ''Cartographic Journal'' 12, no. 2:94-108
 +
*Phillips, R., De Lucia, A., and Skelton, A. 1975. Some Objective Tests of the Legibility of Relief Maps. ''The Cartographic Journal''. 12, pp. 39-46
 +
*Phillips, R. 1980. A Comparison of Color and Visual Texture as Codes for use as Area Symbols on Relief Maps. ''Ergonomics''. 23, pp. 1117-1128.
 +
* Pickles, John. ''A History of Spaces: Cartographic Reason, Mapping, and the Geo-Coded World.'' Taylor & Francis, 2003. ISBN 0415144973
 +
* Rand McNally. ''Illustrated Atlas of the World.'' Rand McNally, 1992. ISBN 0528834924
 +
*Rice, M., Jacobson, R., Jones. D. 2003. ''Object Size Discrimination and Non-visual Cartographic Symbolization.'' CA. pp. 1-12.
 +
*Robinson, A. R. Sale, J. Morrison. 1978. Elements of Cartography. John Wiley and Sons: New York. ISBN 0-471-01781-7.
 +
* Slocum, T. ''Thematic Cartography and Geographic Visualization.'' Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003. ISBN 0130351237
 +
* Southworth, M. and Southworth, S. 1982. ''Maps: A Visual Survey and Design Guide.'' Boston: Little, Brown and Co. ISBN 0821215035
 +
* Wilford, John Noble. ''The Mapmakers.'' Vintage Books, 2000. ISBN 0375708502
 +
* "Map Imitations" in [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/forgery/ Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery], a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
 +
*Wood, D. ''The Power of Maps.'' New York: Guilford Press, 1992. ISBN 0898624924
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
−
* [http://www.populationdata.net/cartes/cartes.html List of maps of all countries]
+
All links retrieved November 28, 2023.
−
* [http://www.sunysb.edu/libmap/libcats.htm  Online Map Catalogs in North America and Europe] Lists some good places to search for online maps
+
* [http://www.cartography.org.uk/ British Cartographic Society]
−
* [http://oddens.geog.uu.nl The fascinating world of maps and mapping] Lists all kinds of maps
+
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/guide/gmilltoc.html Geography and Maps, an Illustrated Guide], by the staff of the US Library of Congress.
−
* [http://www.maphistory.info/collections.html Map collections] Introductory page to help navigate the online map resources
+
* [http://www.nacis.org/ North American Cartographic Information Society]
−
* [http://www.uidaho.edu/special-collections/Other.Repositories.html A listing of over 5000 websites] describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources for the research scholar
+
*[http://openstreetmap.org OpenStreetMap] : project aimed at creating and providing free geographic data such as street maps to anyone who wants them.
−
* [http://www.mapref.org MapRef] The Collection of Map Projections and Reference Systems for Europe - Zusammenstellung Europäischer Referenzsysteme und Kartenprojektionen
+
*[http://www.gitta.info/website/en/html/index.html GITTA] - A webbased open content eLearning course with basic and intermediate cartography lessons based on the [[eLML]] XML framework.
−
* [http://www.links4maps.com Links for maps] Directory for maps and cartography links
+
* [http://www.maphistory.info/index.html Map history] has extensive links to online map resources, including several large [http://www.maphistory.info/webimages.html collections of images online] and articles on the [http://www.maphistory.info/webtexts.html history of cartography].
−
* [http://www.rare-maps.com/links.cfm Antique and Rare Maps - Art Source International] - Links to rare and antique maps and to cartography resources.
+
* [http://www.mapref.org MapRef] A collection of map projections and reference systems for Europe - Zusammenstellung Europäischer Referenzsysteme und Kartenprojektionen
−
* [http://www.openstreetmap.org OpenStreetMap] - A free project mapping the worlds roads using GPS
+
*[http://www.oxfam.org.uk/education/resources/mapping_our_world/ Mapping Our World] Oxfam's interactive site to help pupils develop geography skills through activities all about maps, globes and how we view the world
−
* [http://www.freemaps.de/ FreeMaps.de] Free Maps Germany & Europe
 
−
* [http://www.nacis.org/ nacis.org] North American Cartographic Information Society
 
  
  
−
{{credit|31338121}}
+
{{Geography navigation}}
  
 
[[Category:Geography]]
 
[[Category:Geography]]
 +
[[Category:Life sciences]]
 +
[[Category:Physical sciences]]
 +
 +
 +
{{credit|161584879}}

Latest revision as of 00:45, 29 November 2023

A celestial map from the seventeenth century, by the Dutch cartographer Frederik de Wit.

Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis - map and graphein - write) is the study and practice of making representations of the Earth on a flat surface. The discipline of cartography combines science, aesthetics, and technical ability to create a balanced and readable representation that is capable of communicating information effectively and quickly.

Cartography, however mechanized it becomes, remains both a science and an art. The aesthetics of any given map will always be a critical component essential to the conveyance of information. A map must provide accuracy and in the best of solutions, an inventive presentation of data or analysis of data, but always in a form that is readily comprehensible and inviting to the reader. A map is both more, and less, than simply geographical or physical space. And it is always a result of artistic and technical judgments, creating something both useful and, occasionally, beautiful.

One problem in creating maps is the simple reality that the surface of the Earth, a curved surface in three-dimensional space, must be represented in two dimensions as a flat surface. This necessarily entails some degree of distortion, which can be dealt with by utilizing projections that minimize distortion in certain areas. Furthermore, the Earth is not a regular sphere, but its shape is instead known as a geoid, which is a highly irregular but exactly knowable and calculable shape.

Maps of all scales have traditionally been drawn and made by hand, but the use of computers has revolutionized cartography. Most commercial-quality maps are now made with software that falls into one of three main types: CAD, GIS, and specialized illustration software.

Functioning as tools, maps communicate spatial information by making it visible. Spatial information is acquired from measurement of space and can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted for a variety of purposes. Current trends in this field are moving away from analog methods of mapmaking and toward the creation of increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally.

Cartographic representation involves the use of symbols and lines to illustrate geographic phenomena. This can aid in visualizing space in an abstract and portable format. The cartographic process rests on the premise that the world is measurable and that we can make reliable representations or models of that reality.

Etymology

The term "Cartography" was coined in 1859, from the French, carta meaning card and -graphie, from the Greek, meaning to write, or to draw.[1] A slightly different version finds the term deriving from Old French carte, or map, with its roots in Latin charta, or carta, meaning paper made from papyrus. Graphie is the French for graphia, from the Greek for writing. [2]

History

Copy (1475) of St. Isidore's TO map of the world

Maps have been a large part of the human story for a long time (perhaps 8,000 years - nobody knows exactly, but longer than written words). They were known to have existed in societies of Europe, the Middle East, China, India, and others.

The earliest known map to date is a wall painting of the ancient Turkish city of Çatal Hüyük which has been dated to the late seventh millennium B.C.E. [3] Other known maps of the ancient world include the Minoan “House of the Admiral” wall painting from c. 1600 B.C.E. showing a seaside community in an oblique perspective, and an engraved map of the holy Babylonian city of Nippur, from the Kassite period (fourteenth – twelfth centuries B.C.E.). [4] The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps beginning with Anaximander in the sixth century B.C.E. In ancient China, although geographical literature spans back to the fifth century B.C.E., the drawing of true geographical maps was not begun in earnest until the first half of the Han Dynasty (202 B.C.E.-202 C.E.), with the works of Prince Liu An (179 B.C.E.-122 B.C.E.).

Mappa mundi is the general term used to describe Medieval European maps of the world. Approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents [5].

In the Age of Exploration from the fifteenth century to the seventeenth century, cartographers copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own based on explorers' observations and new surveying techniques. The invention of the magnetic compass, telescope, and sextant increased accuracy.

Due to the sheer physical difficulties inherent in cartography, map-makers frequently lifted material from earlier works without giving credit to the original cartographer. For example, one of the most famous early maps of North America is unofficially known as the Beaver Map, published in 1715 by Herman Moll. This map is an exact reproduction of a 1698 work by Nicolas de Fer. De Fer in turn had copied images that were first printed in books by Louis Hennepin, published in 1697, and François Du Creux, in 1664. By the 1700s, map-makers started to give credit to the original engraver by printing the phrase "After [the original cartographer]" on the work. [6]

Not all maps were drawn on paper. Well researched examples include the navigational stick charts of the Marshall Islanders, interwoven sticks arranged to depict distances across seas, wave fronts, and elevations of islands. Native Alaskans carved intricate sculptures that recreated coastlines and elevations in a portable, and quite accurate, three dimensional form. [7]

Technological changes

In cartography, new technology has been incorporated into the production of the maps of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment, were varied in quality and of limited distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, like the compass and, much later, magnetic storage devices, led to the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate those maps digitally.

Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, quadrant, and vernier calipers allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant, and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and gave the mapmakers and navigators the ability to find their latitude by measuring angles to the North Star at night or the sun at noon.

Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, have allowed for the creation of maps that are finely detailed, do not distort in shape, and resist moisture and wear. These advances eliminated the need for engraving, further shortening the time it takes to make and reproduce maps.

In the late twentieth century and early twenty-first century, advances in electronic technology led to another revolution in cartography. Specifically, computer hardware devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document), and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials.

Map types

The field of cartography can be divided into two broad categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features, like topographic maps. Topographic maps depict natural and built features of a place, with relief and elevation shown by drawn contours or shading techniques. These relatively general maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example, United States Geological Survey (USGS) has produced a full series of 1:24,000 scale topographic maps; Canada has the same, at 1:50,000 scale. The government of the UK produces 1:63,360 (1 inch to 1 mile) "Ordnance Survey" maps of the entire UK and a range of correlated larger- and smaller-scale maps of great detail.

Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented toward specific audiences. Examples might be a dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties divided into numerical choropleth classes. As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial cultural and social data. Epidemiological data are represented on specialized maps, a particularly useful way to illustrate exposure patterns, or occurrence. Most applied cartography could be well be described as thematic mapping. Points of view can be represented thematically as well, and the user of a given map must be informed of the objectives of the cartographer in order to judge the value of the presentation.

Map design

Illustrated map

Arthur H. Robinson, an American cartographer influential in thematic cartography, stated that a poorly designed map "will be a cartographic failure." He also declared that "map design is perhaps the most complex" aspect of cartography. [8] Robinson codified the mapmaker's understanding that a map must be designed with consideration of the audience and its needs foremost. A well designed map would address each of these basic elements:

  • ease of use, with respect to the intended audience, both physically and cognitively; *accuracy, meaning a minimum amount of distortion or errors;
  • strong relationship between the object and the map, meaning that the translation of physical space to a different medium should be readily recognizable;
  • appropriate labeling and symbol use;
  • legibility and clarity - very important points. [9]

From the very beginning of mapmaking, maps "have been made for some particular purpose or set of purposes." [10] The intent of the map should be illustrated in a manner in which the 'percipient' acknowledges its purpose in a timely fashion. The term percipient refers to the person receiving information and was used by Robinson. The figure-ground principle refers to this notion of engaging the user by clear presentation, leaving no confusion concerning the purpose of the map. Clear presentation enhances the user’s experience and keeps his attention. If the user is unable to identify what is being demonstrated, the map may be useless.

Making a meaningful map is the ultimate goal. MacEachren explains that a well designed map "is convincing because it implies authenticity" [11]. A thoughtfully designed, interesting map engages a reader. Information richness or a map that is multivariate will show relationships within the map. Showing several variables allows comparison, adding to the meaningfulness of the map. This also generates hypotheses, stimulates ideas, and perhaps, further research.

In order to convey the message of the map, the creator must design it in a manner that will facilitate the overall understanding of its purpose. The title of a map may provide the "needed link" necessary for communicating that message, but the overall design of the map fosters the manner in which the reader interprets it [12]).

Naming conventions

Most maps use text to label places and for such things as a map title, legend, and other information. Maps are typically created in specific languages, though names of places often differ among languages. So a map made in English may use the name Germany for that country, where a German map would use Deutschland, and a French map Allemagne. A word that describes a place using a non-native terminology or language is referred to as an exonym.

In some cases, the 'correct' name is unclear. For example, the nation of Burma officially changed its name to Myanmar, but many nations do not recognize the ruling junta and continue to use Burma. Sometimes an official name change is resisted in other languages and the older name may remain in common use. Examples include the use of Saigon for Ho Chi Minh City, Bangkok for Krung Thep, and Ivory Coast for Côte d'Ivoire.

Difficulties arise when transliteration or transcription between writing systems is required. National names tend to have well established names in other languages and writing systems, such as Russia for Росси́я, but for many placenames a system of transliteration or transcription is required. In transliteration the symbols of one language are represented by symbols in another. For example, the Cyrillic letter Р is traditionally written as R in the Latin alphabet. Systems exist for transliteration of Arabic, but the results may vary. For example, the Yemeni city of Mocha is written variously in English as Mocha, Al Mukha, al-Mukhā, Mocca, and Moka. Transliteration systems are based on relating written symbols to one another, while transcription is the attempt to spell the phonetic sounds of one language in another. Chinese writing is transformed into the Latin alphabet through the Pinyin phonetic transcription systems, for example. Other systems were used in the past, such as Wade-Giles, resulting in the city being spelled Beijing on newer English maps and Peking on older ones.

Further difficulties arise when countries, especially former colonies, do not have a strong national geographic naming standard. In such cases cartographers may have to choose between various phonetic spellings of local names versus older imposed, sometimes resented, colonial names. Some countries have multiple official languages, resulting in multiple official placenames. For example, the capital of Belgium is both Brussels and Bruxelles. In Canada, English and French are official languages and places are named in both languages. British Columbia is also officially named la Colombie-Britannique. English maps rarely show the French names outside Quebec, which itself is spelled Québec in French. [13]

The study of placenames is called toponymy, while that of the origin and historical usage of placenames as words is etymology.

Map symbolization

The quality of a map’s design affects its reader’s ability to comprehend and extract information from the map. Cartographic symbolization has been developed in an effort to portray the world accurately and effectively convey information to the map reader. A legend explains the pictorial language of the map, or its symbolization. The title indicates the region the map portrays or the map's intent; the map image portrays the region and so on. Although every map element serves some purpose, convention dictates inclusion of only certain elements while others are considered optional. A menu of map elements includes the neatline (border), compass rose or north arrow, overview map, scale bar, projection, and information about the map sources, accuracy, and publication.

When examining a landscape, scale can be intuited from trees, houses, and cars. Not so with a map. Thus a simple thing as a north arrow can be crucial; the top of a map does not necessarily indicate north.

Color is equally important. How the cartographer uses color to display the data can greatly affect the clarity or intent of the map. Different intensities of hue portray the cartographer's various objectives. Computers can display up to 16 million distinct colors at a time even though the human eye can distinguish only a minimum number of these (Jeer, 1997). This allows for a multitude of color options for even for the most complex maps. Moreover, computers can easily hatch patterns in colors to give even more options. This can be very useful when symbolizing data in categories like quintile and equal interval classifications.

Quantitative symbols give a visual measure of the relative size/importance/number that a symbol represents. There are two major classes of symbols used for portraying quantitative properties on a map: Proportional symbols change their visual weight according to a quantitative property. These are appropriate for extensive statistics. Choropleth maps portray data collection areas (such as counties, or census tracts) with color. Using color this way, the darkness and intensity (or value) of the color is evaluated by the eye as a measure of intensity or concentration [14].

Map generalization

A good map is a compromise between portraying the items of interest (or themes) in the right place for the map scale used, and the need to annotate that item with text or a symbol, taking up space on the map medium and very likely causing some other item of interest to be displaced. The cartographer is thus constantly making judgments about what to include, what to leave out, and what to show in a slightly incorrect place - because of the demands of the annotation. This issue assumes more importance as the scale of the map gets smaller (i.e., the map shows a larger area), because relatively, the annotation on the map takes up more space on the ground. A good example from the late 1980s was the British Government Ordnance Survey's first digital maps, where the absolute positions of major roads shown at scales of 1:1250 and 1:2500 were sometimes a scale distance of hundreds of meters away from ground truth, when shown on digital maps at scales of 1:250000 and 1:625000, because of the overriding need to annotate the features.

Notes

  1. ↑ Online Etymological Dictionary. Cartography Retrieved December 21, 2007.
  2. ↑ The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Ed. (Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006)
  3. ↑ Ataman Ministry of Culture. The Oldest Map of the World. Retrieved December 21, 2007.
  4. ↑ Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. Nippur - Sacred City Of Enlil Retrieved December 21, 2007.
  5. ↑ J. B. Harley, and David Woodward (eds.) The History of Cartography Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 286
  6. ↑ Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery. Map Imitations www.collectionscanada.ca. Retrieved December 21, 2007.
  7. ↑ Michael Southworth, and Susan Southworth. Maps, a visual survey and design guide. (Boston: Little Brown, 1982. ISBN 0821215035)
  8. ↑ Arthur Howard Robinson. Elements of cartography. (New York: Wiley, 1995. ISBN 0471555797)
  9. ↑ Southworth and Southworth
  10. ↑ Arthur Howard Robinson. Early thematic mapping in the history of cartography. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. ISBN 0226722856)
  11. ↑ A.M. MacEachren. Some Truth with Maps: A Primer on Symbolization & Design. (University Park: The Pennsylvania State University, 1994), 9
  12. ↑ Mark Monmonier. Mapping It Out. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 93
  13. ↑ This section based on: "Transliteration Systems." Illustrated Atlas of the World. (Rand McNally, 1992. ISBN 0528834924), A16-A17
  14. ↑ Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2005. [1].Retrieved February 29, 2008.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Belyea, B. 1992. Amerindian Maps: the Explorer as Translator. Journal of Historical Geography 18(3) :267-277.
  • Bender, B. 1999. Subverting the Western Gaze: mapping alternative worlds. In The Archaeology and Anthropology of Landscape: Shaping your landscape, (eds) P.J. Ucko & R. Layton. London: Routledge.
  • Crawford, P.V. 1973. The perception of graduated squares as cartographic symbols. Cartographic Journal 10(2):85-88.
  • Harley, J. B. and David Woodward (eds) The History of Cartography Volume 1: Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1987. ISBN 0226316335
  • Harley, J. B. and David Woodward (eds) The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 1: Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1992. ISBN 0226316351
  • Harley, J. B. and David Woodward (eds) The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 2: Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1994. ISBN 0226316378
  • Harley, J. B. and David Woodward (eds) The History of Cartography Volume 2, Book 3: Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies. Full text of the Introduction by David Woodward and G. Malcolm Lewis. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1998. ISBN 0226907287
  • Harley, J. B. and David Woodward (eds) The History of Cartography Volume 3 : Cartography in the European Renaissance. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2005. ISBN 0226907333
  • Harley, J.B. and David Woodward (eds) The History of Cartography Volume 4, edited by D. Graham Burnett, Matthew Edney, and Mary G. Sponberg Pedley with Founding Editor David Woodward: Cartography in the European Enlightenment. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1987. ISBN 0226316335
  • Harley, J. B. and David Woodward (eds) The History of Cartography Volume 5: Cartography in the Nineteenth Century. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
  • Harley, J.B. and David Woodward (eds) The History of Cartography Volume 4: Cartography in the Twentieth Century. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
  • MacEachren, A.M. Some Truth with Maps: A Primer on Symbolization & Design. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University, 1994.
  • Monmonier, Mark. How to Lie with Maps. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991. ISBN 0226534219
  • Monmonier, Mark. Mapping It Out. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
  • ESRI. 2004. ESRI Cartography: Capabilities and Trends. Redlands, CA: White Paper
  • Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2005. Elements of Cartographic Style
  • Jeer, S. 1997. Traditional Color Coding for Land Uses. American Planning Association. pp. 4-5
  • Kent, A. J. 2005. "Aesthetics: A Lost Cause in Cartographic Theory?" The Cartographic Journal 42(2): 182-188
  • Imus, D. and Dunlavey, P. 2002. Back to the Drawing Board: Cartography vs the Digital Workflow. MT. Hood, Oregon.
  • Oliver, J. 2007. The Paradox of Progress: Land Survey and the Making of Agrarian Society in Colonial British Columbia. In Contemporary and Historical Archaeology in Theory (eds) L. McAtackney, M. Palus & A. Piccini. Oxford: BAR, International Series.
  • Olson, Judy M. 1975. Experience and the improvement of cartographic communication. Cartographic Journal 12, no. 2:94-108
  • Phillips, R., De Lucia, A., and Skelton, A. 1975. Some Objective Tests of the Legibility of Relief Maps. The Cartographic Journal. 12, pp. 39-46
  • Phillips, R. 1980. A Comparison of Color and Visual Texture as Codes for use as Area Symbols on Relief Maps. Ergonomics. 23, pp. 1117-1128.
  • Pickles, John. A History of Spaces: Cartographic Reason, Mapping, and the Geo-Coded World. Taylor & Francis, 2003. ISBN 0415144973
  • Rand McNally. Illustrated Atlas of the World. Rand McNally, 1992. ISBN 0528834924
  • Rice, M., Jacobson, R., Jones. D. 2003. Object Size Discrimination and Non-visual Cartographic Symbolization. CA. pp. 1-12.
  • Robinson, A. R. Sale, J. Morrison. 1978. Elements of Cartography. John Wiley and Sons: New York. ISBN 0-471-01781-7.
  • Slocum, T. Thematic Cartography and Geographic Visualization. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003. ISBN 0130351237
  • Southworth, M. and Southworth, S. 1982. Maps: A Visual Survey and Design Guide. Boston: Little, Brown and Co. ISBN 0821215035
  • Wilford, John Noble. The Mapmakers. Vintage Books, 2000. ISBN 0375708502
  • "Map Imitations" in Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery, a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
  • Wood, D. The Power of Maps. New York: Guilford Press, 1992. ISBN 0898624924

External links

All links retrieved November 28, 2023.


 Geography topics
General Geography · History of geography
Lists Basic topics · Geographers · Geography of countries
Branches Human geography — Behavioral · Cultural · Demography · Development · Economic · Feminist · Health · Historical · Political · Regional · Social · Urban

Physical geography — Biogeography · Climatology · Coastal · Environmental · Geodesy · Geomorphology · Glaciology · Hydrology · Landscape ecology · Limnology · Oceanography · Palaeogeography · Pedology · Quaternary science

Techniques Cartography · Geographic Information Systems (GIS) · Geostatistics · Global Positioning System (GPS) · Remote sensing · Spatial data analysis · Qualitative methods
Societies American Geographical Society · Association of American Geographers · European Geography Association · Geographical Association · Hong Kong Geographical Association · International Geographical Union · National Geographic Society · Royal Canadian Geographical Society · Royal Geographical Society · Royal Scottish Geographical Society · Russian Geographical Society · Saudi Geographical Society · Society of Woman Geographers · Société de Géographie


Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Cartography&oldid=1129074

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki