Difference between revisions of "Zoroastrianism" - New World Encyclopedia
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==Zoroastrianism through History== | ==Zoroastrianism through History== | ||
| − | Due to the fact that scholars have few and conflicting sources concerning ancient Persia, it is difficult to describe ancient Zoroastrianism in detail. The original teachings of Zoroaster were modified significantly by the first generations of the prophet's disciples, which eventually lead to the acceptance of forms polytheism and ritualism that Zarasthushra originally opposed. The Avesta illustrates the fact that post-Zarathrushta Zoroastrianism incorporated older beliefs and traditions from Iranian religious traditions, all the while maintaining Zarathrushtra's new ideas presented in the Gathas. This included such elements as animal sacrifice and the ritual of ''haoma'', which was introduced by Avestan priests and the western priestly tribe known as the Magi. It was at this point in history that the Zoroastrian pantheon was etched out more definitively concerning both good and evil deities. The deities who came to be accepted were generally those most pertinent to the priest and shepherds, rather than the warriors. For example, Mithra, who was viewed as a warrior god, was venerated more for his place as a guardian of truth as opposed to his militaristic tendencies. Meanwhile, most violent and aggressive elements of Indo-Aryan tradition were done away with or else related to the daivas, such as the classic Indo-Iranian gods who were portrayed as demonic. The Amesha Spentas, which were emanations of the greater divine, | + | |
| + | Due to the fact that scholars have few and conflicting sources concerning ancient Persia, it is difficult to describe ancient Zoroastrianism in detail. The original teachings of Zoroaster were modified significantly by the first generations of the prophet's disciples, which eventually lead to the acceptance of forms polytheism and ritualism that Zarasthushra originally opposed. The Avesta illustrates the fact that post-Zarathrushta Zoroastrianism incorporated older beliefs and traditions from Iranian religious traditions, all the while maintaining Zarathrushtra's new ideas presented in the Gathas. This included such elements as animal sacrifice and the ritual of ''haoma'', which was introduced by Avestan priests and the western priestly tribe known as the Magi. It was at this point in history that the Zoroastrian pantheon was etched out more definitively concerning both good and evil deities. The deities who came to be accepted were generally those most pertinent to the priest and shepherds, rather than the warriors. For example, Mithra, who was viewed as a warrior god, was venerated more for his place as a guardian of truth as opposed to his militaristic tendencies. Meanwhile, most violent and aggressive elements of Indo-Aryan tradition were done away with or else related to the daivas, such as the classic Indo-Iranian gods who were portrayed as demonic. The Amesha Spentas, which were emanations of the greater divine, came to be viewed as full spirit beings. | ||
| − | The Magi ensured the transmission and survival of the tradition of the Avestan priests during the period of the | + | The Magi ensured the transmission and survival of the tradition of the Avestan priests during the period of the Achaemenidan Empire (which lasted 648–330 B.C.E.) providing an oppurtunity for the Zoroastrian beliefs to come into dialouge with other Near Eastern traditions. During this period, the Zoroastrian tendency to synthesize the deities and ceremonies continued, creating some measure of eclecticism within the tradition. Such an eclecitcism was necessary in order to create a pliable religious undergirding for the Achamedian empire, so it could appeal universally to the many varied cultures of which it consisted. The Achaemenid kings acknowledge their devotion to Ahura Mazda in inscriptions; however, they also participated in the local religious rituals in Babylon and Egypt, and helped the Jews to return to Canaan illustrating the fact they did not seek to enforce orthodoxy. The Magi also modified the doctrine of dualism. While Ahura Mazda reigned supreme in Zoroaster's original formulation, the Magi no longer considered Ahura Mazda the transcendent principle, but instead only one half of the two supreme spirits who were in opposition as forces of good and evil. This variation of dualism lead to the formation of [[Zurvanism]], which attempted to reconcile the original dualism of Zoroastrianism with elements of the Babylonian and Mesopotamian religion. Here, the time-god Zurvan was endowed with supreme authority over the universe, and Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu were accepted to be his two sons. |
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| + | During the Seleucid period (330–150 B.C.E.), Hellenistic wielded great influence upon the Zoroastrian tradition, The Parthians in large part rejected these influences, due to resentment over the break in the tradition which occured when Alexander the Great overtook the Achaemenid Empire in 330 B.C.E. According to later traditions, many of the Zoroastrian sacred texts were lost in this invasion. However, Zoroastianism survived, and its ideas actually began to spread outside the Iranian world among Judeo-Christians and Buddhists. The status of Zoroastrianism under the Seleucids and Parthians (250 B.C.E.– 226 C.E.) empires is unclear; however, it is widely believed that the Three Wise Men (Magi in early Greek New Testament manuscripts), said to have come from the Parthian empire bearing gifts for Jesus of Nazareth, were Zoroastrian Magi. It was also during the Parthian period that Mithraism, a Zoroastrian-derived faith particularly focused on the Aryan god of the sun, Mitra, began to become popular within the Roman Empire. The Mithras cult reached the peak of its popularity in the second and third centuries CE, and was particularly popular among Roman soldiers. | ||
| − | + | The Sasanid Empire (226–650 C.E.) came into power in Persia in 226 C.E. and witnessed the reoganization and reformulation of the Zoroastrian faith, as priests codified and canonized various aspects of the tradition which had survived the breaks caused by the Hellenistic influences. During this period, Zoroastrianism became less universalistic and more localized within Iran, justifying the position of the crown, clergy, and warriors at the top of the state hierarchy while also maintaining nationalistic sentiment among the entirety of the Iranian people. A number of Zoroastrian mythological figures and dynasties became implicated in wordly progress toward ''frashoketeri'', mostly because of their place in Iranian history rather than their religious significance. Zoroastrians aggressively promoted their religion, often building fire temples upon capturing Roman territory in order to promote their religion there. In some cases Zoroastrians even persecuted Christians and Manichaeans. The Sassanids were highly suspicious of Christians because of their perceived ties to the Christian Roman Empire. In contrast, those Persian Christians loyal to the Patriarchate of Babylon which had broken with Roman Christianity when the latter condemned Nestorianism, were tolerated and even sometimes favored by the Sassanids. | |
| − | + | In 637, the Sassanid dynasty was conquered by Muslim Arabs. Zoroastrianism, which was once dominant in a region stretching from Anatolia to Persian Gulf and Central Asia, did not have a powerful foreign champion as Christianity did in the Byzantine Empire, and so steadily lost influence and adherents in Iran under Islamic persecution. Even after Arab conquest, Zoroastrianism maintained its nationalistic ideology. Surviving Zoroastrian communities and the priests who compiled the Palahvi texts looked back upon Iran's imperial era with a certain measure of sentimentality. This lead to a number of attempts to organize revolt against their Muslim overlords, which consistently failed, and caused Muslims to vehemently repress those who upheld Zoroastrian beliefs. Further, Muslims were also suspicious the significance of fire within Zoroastrian religion, considering it a form of idolatry. As a result, many Zoroastrians were prohibited to practice their religion and forced to convert to Islam. Moreover, numerous Arab commanders ordered the destruction of Zoroastrian shrines. It is important to note that fire is used simply as symbol and a point of focus for religious activity in Zoroastrianism, and is not worshipped as divinity in and of itself. | |
| − | Faced with such adversity | + | Faced with such adversity, Zoroastrians fled to India in large numbers in the tenth century, where they would come to be known as Parsis (or "Persians"). Here they were offered refuge by Jadav Rana, a Hindu king of Sanjan (the modern-day state of Gujarat) on condition that they abstain from missionary activities and marry only in their community. Although these strictures are centuries old, Parsis of the 21st century still do not accept converts and are endogamous, a sentiment which has come to characterize to Zoroastrianism as a whole. This was readily accepted by the Parsi people, who were already wary of proselytization as it most likely would have lead to a plethora of converts from lower-caste Hindus. In India, the Parsi have come to be seen as something of a caste themselves, since membership in the group is linked to lineage. As a result, Parsis have not only been able to survive, but they have also thrived when compared to their Iranian counterparts, wielding much social political, and economic influence in India through history, and even in modern times due to their favoured position under the British imperialists. Furthermore, Parsi communities have been in continual dialouge with other religious traditions such as Hinduism, Islam and Christianity as well as other movements such as spiritualism and astrology, which has numerous interpretations of Zoroastrian doctrines by the Parsi people. Other Parsis have maintained a conservative view toward the ancient Zoroastrian traditions. The tolerant religious climate of India has even lead some Hindus to syncretize elements of Parsi religion into their religion. The first contact between Indian and Iranian Zoroastrians occured in the late sixteenth century, through the exchange of texts called rivayat, which speculate upon doctrinal and liturgical questions. |
==Zoroastrianism in Modernity== | ==Zoroastrianism in Modernity== | ||
Revision as of 07:47, 28 July 2006
Zoroastrianism or Mazdaism refers to the religion which grew out of the teachings of the prophet Zarathushtra (commonly known as Zoroaster in the West) in the Iranian world of tenth century B.C.E. Zoroastrianism is regarded as one of the world's oldest monotheistic religions, recognizing the supremacy of Ahura Mazda, although it also upholds dualistic and polytheistic elements. This kind of eclecticism characterizes the religion as a whole, as Zoroastrians have synthesized many aspects of the Indo-Iranian and Near Eastern religions out over the course of its history and geographical expansion. Zoroastrians still survive today in small numbers in Iran, as well as in India, where they are known as Parsis. Zoroastrians most commonly refer to themselves as Zartoshti "Zoroastrians", Mazdayasni "Wisdom-Worshippers" and Behdini "Followers of the Good Religion".
Zoroaster
Relatively little is known about the Prophet Zoroaster. According to internal and external histories, Zoroaster lived in Persia. Even the period of time he lived in is disputed, and estimations vary from between the 18th and the 6th centuries B.C.E. (although Plato placed Zoroaster as late as the 64th century B.C.E.), though scholars generally agree that Zarashthushtra lived roughly near 1000 B.C.E. The timing of Zoroaster's life is significant for understanding the development of Judeo-Christian beliefs. Should it be before 1300 B.C.E. (prior to Akhenaten) then Zoroaster would be the earliest monotheist known in any religion, discounting the older oral tradition written down in the Torah and Old Testament. According to tradition, Zoroaster was the son of Pourushaspa' and Dugdhova, and was special since birth. Before he was six years old he was appointed a wise teacher who would take care of him, which lead to many attempts to kill the child made by enemies who recognised his significance. As Zoroaster turned fifteen, he gained understanding and determination, and it was then when he voluntarily submitted himself to religion. When Zoroaster turned twenty years of age he left his guardians' house for a mountain in a cave. Here he devoted himself to meditation and religious understanding, attempting to craft a set of religious precepts which differed from the polytheism and ritualism which persisted during his lifetime. In the Gathas, a series of deeply personal hymns, Zoroaster expresses discontent with rituals such as the soma ceremony typical within the Vedic tradition, which involves the consumption of an intoxicating beverage in order to fuse one's being with the spirit of the drink. Zoroaster no doubt saw this more as drunkenness than actual spiritual endeavour. It was at this time he struggled with the problems concerning the relations of man and cosmos:
This I ask Thee, tell me truly, Ahura - whether at the beginning of the Best Existence the recompenses shall bring blessedness to him that meets with them. Surely he, O Right, the holy one, who watches in his spirit the transgression of all, if himself the benefactor of all that lives, O Mazda. (44.2)
This I ask Thee, tell me truly, Ahura. Who upholds the earth beneath and the firmament from falling? Who the waters and the plants? Who yoked swiftness to winds and clouds? Who is, O Mazda, creator of Good Thought? (44.4)
This I ask Thee, tell me truly, Ahura. What artist made light and darkness? What artist made sleep and waking? Who made morning, noon, and night, that call the understanding man to his duty? (44.5)
After seven years of meditation and devotion to worship he had accomplished complete devotion to Ahura Mazda and was enlightened with spiritual knowledge and felt the time was ripe to teach the masses about the righteousness of Ahura Mazda, at this point the teaching of Zoroaster as a Prophet began. Zoroaster lived in a period of warfare and a society which was corrupt and repressive and where the pre-Zoroastrian powers ruled with an iron fist. There was a great need for a more intellectual and less ritual-based religious culture:
Which savior will free us from the old (understanding of) scripture, Who with the wisdom, simplicity (of teaching), who with the enlightenment?
Zoroaster proceeded by preaching:
I will speak of that which (He), the Holiest declared to me as the word that is best for mortals to obey; while he said: "they who for my sake render him obedience, shall all attain unto Welfare and Immortality by the actions of the Good Spirit [Spenta Mainyu -JHP]" - (He) Mazda Ahura. (45.5)
Zoroaster's first attempt at reaching the masses was no success, and his teachings were highly ridiculed. Eventually his family and servants distanced themselves from him, evil powers plotted to silence him, and His open revelation brought many enemies who were eager to see his downfall. By order of King Vishtaspa he was eventually placed in a prison, from which he went on to inexplicably escape. After escaping from prison he cured the horse of King Vishtaspa, convincing the monarch to convert to Zoroastrianism along with his wife and causing many in the kingdom to follow suit. Due to repression in the early stages of the religion, this first group of converts became defiantly militaristic in order to defend themselves. As conversion to Zoroastrianism accelerated to what was soon an incredibly fast pace, this militarism was no longer needed.
Holy Books
The Holy Book of Zoroastrianism is called the Avesta. The Avesta was composed orally, and learned from memory for centuries until it was finally written down in Sassanian Times. The Avesta is divided into numerous sections. The Yasna concerns acts of worship and contains the Gathas (The Hymns), the only texts which are attributed to the Prophet Zoroaster himself. These hymns expressing the ambivalent emotions of the prophet, which oscillate between anguish and joy. While the Gathas are largely regarded as one individual's encounter with God, there is clearly a desire to extend this encounters to all other human beings. Zoroaster expresses discontent with the devolution of ritualism in Iran to unseemly lechery introducing numerous original religious concepts as alternatives. Nontheless, he still includes aspects of the preexisting religious systems within the formulation of his new faith rather than calling for their complete supplantation. These hymns still represent the focal point of the liturgical ritual for a small order of Zoroastrian priests.
Also contained in the Avesta are the a collection of hymns dedicated to the worship of various deities. Similarly, the Vendidad provides a code of purity in order to deal with malevolent deities. The Vispered is a collecton of hymns aiding the liturgical ceremonies, including invocations which are used for exorcisms. The Visperad also includes cosmological, historical and eschatological material. Other books appearing in the Avesta are the Afringan, Nyayish, Gah and Sirozah which partially contain some scriptures of the lost 14th and 21st Nasks or "lost books". A total of 21 of these Nasks existed in early Zoroastrian history, although only one of these, the Vendidad, remains complete today. The 21 Nasks did not only contain religious literature but also included works on Medicine, Astronomy, Botany and Philosophy. The traditional explanation for the loss of most of the Nasks is persecution of the faith by Alexander, though this has recently been questioned by some historians.
Another source which has significantly effected Zoroastrian religious understanding are the Pahlavi books, which originated in approxiamatly the ninth century CE in Middle Persia. Like the The Avesta, the Pahlavi books are also comprised of numerous writings. Most notable are The Zand provides an interpretation of and commentary upon the Avestan texts; the Bundahishn, which explains the such matters as the creation, composition and destruction of the physical world; and the Shkand-gumanig Wizar, which critiques Islamic, Judaic, Christian and Manichean religious traditions which would have been prevalent in the surrounding geographic region. Numerous other texts provide general wisdom and aphorisms concerning various topics.
Principal Concepts and Beliefs
Ahura Mazda and Other Deities
The Prophet Zoroaster set his teachings apart from the other polytheistic Iranian traditions by advocating strict monotheism, insisting that worship be dedicated solely to Ahura Mazda (also known as the Wise Lord). Ahura Mazda is perceived as the beginning and the end, the creator of everything which can and cannot be seen, representing all that is Eternal and Pure. Ahura Mazda serves as the keeper of truth, or asha (see below), maintaining a position similar to that of the Vedic god Varuna who maintained the rta, or moral order. Zoroastrianism have remained aniconic throughout, rejecting anthropomorphic images of Ahura Mazda, save for a number of statues placed in the main centres of Artaxerxes II's empire and during the Sassanid period. In the time of Achaemenid period, statues have been found, depicting a figure emerging from a disk or winged ring with paws and a bird's tail. Scholars have identified the statues as Ahura Mazda, though some Zoroastrians concerned with the idolatrous nature of these depictions have denied such claims.
Although the supremacy of Anura Mazda and the suspicion of idolatry suggests a monotheistic worldview, later Zoroastrianism also includes some polytheistic elements. Most notably identification of several other deities such as the two Mainyus and the demonic creatures called daivas which exist beneath Ahura Mazda. The Spenta Mainyu ("Holy Spirit") and the Angra Mainyu ("Evil Spirit") are the progeny of the supreme Ahura Mazda which explain respectively the existence of good and evil in the physical world. Spenta Mainyu is hypostatically indistinguishable from Ahura Mazda, conceived of as an augmenting force for the latter's power through divine self-realization and aiding in the continual creative process which leads toward the eventual purification of the world. Angra Mainyu, meanwhile, is the antithesis of Spenta Mainyu, and attempts to undermine humanity's understanding of truth. The Mainyus are engaged in a constant battle at the end of which the Holy Spirit will prevail by the power of Ahura Mazda. The daivas, meanwhile, are demonic beings whose sole purpose is to corrupt the moral law. These entities are said to be born out of bad thoughts and prideful existence and become evil because of their wicked acts. It is written that "The daiva did not get to choose between the two (good and evil) because the deceiver approached them as they were making their decision. So they chose the Worst Thought, and then ran to join Wrath, and together with it they have afflicted the world and humanity." (Yasna 30.5-6).
Also, there are several emanations of Ahura Mazda called Amesha Spentas which are considered to be divine even though they are ultimately subordinate to the Wise Lord. Ahura Mazda dwells within each of these deities since they are part of his creation, though he cannot be said to be any of the members simultaneously, as each Amesha Spenta retains their own individual nature and life. These archangelic beings represent personified attributes of Ahura Mazda and some scholars believe they have been been reconceptualizations of pre-Zoroastrian deities. Six of these are of paramount importance: Vohu Manah (Good Mind), Asha Vahistah (Truth), Khshatra Vairya (Good Dominion), Spenta Armaiti (Devotion), Haurvatat (Wholeness and Health), and Ameretat (Immortality). These Amesha Spentas suggest qualities one must cultivate if they wish to enjoy the fruits of frashokereti (see below) most fully. These seven are mentioned repeatedly in the Gathas, sometimes in regard to the Wise Lord, and other times in regards to Zarathrushtra or other human beings, and alternately as abstract concepts embodied by ashvanas and Ahura Mazda. The dually human and divine nature of the Amesha Spentas is best comprehended in the Zoroastrian tradition through mysticism, where entering a state called maga allows one to identify their own spirit with the Spentas. In doing so, one assumes the Spenta's powers.
Additionally, there exists a lord of prayer, Sraosha, who is described in the Gathas. In later Zoroastrian tradition, he is seen as a protector humanity against malevolent forces related to death, and as judge of the souls of the departed. Later Zoroastrianism would introduce numerous other divine or superhuman beings, usually old deities from the Indo-Aryan pantheon, which became yazatas or "ones worthy of worship." These deities introduced to Zoroastrianism include Arevadi Sure Anahita, (a goddess corresponding to the Hindu Sarasvati), Hvare Khshaeta (god of the sun); Mah (god of the moon), Mithra (who works with Sraosha to judge souls after their deaths) and numerous fravashis, spirits of the dead souls which were also considered worthy of worship. Fravashis of note include Daena, a deity whose name derives from the terms approxiamating "image" and "conscience", and seems to represent asha personified, as well as Haoma, the personified object of sacrifice which is worshipped as a priest. Anahita and Mithra were the most important deities, forming a divine triad with Ahura Mazda. In all cases, Ahura Mazda was and is viewed as having supremacy over all other gods, thus, post-Gathic Zoroastrianism can be labelled as a form of henotheism or monarchic monotheism.
Ethical Dualism
It is this persistent conflict between the forces of good and evil that distinguishes Zoroastrianism from monotheistic frameworks that have only one power as supreme. Unlike other faiths, Zoroastrianism is not theologically content with accepting the idea that the evil forces in the universe are simply another aspect of the supreme being's creations. Mardanfarrokh, a Zoroastrian theologian in the 9th century CE, noted that God's perfection would be mitigated if evil were to come from him along with everything else. According to Mardanfarrokh, only human choice can determine the intensity of evil within the world, a teaching which removes responsibility for evil from Ahura Mazda and renders the system truly dualistic. Good and evil, rather than deriving from the same source in Ahura Mazda, are separated on the grounds of moral choice, an idea which has lead scholars to refer to Zoroastrianism as "ethical dualism", in that all decisions made by human beings follow either the good path of the Wise Lord or the evil path of Angra Mainyu. The nature of the two opposing spirits of good and evil, Spenta Mainyu and Angra Mainyu respectively, results from the choice they made between asha and druj ("lie"). Spenta Mainyu chose asha, and Angra Mainyu chose druj, and now each human must choose one of these paths for themselves. No force in the Heavens and Earth has the power to force a person to do evil, and the rewards, punishments, happiness and grief an individual receive depends on how he or she lives his or her life. As the aggregate of human decisions steers humanity away from evil, the Ahuric creation is enhanced and the world as we know it, replete with evil, will dissolve away. Thus, Zoroastrian dualism affirms the freedom and importance of human choice in the metaphysic structure of the universe.
Cosmology, Eschatology and Soteriology
Zoroastrian cosmology is also dualistic. Everything in existence has a dual nature, comprised of a spiritual aspect, called menog, and the material aspect, called getig. The spiritual state provides an embryonic precursor to the material aspect. Pahlavi literature suggests that only the evil spirits are capable of transforming creation from menog to getig. Material existence, while not viewed by Zoroastrians as inherently evil, is considered to be contaminated due to its origination by way of the evil spirits. Pahlavi literature notes three key moments in the history of the cosmos which are based upon relationships between menog and getig: Bundahishn (seperation of the two states in the menog), Gumezishn (the comingling of Angra Mainyu and Spenta Mainyu in the getig), and finally Wizarishn (the seperation of these deities in a state of perfect purity in which a human being assumes their perfected body).
In the final stage, getig has been fully purified by menog. However, this eschatological endpoint can only come about through a process of evolution: as the balance between good and evil evolves on an individual scale within humans, it also progresses on a cosmic scale. The choice of good urges creation on to its renewal where humanity and the physical world will be fully perfected by menog, an event referred to as frashokereti. As humans choose good over evil, they bring the cosmos closer to this event. Eschaton itself will be marked by fire, which is considered to be the offspring of Ahura Mazda and the paramount instrument of asha (the energy of the creator is represented in Zoroastrianism by fire and also by the sun, since both are enduring, radiant, pure and life sustaining). A river of molten lava will seperate good people from the evil. In the Gathas Zoroaster claims that the order of creation will be refurbished at the end of time when the Saoshyant, a messianic saviour or "bringer of benefit" returns to the physical world. Later texts claim that this saviour will be born of a virgin who receives Zoroaster's seed while bathing in the Hamuni-Hilman Basin in Iran where it was deposited. The Palahva further explains that the Saoshyant will perform a ceremony using the fat of a miraculous cow mixed with white haoma and all the dead will be resurrected. All those who are on side of the lava river populated by the good will benefitted by the Saoshyant's return. This lays the foundation for later Zoroastrian eschatology, as well as the foundation for saviour archetypes in other messianic traditions such as Judaism and Christianity. It should be noted that alternate legends of the endtimes exist in the Zoroastrian tradition, such as one which states that there will actually be three saviours, Ukhshyatereta, Ukhshyatnemah, and Astvatereta, sons of Zoroaster who will appear at different times through history.
Zoroastrian cosmology is also highly original in its speculations concerning the afterlife. It is written in the Avesta that the soul can ascend to heaven by proceeding through a three-step succession of celestial bodies which are linked to certain actions. Through good thoughts, they can attain the stars, through good words, they can attain the moon, and through good deeds, they can attain the sun. In order to undergo this journey, the soul must first cross the Chinvat bridge, or "the bridge of seperation". Souls judged to be just by Mithra or Sraosha are allowed to cross and meet their daena, an image of their own self, who is disguised as a nubile teenage girl. Evil souls, meanwhile, meet with their daena in the form of a haggardly old woman, and are forced to fall into hell due to sudden narrowing of the bridge. The old or young nature of the daena will be based upon one's acceptance or rejection of Ahura Mazda's invitation to hear his revelation in life. An intermediate, limbo-like area called Hamistagan also exists for those whose benevolent and malevolent acts in life are equally weighted.
Moral Precepts
Zoroastrian morality is summed up in the simple phrase, "Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds". By following this phrase, one can become an ashavan, or a follower of asha. Asha is an idea put forth by Zoroaster which is understood as "truth", "order" or "righteousness", comparable to the Vedic concept of rta (which would develop into the prevalent notion of dharma). Ahura Mazda emanates asha, and loving devotion to the Wise Lord cultivates asha within the devotee, a process comparable to the bhakti tradition which would later develop in Hinduism. With such an immense value placed upon freedom to choose right from wrong, five tools are said to have been provided to humans by Ahura Mazda in order to assist the human decision-making process, which Zoroastrians refer to as the Five Faculties. These are: Good Mind, Desire, Conscience, Insight, and Wisdom. Good Mind refers to the idea that application of our mind's abilities which have been cultivated by the teachings of Zoroaster provide us with motivation for choosing what is good and right over what is evil. This suggests that Zoroaster wanted followers to make decisions for themselves rather than being coerced. The second faculty, Desire, extends this idea, and refers to the fact that every person must consciously yearn to receive truth of Zoroaster's message and become an ashavan. Cultivation of this faculty sets in motion the process of discerning good from evil. The third faculty, conscience, also known as the daena, enables human beings to accept or reject the revelation of Ahura Mazda, and also to work with the Wise Lord in order to initiate frashokereti. Closely related is Insight, the fourth faculty, the divinely inspired inspiration granted by Ahura Mazda to all those who choose to follow the truth as ashavans. It involves a variation of understanding which runs deeper than that gained by conventional intellectual endeavour. Wisdom is the highest faculty, and involves the most valuable form of understanding in the cosmos, parallel with that of Ahura Mazda and completely perfect in nature. These five faculties follow a chronology corresponding to that of creation, beginning with intellectual activity of the physical mind, parallel with menog, and culminating in post-apocalyptic menog, fully united with getig.
Prayer
Prayer has always been fundamental to the Zoroastrian faith. The Ahuna Vairya, a prayer which venerates the oneness and supremacy of Ahura Mazda as well as the importance of moral choice, is one of the most important in the tradition. It has actually been described as having talismanic powers, as it is able to render surroundings as sanctimonious, and ward off evil spirits. Many consider this prayer to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, and is the first prayer that young or initiate Zoroastrians learn. Ashem Vohu, another hymn considered to be authored by Zoroaster, is also of great importance, providing a short meditation upon the concept of asha. The hymn asserts that "Truth is best (of all that is) good" and harmonizes effectively with the Ahuna Vairya. Closely related to these two prayers is the Yenhe Hatam, which, while not attributed to Zoroaster, still has immense prescriptive value for the Zoroastrian ritual. The prayer suggests that all beings of pure menog are worthy of worship, along with those who reach getig since both types of beings are true ashavans. In addition to these prayers, incantations taking the form of mantra are also frequently used to address Ahura Mazda, as they are considered to endow their reciter with magical powers. In modern times, dedicated Zoroastrians divide their days into five prayer periods, marking the importance of prayer in the tradition.
Rituals
Yasna
While Zoroaster may have developed his new religion as an alternative to excessive ritualism, many rituals came to be adopted into the system as Zoroastrianism progressed through history. Yasna, the paramount Zoroastrian liturgy which involves the sacrifice of an beverage called haoma in front of a fire, is no doubt one of these. Like the Vedic beverage soma, Iranian haoma allows one temporary immortality through intoxication. The sacrifice of the soma can only be performed in the morning while the sun rises, which is representative of the asha's power to dispell darkness and evil within the world. The fire is built within a sanctuary, or pawi, which only purified priests may enter, then the ritual is performed in a different room than where the fire is. The ceremony is prefaced by the Paraga, a prepatory rite, where a number of ritual movements leads to the preparation of the haoma beverage. One priest called the zot recites from memory the 72 chapters that make up the Yasna while an assistant priest, the raspt, fuels the ceremonial fire. Consecrated bread and purified butter are consumed, then consecrated water is mixed with pomegranites goat's milk and twigs. This mixture is poured into a special well outside the pawi so that it may render its strengthening abilities upon all of creation. Fire is the object of the priest's address during the Yasna ceremony, which typically honours a specified deity, though praise is directed to all menog beings during the course of the ceremony. The Yasna serves the purpose of purifying the world by bridging the gap between menog and getig worlds so that they might come into union, therefore keeping alive the possibility for frashokereti to occur.
Naojot
The Zoroastrian initiation rite, Naojot, involves a child between seven and at the latest fifteen years who has presumably gained the ability to accept the responsiblities of the Zoroastrian life. After a purifying ritual bath (Nahn), the child is given a thin, white shirt called a sadre and girded with a wool cord called kusti. The white shirt is worn under the clothing and its whiteness represents innocence and sanctity. The Kushti is wrapped around the body three times to remind the child of the three most important moral injunctions: good thoughts, good deeds, and good words. Both garmets are not to be removed throughout the rest of the initiate's life, except for purposes of bathing. During the ceremony, the child is asked to recite prayers from the Avesta, which they must study in preparation, and only after they have professed their faith will they be given their new clothing. The importance of this ceremony is reverberated throughout the rest of the Zoroastrian's life; five times a day they will untie and retie the Kusti in order to remind them of their faith. The main purpose of this ceremony is to affirm the child's belief in the teachings of Zoroaster.
Bareshnum i-no Shab
Bareshnum i-no Shab is a fastidious purification rite of the highest order which must be undertaken before any ordinand can be admitted to either the Zoroastrian priesthood or as a corpse-bearer. The ritual is extremely elaborate, consisting of three ceremonial baths over the course of a nine-night retreat. After a preliminary bath at the fire-temple, various purficatory rituals are carried out. Candidates undergo eighteen applications of consecrated bull's urine (nirang), sand and water. Furthermore, they are presented thirteen times with a dog. All the while, the candidate spends time in meditation and recitation of prayer. The ritual must be performed in circular or rectangular confines depending on whether the ceremony is undertaken in Iran or India, respectively. The performance of the ritual is considered to be highly efficacious in aiding one's ascent to heaven. Any candidate underoges this ritual twice before his first ordination, which allows him to perform lesser ceremonies (Navar) and once before the second ordination, which allows him to perform higher, inner ceremonies (Martah). If the candidate corrupts the ritual more than three times throughout the process of the ceremony for reasons of insufficient spritual, moral or physical purity, they are considered to be ineligible for the priestly order. These impurities include imperfection within the purificatory liquids, rain during the performance of the ceremony, or nocturnal emmission of semen during the period of retreat. Bareshnum i-no Shab must undertaken again at numerous intervals throughout the lifetime of an ordained priest or corpse-bearer. At one point, Bareshnum i-no Shab was necessary of all Zoroastrians, and even now, most devout Zoroastrians undergo the rite at least once in their lifetime.
Zohr i atash
Zohr i atash refers to the main Zoroastrian funerary rites. After a corpse hase been washed and dressed, and inspected by a dog in order to determine whether life is truly gone, it is taken by corpse bearers to the dahkma (or "Tower of Silence"), a massive, circular funerary tower on elevated ground. Here, dead bodies are exposed to the sun and flesh-eating birds, which strip them of their flesh. It is here that the Zohr i atash proper occurs, involving the pouring of animal fat upon a fire, representative of the ancient animal sacrifices which are no longer undertaken. This ritual is carried out to ensure that the soul of the deceased is freed from Druj i Nasu, the corpse demon. Further, the ritual assists the soul on its heavenly journey which begins on the fourth days after death. After this ceremony, the corpse is thrown into a well and covered with lime and phosphorus. As could be expected, these observances are particularly difficult for Zoroastrians who live outside the India and Iran, as they are forced to conform to local conditions. Due to the general importance of fire in Zoroastrianism, cremation has become an increasingly popular alternative.
Festivals
Zoroastrians follow a solar calendar, consisting of 12 months of thirty days each. Each of the 30 days in a month are used for the acknowledgement of a particular deity, and in addition, twelve of these deities also have their own month dedicated to them. The 365 day year is rounded out with an additional five days, called Gatha Days, where people remember their beloved friends and relatives. Zoroastrians undergo six Ghambars, special days of obligation celebrated in honour of the seasons. The days of Zoroaster's birth and death are also of importance. Another key event is the feast of "all souls" called Hamaspathmaedaya, where offerings of sandalwood and flowers are made to deceased family members. The New Year's celebration, or Navroze, is of particular significance to Zoroastrians. The ten days preceding the new year involve observances in which the entirety of the Gathas are recited, and the departed are further commemorated. This is celebrated at three different times of the year by three different groups of Zoroatrians based on historical disagreement over the calendar.
Zoroastrianism through History
Due to the fact that scholars have few and conflicting sources concerning ancient Persia, it is difficult to describe ancient Zoroastrianism in detail. The original teachings of Zoroaster were modified significantly by the first generations of the prophet's disciples, which eventually lead to the acceptance of forms polytheism and ritualism that Zarasthushra originally opposed. The Avesta illustrates the fact that post-Zarathrushta Zoroastrianism incorporated older beliefs and traditions from Iranian religious traditions, all the while maintaining Zarathrushtra's new ideas presented in the Gathas. This included such elements as animal sacrifice and the ritual of haoma, which was introduced by Avestan priests and the western priestly tribe known as the Magi. It was at this point in history that the Zoroastrian pantheon was etched out more definitively concerning both good and evil deities. The deities who came to be accepted were generally those most pertinent to the priest and shepherds, rather than the warriors. For example, Mithra, who was viewed as a warrior god, was venerated more for his place as a guardian of truth as opposed to his militaristic tendencies. Meanwhile, most violent and aggressive elements of Indo-Aryan tradition were done away with or else related to the daivas, such as the classic Indo-Iranian gods who were portrayed as demonic. The Amesha Spentas, which were emanations of the greater divine, came to be viewed as full spirit beings.
The Magi ensured the transmission and survival of the tradition of the Avestan priests during the period of the Achaemenidan Empire (which lasted 648–330 B.C.E.) providing an oppurtunity for the Zoroastrian beliefs to come into dialouge with other Near Eastern traditions. During this period, the Zoroastrian tendency to synthesize the deities and ceremonies continued, creating some measure of eclecticism within the tradition. Such an eclecitcism was necessary in order to create a pliable religious undergirding for the Achamedian empire, so it could appeal universally to the many varied cultures of which it consisted. The Achaemenid kings acknowledge their devotion to Ahura Mazda in inscriptions; however, they also participated in the local religious rituals in Babylon and Egypt, and helped the Jews to return to Canaan illustrating the fact they did not seek to enforce orthodoxy. The Magi also modified the doctrine of dualism. While Ahura Mazda reigned supreme in Zoroaster's original formulation, the Magi no longer considered Ahura Mazda the transcendent principle, but instead only one half of the two supreme spirits who were in opposition as forces of good and evil. This variation of dualism lead to the formation of Zurvanism, which attempted to reconcile the original dualism of Zoroastrianism with elements of the Babylonian and Mesopotamian religion. Here, the time-god Zurvan was endowed with supreme authority over the universe, and Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu were accepted to be his two sons.
During the Seleucid period (330–150 B.C.E.), Hellenistic wielded great influence upon the Zoroastrian tradition, The Parthians in large part rejected these influences, due to resentment over the break in the tradition which occured when Alexander the Great overtook the Achaemenid Empire in 330 B.C.E. According to later traditions, many of the Zoroastrian sacred texts were lost in this invasion. However, Zoroastianism survived, and its ideas actually began to spread outside the Iranian world among Judeo-Christians and Buddhists. The status of Zoroastrianism under the Seleucids and Parthians (250 B.C.E.– 226 C.E.) empires is unclear; however, it is widely believed that the Three Wise Men (Magi in early Greek New Testament manuscripts), said to have come from the Parthian empire bearing gifts for Jesus of Nazareth, were Zoroastrian Magi. It was also during the Parthian period that Mithraism, a Zoroastrian-derived faith particularly focused on the Aryan god of the sun, Mitra, began to become popular within the Roman Empire. The Mithras cult reached the peak of its popularity in the second and third centuries CE, and was particularly popular among Roman soldiers.
The Sasanid Empire (226–650 C.E.) came into power in Persia in 226 C.E. and witnessed the reoganization and reformulation of the Zoroastrian faith, as priests codified and canonized various aspects of the tradition which had survived the breaks caused by the Hellenistic influences. During this period, Zoroastrianism became less universalistic and more localized within Iran, justifying the position of the crown, clergy, and warriors at the top of the state hierarchy while also maintaining nationalistic sentiment among the entirety of the Iranian people. A number of Zoroastrian mythological figures and dynasties became implicated in wordly progress toward frashoketeri, mostly because of their place in Iranian history rather than their religious significance. Zoroastrians aggressively promoted their religion, often building fire temples upon capturing Roman territory in order to promote their religion there. In some cases Zoroastrians even persecuted Christians and Manichaeans. The Sassanids were highly suspicious of Christians because of their perceived ties to the Christian Roman Empire. In contrast, those Persian Christians loyal to the Patriarchate of Babylon which had broken with Roman Christianity when the latter condemned Nestorianism, were tolerated and even sometimes favored by the Sassanids.
In 637, the Sassanid dynasty was conquered by Muslim Arabs. Zoroastrianism, which was once dominant in a region stretching from Anatolia to Persian Gulf and Central Asia, did not have a powerful foreign champion as Christianity did in the Byzantine Empire, and so steadily lost influence and adherents in Iran under Islamic persecution. Even after Arab conquest, Zoroastrianism maintained its nationalistic ideology. Surviving Zoroastrian communities and the priests who compiled the Palahvi texts looked back upon Iran's imperial era with a certain measure of sentimentality. This lead to a number of attempts to organize revolt against their Muslim overlords, which consistently failed, and caused Muslims to vehemently repress those who upheld Zoroastrian beliefs. Further, Muslims were also suspicious the significance of fire within Zoroastrian religion, considering it a form of idolatry. As a result, many Zoroastrians were prohibited to practice their religion and forced to convert to Islam. Moreover, numerous Arab commanders ordered the destruction of Zoroastrian shrines. It is important to note that fire is used simply as symbol and a point of focus for religious activity in Zoroastrianism, and is not worshipped as divinity in and of itself.
Faced with such adversity, Zoroastrians fled to India in large numbers in the tenth century, where they would come to be known as Parsis (or "Persians"). Here they were offered refuge by Jadav Rana, a Hindu king of Sanjan (the modern-day state of Gujarat) on condition that they abstain from missionary activities and marry only in their community. Although these strictures are centuries old, Parsis of the 21st century still do not accept converts and are endogamous, a sentiment which has come to characterize to Zoroastrianism as a whole. This was readily accepted by the Parsi people, who were already wary of proselytization as it most likely would have lead to a plethora of converts from lower-caste Hindus. In India, the Parsi have come to be seen as something of a caste themselves, since membership in the group is linked to lineage. As a result, Parsis have not only been able to survive, but they have also thrived when compared to their Iranian counterparts, wielding much social political, and economic influence in India through history, and even in modern times due to their favoured position under the British imperialists. Furthermore, Parsi communities have been in continual dialouge with other religious traditions such as Hinduism, Islam and Christianity as well as other movements such as spiritualism and astrology, which has numerous interpretations of Zoroastrian doctrines by the Parsi people. Other Parsis have maintained a conservative view toward the ancient Zoroastrian traditions. The tolerant religious climate of India has even lead some Hindus to syncretize elements of Parsi religion into their religion. The first contact between Indian and Iranian Zoroastrians occured in the late sixteenth century, through the exchange of texts called rivayat, which speculate upon doctrinal and liturgical questions.
Zoroastrianism in Modernity
Statistics and Distribution
Until 2002 the worldwide population figures for Zoroastrians had been estimated at anywhere between 180,000 and 250,000. NOTE: diaspora or worldwide population figures include both Parsis and Iranians; there is no way to estimate numbers of Parsis alone except when referring to India and Pakistan. India's 2001 Census found 69,601 Parsi Zoroastrians, in Pakistan they number 5000, mostly living in Karachi. North America is thought to be home to 18,000-25,000 Zoroastrians of both Parsi and Iranian background. Iran's figures of Zoroastrians have ranged widely. Since 2002 estimates have been sharply increased. According to www.adherents.com, which estimates the worldwide population of Zoroastrians at 2.6 million. Most recent publications of many major encyclopedias and world alamanacs include population estimates of 2 to 3.5 million.
Today, small but thriving Zoroastrian communities are found in India, Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan, and throughout a worldwide diaspora. Zoroastrian communities in the diaspora comprise two main groups of people: those of Iranian background and those of Indian Zoroastrian background, who are known as Parsis (or Parsees). Zoroastrians in Iran have, like other religious minorities, survived centuries of persecution at the hands of the Muslim majority. Communities exist in Tehran, as well as in Yazd and Kerman, where many still speak an Iranian language distinct from Persian. They call their language Dari (not to be confused with the Dari of Afghanistan). Their language is also called Gabri (a derogatory term derived from the word for an unbeliever in Islam) or Behdinan (literally "Of the Good Religion"). Sometimes their language is named for the cities in which it is spoken, Yazdi or Kermani. There is a growing interest among Iranians, as well as people in various Central Asian countries such as Tajikistan and Kazakhstan, in their ancient Zoroastrian heritage; many people in these countries now consider themselves Zoroastrian. In fact, UNESCO (at the instigation of the government of Tajikistan) declared 2003 a year to celebrate the "3000th Anniversary of Zoroastrian Culture," with special events throughout the world. Zoroastrians in Iran are still persecuted by that nation's theocratic rulers. Even today, however, one can find Zoroastrian communities living and practicing their faith there, such as in the province of Yazd. Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 and subsequent U.S.-led intervention in the Middle East, the Parsees of Iran, Iraq and Afghanistan have been receiving less persecution than before, and have been less reticent about identifying themselves, and there seems to be an increased respect for and interest in this classical Persian religion which was once one of the largest in the world. Parsis in India have, in contrast, enjoyed relative tolerance. While the communities there are socioeconomically diverse, Parsis have gained a reputation for their education and widespread influence in all aspects of (especially Indian) society. Also in contrast to Zoroastrianism in the Middle East The Indian Parsees however, are reducing in number because they are having less children and are rejected from the community when Parsees marry a non-Parsi. Small but fast growing Zoroastrian communities exist in major urban areas in the United States, Canada, England, Australia, and other countries.
Contemporary Concepts
Some major concepts which have developed in modern day Zoroastrianism typically promote a strong sense of social justice Respect of everything on Earth and in the world is central to the religion. Zoroastrianism outwardly condemns any oppression toward human beings. Since laziness and sloth are frowned upon, Zoroastrians work hard at promoting charity within their communities. Charity is regarded as a good deed, thus, many Zoroastrians part with a small percentage of their income or possessions in order to help the destitute. This concern for the repressed people has most likely been influenced by the history of persecution Zoroastrianism have survived through at the hands of Alexander the Great and the Muslims crusaders. Further, Zoroastrianism affirms the equality of all humans regardless of race or religion. This includes men and women are considered to be equal in all manners within society. Traditionally, Zoroastrian women were limited to roles of wife, homemaker and mother, and subject to even more stringent purification rites than men as a result of physiological functions such as menstruation and childbirth. However, modern Zoroastrian has hearkened back to the original egalitarian message of Zarashtushtra's revelation. Currently, more and more women are entering the liturgical and scholarly traditions of Zoroastrianism which have typically been limited to men throughout history. Since the arrival of Western educational influences in the nineteenth century, both Parsi and Iranian Zoroastrian communities have seen women assert themselves in the intellectual sphere. The creation of a just society also extends to the ecological sphere, due to the immense importance of nature to the practice of Zoroastrianism. Many important Zoroastrian annual festivals are in celebration of nature: new year on the first day of spring, the water festival in summer, the autumn festival at the end of the season, and the mid-winter fire festival. Care for the planet is necessary of all who wish to become ashavans, and the betterment of the environment is seen as a precursor for the refurbishment of earth that will take place at frashokereti. Enviromental awareness includes a strong condemnation of cruelty against animals, such as sacrifices. Another debate which has been highly contested within contemporary Zoroastrian is that of proseltization agains Inter-religious marriages. Throughout history, Zoroastrians typically have not proselytized. In the Parsi traditions, for example, it is typically thought that the only way to become a Zoroastrian is to be born within a Zoroastrian family. As in many other faiths, Zoroastrians are strongly encouraged to marry others of the same faith. However, in India, as a result of historical needs not to proselytize, there have emerged "rules" that say that women (and their children) who marry followers of other religions are no longer considered Zoroastrians (although men and their children are). These rules are not officially recognised by the clergy as they go against one of the main principles of Zoroastrianism, equality amongst sexes. While some Iranian Zoroastrians agree with this position that one can only become Zoroastrian by way of birth, a significant portion do not. In Iran, because of still-existing discrimination, inter-faith marriage is officially discouraged by the government. With the globalization of modern society and the dwindling number of Zoroastrians, these rules are being enforced increasingly less often, especially in the diaspora. Conversion is also becoming more popular in the western world, where in recent years Zoroastrianism has seen an influx of converts who have based their new beliefs solely upon the Gathas.
Significance
The significance of Zoroastrianism cannot be underestimated, as it has aided the development of numerous concepts which have become foundational in other religions, such as Heaven, Hell, Day of judgement, the concept of Satan, the prophecy and the coming of the Messiah and the extensive teaching of Angels and Evil spirits. Some scholars believe the entire eschatology of Judaism, a key influence on Christianity, originated in Zoroastrianism, and was transferred to Judaism during the Babylonian captivity. Further, Zoroastrian may have provided a template for Biblical figures who introduced monotheism over henotheism, since Zoroaster's writings may predate the monotheistic declarations of Abraham and Isiah. Zoroastrianism has been proposed as the source of some of the most important post-Torah aspects of Judaic religious thinking which emerged after the Babylonian captivity, which include the belief in a future state, the importance of of rewards and punishments, the soul's immortality, and a final Judgment were the world is reordered. Moreover, because Zoroastrianism is thought to have emerged from a common Indo-Iranian culture that preceded Vedic Hinduism, scholars also use evidence from Zoroastrian texts to reconstruct the unreformed earlier stage of Indo-Iranian beliefs, and therefore to characterise the original Proto-Indo-European religion and also to identify the culture that evolved into the Vedic religion. Each of these original concepts suggest possible formative links to both Western Abrahamic and Eastern dharmic religious traditions, rendering Zoroastrianism as highly informative when formulating the history of world's religion. This, in concert with the contemporary Zoroastrian maxims which strive for justice in the social and environmental spheres, allows for the conclusion that Zoroastrian has much to aid understanding in both the past and present.
See also
- Book of Arda Viraf
- Mazdakism
- Manichaeism
- Zoroastrian calendar
- Zoroastrian music
- Zurvanism
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Boyce, Mary. Textual sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. ISBN 0226069303
- Boyce, Mary. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge, 1979. ISBN 0710001215
- Clark, Peter. Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to an Ancient Faith. Portland, OR: Sussex Academic Press, 1998. ISBN 1898723788
- King, Charles William. The Gnostics and Their Remains. London: David Nutt, 1877.
- "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents." <http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Zoroastrianism> [Accessed 20 July 2006]
- Malandra, William W. An Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion — Readings from the Avesta and Achaemenid Inscripitons. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983. ISBN 0-8166-1114-9
- Nigosian, S.A. The Zoroastrian Faith: Traditions & Modern Research. Montreal-Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press, 1993. ISBN 0773511334
- Zaehner, Robert C. The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism. Great Britain : Phoenix Press, 1961. ISBN 1-84212-165-0.
- "Zoroastrianism." Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. Mercia Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. p. 579-591.
External links
- Avesta.org contains much on the faith
- The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies at SOAS (CASI at SOAS)
- Images of modern Zoroastrianism in Iran (from the BBC)
- FEZANA is an association of North American Zoroastrians
- Zoroastrianism - was the religion of the Persian Empire the first monotheism? (from the BBC Radio4 show In Our Time)
- A wealth of Parsi / Zoroastrian Resources and Websites
- Page of traditional Zoroastrian group
- Zarathustrian Assembly
- A free directory of Parsis across the world
- A day to day chronicle of Parsi events
- The World Zarathushti Chamber of Commerce
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