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| − | {{Infobox Language
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| − | |name={{ISOtranslit|Urdu|ur}}
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| − | |nativename={{lang|ur|اُردو}}
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| − | |familycolor=Indo-European
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| − | |pronunciation=['ʊrd̪uː]
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| − | |states=[[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[U.A.E.]], [[U.S.A.]], [[U.K.]], [[Canada]], [[Fiji]]
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| − | |region=[[South Asia]] ([[Indian subcontinent]])
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| − | |rank=19–21 (native speakers), in a near tie with [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
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| − | |speakers=61–80 million native<br />160 million total
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| − | |fam2=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
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| − | |fam3=[[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
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| − | |fam4=[[Central zone]]
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| − | |script=[[Urdu alphabet]] ([[Nasta'liq script]])
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| − | |nation={{PAK}} ;<br /> {{IND}} ([[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[National Capital Territory of Delhi|Delhi]], [[Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Uttar Pradesh]]); <br /> {{FJI}} (as [[Hindustani]])
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| − | |agency=[[National Language Authority]],<br />[http://www.urducouncil.nic.in/ National Council for Promotion of Urdu language]<ref name="National Council for Promotion of Urdu language 1">{{cite web|url = http://www.urducouncil.nic.in/Council/index.htm| title = The Council|publisher = National Council for Promotion of Urdu language|accessdate = 2007-06-15}}</ref>
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| − | |iso1=ur|iso2=urd|iso3=urd}}
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| − | '''Urdu''' ({{lang|ur|'''اردو'''}}, trans. ''Urdū'', historically spelled '''Ordu''') is an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]] of the [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian branch]], belonging to the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family of languages. It developed under [[Persian language|Persian]] and to a lesser degree [[Arabic Language|Arabic]] and [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] influence on [[Apabhramsha|apabhramshas]] (dialects of [[North India]] that deviate from the norm of [[Sanskrit]] grammar) during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and [[Mughal Empire]] (1526–1858 C.E.) in [[South Asia]].<ref name="National Council for Promotion of Urdu language 2">{{cite web|url = http://www.urducouncil.nic.in/pers_pp/index.htm| title = A Historical Perspective of Urdu|publisher = National Council for Promotion of Urdu language|accessdate = 2007-06-15}}</ref>
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| − | Standard Urdu has approximately the twentieth largest population of native speakers, among all languages. It is the [[national language]] of [[Pakistan]], as well as one of the [[List of national languages of India|twenty-three official languages]] of [[India]].
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| − | Urdu is often [[Hindi#Hindi_and_Urdu|contrasted with Hindi]], another standardized form of Hindustani. The main differences between the two are that Standard Urdu is conventionally written in [[Nastaliq script|Nastaliq calligraphy style]] of the [[Perso-Arabic script]] and draws vocabulary more heavily from Persian and Arabic than Hindi, while Standard Hindi is conventionally written in [[Devanāgarī]] and draws vocabulary from [[Sanskrit]] comparatively more heavily. Linguists nonetheless consider Urdu and Hindi to be two standardized forms of the same language.
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| − | Urdu is a standardized [[register (linguistics)|register]] of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]<ref>[http://sasw.chass.ncsu.edu/fl/faculty/taj/hindi/abturdu.htm North Carolina State University: About Hindi-Urdu by Afroz Taj]. Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref> termed ''[[Khari boli|khaṛībolī]]'', that emerged as a [[standard language|standard dialect]].<ref>[http://www.languageinindia.com/march2003/hindustani.html Language in India: Hindustani as an Anxiety between Hindi-Urdu Commitment by S. Imtiaz Hasnain, Ph.D. and K. S. Rajyashree, Ph.D.] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref> The grammatical description in this article concerns this standard {{Unicode|Urdū}}. The general term "{{Unicode|Urdū}}" can encompass dialects of Hindustani other than the standardized versions.
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| − | == Speakers and Geographic Distribution ==
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| − | [[Image:Zaban urdu mualla.png|right|thumb|The phrase ''Zaban-e Urdu-e Mualla'' ("The language of the exalted camp") written in [[Nasta'liq]] script.]]
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| − | Urdu is spoken in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, UAE, Saudi-Arabia, Mauritius, Canada, Germany, the USA, Iran, Afganistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Maldives, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, South Africa, Oman, Australia, Fiji, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Kenya, Libya, Malawi, Botswana, Ireland and United Kingdom.
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| − | There are between 60 and 80 million native speakers of standard Urdu ''(Khari Boli)''. According to the [[SIL International|SIL]] [[Ethnologue]] (1999 data), Hindi/Urdu is the fifth most spoken language in the world. According to Comrie (1998 data<ref name=Saint Ignatius">{{cite web|url = http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm| title = Most Widely Spoken Languages|publisher = Saint Ignatius|accessdate = 2007-06-23}}</ref>), [[Hindi-Urdu]] is the second most spoken language in the world, with thirty million native speakers, after [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] and possibly [[English language|English]].
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| − | Because of Urdu's similarity to [[Hindi]], speakers of the two languages can usually understand one another, if both sides refrain from using specialized vocabulary. Indeed, linguists sometimes count them as being part of the same language [[diasystem]]. However, Urdu and Hindi are socio-politically different. People who describe themselves as being speakers of Hindi would question their being counted as native speakers of Urdu, and vice-versa.
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| − | In [[Pakistan]], Urdu is spoken and understood by a majority of urban dwellers in such cities as [[Karachi]], [[Lahore]], [[Rawalpindi]]/[[Islamabad]], [[Abbottabad]], [[Faisalabad]], [[Hyderabad (Pakistan)|Hyderabad]], [[Multan]], [[Peshawar]], [[Gujranwala]], [[Sialkot]], [[Sukkur]] and [[Sargodha]]. Urdu is used as the official language in all provinces of Pakistan. It is also taught as a compulsory language up to high school in both the English and Urdu medium school systems. This has produced millions of Urdu speakers whose mother tongue is one of the regional languages of Pakistan such as [[Punjabi]], [[Hindku]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Pashto]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Kashmiri]], [[Balochi language|Balochi]], [[Siraiki language|Siraiki]], and [[Brahui language|Brahui]]. Millions of Pakistanis whose mother tongue is not Urdu can read and write Urdu, but can only speak their mother tongue.
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| − | Urdu is the [[lingua franca]] of Pakistan and is absorbing many words from regional languages of Pakistan. The regional languages are also being influenced by Urdu vocabulary. Most of the nearly five million [[Afghan refugees]] of different ethnic origins (such as [[Pathan]], [[Tajik]], [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]], [[Hazara people|Hazarvi]], and [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]]) who stayed in Pakistan for over twenty-five years have also become fluent in Urdu. A large number of newspapers are published in Urdu in Pakistan, including the [[Daily Jang]], [[Nawa-i-Waqt]], [[Millat]], among many others.
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| − | In [[India]], Urdu is spoken in places where there are large Muslim minorities or in cities which were bases for Muslim Empires in the past. These include parts of [[Uttar Pradesh]] (namely [[Lucknow]]), [[Delhi]], [[Bhopal]], [[Hyderabad (India)|Hyderabad]], [[Bangalore]], [[Mysore]], [[Ajmer]], and [[Ahmedabad]].<ref>[https://www.indiatravelite.com/holyplaces/ajmerint.htm India Travelite: Holy Places - Ajmer] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref> Some Indian schools teach Urdu as a first language and have their own syllabus and exams. Indian [[madrasahs]] also teach [[Arabic]], as well as Urdu. India has more than twenty-nine Urdu daily newspapers. Newspapers such as [[Sahara Urdu]] [[Daily Salar]], [[Hindustan Express]], [[Daily Pasban]], [[Siasat Daily]], [[Munsif Daily]] and [[Inqilab]] are published and distributed in Bangalore, Mysore, Hyderabad, and [[Mumbai]].
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| − | Outside South Asia, Urdu is spoken by large numbers of migrant South Asian workers in the major urban centers of the [[Persian Gulf]] countries and [[Saudi Arabia]]. Urdu is also spoken by large numbers of immigrants and their children in the major urban centers of the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Norway]] and [[Australia]].
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| − | Countries with large numbers of native Urdu speakers:
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| − | * [[India]] (48.1 million [1997])<ref name="Ethnologue - India">{{cite web|url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=in| title = Ethnologue Report for India|publisher = [[SIL Ethnologue]]|accessdate = 2007-10-07}}</ref>
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| − | * [[Pakistan]] (10.7 million [1993])<ref name="Ethnologue - Pakistan">{{cite web|url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=pk| title = Ethnologue Report for Pakistan|publisher = [[SIL Ethnologue]]|accessdate = 2007-10-07}}</ref>
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| − | * [[Bangladesh]] (650,000)<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Bangladesh Ethnologue Report for Bangladesh] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref>
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| − | * [[United Arab Emirates]] (600,000)
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| − | * [[United Kingdom]] (400,000 [1990])
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| − | * [[Saudi Arabia]] (382,000)<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=SA Ethnologue Report for Saudi Arabia] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref>
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| − | * [[Nepal]] (375,000)
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| − | * [[United States]] (350,000)
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| − | * [[South Africa]] (170,000 [[South Asian]] [[Muslim]]s, some of which may speak Urdu)<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=South+Africa Ethnologue Report for South Africa] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref>
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| − | * [[Oman]] (90,000)
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| − | * [[Canada]] (80,895 [2001])<ref>[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/Products/Analytic/companion/lang/highlights.cfm Canada: Language Profile] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref>
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| − | * [[Bahrain]] (80,000)
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| − | * [[Mauritius]] (74,000)
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| − | * [[Qatar]] (70,000)
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| − | * [[Germany]] (40,000)
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| − | * [[Norway]] (26,950 [2005])<ref>[http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/02/01/10/innvbef_en/tab-2005-05-26-02-en.html Statistics Norway] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref>
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| − | * [[France]] (20,000)
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| − | * [[Spain]] (18,000 [2004])<ref>[http://www.pakistanlink.com/Letters/2004/July04/02/10.html Pakistan Link: Desi Salsa in Barcelona] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref>
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| − | * [[Sweden]] (10,000 [2001])<ref>[http://www.answers.com/topic/demographics-of-sweden Answers.com: Demographics of Sweden] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref>
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| − | * [[List of languages by number of native speakers|World Total]]: 60,503,578<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=urd Ethnologue Report for Urdu] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref>
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| − | == Official Status ==
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| − | Urdu is the national language of [[Pakistan]] and is spoken and understood throughout the country, where it shares [[official language]] status with English. It is used in [[Education in Pakistan|education]], [[Pakistani literature|literature]], office and court business (it should be noted that in the lower courts in Pakistan, despite the proceedings taking place in Urdu, the documents are in English. In the higher courts, such as the High Courts and the Supreme Court, both the proceedings and documents are in English.), [[List of Pakistani television and radio channels|media]], and in religious institutions. It holds in itself a repository of the [[Culture of Pakistan|cultural]], religious and [[Pakistan#Society and culture|social]] heritage of the country.<ref name=”zia”>Zia, Khaver (1999), [http://www.cicc.or.jp/english/hyoujyunka/mlit4/7-10Pakistan/Pakistan2.html "A Survey of Standardization in Urdu." 4th Symposium on Multilingual Information Processing, (MLIT-4)], [[Yangon]], [[Myanmar]]. CICC, [[Japan]] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref> Although English is used in most elite circles, and [[Punjabi]] has a plurality of native speakers, Urdu is the [[lingua franca]] and is expected to prevail.
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| − | Urdu is also one of the officially recognized state languages in [[official languages of India|India]]<ref>see [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_762510380/Urdu.html Urdu] at [[Encarta Encyclopedia|Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia]] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref> and has official language status in the Indian states of [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Jammu and Kashmir]], and [[Uttar Pradesh]], and the national capital, [[Delhi]]. While the government school system in most other states emphasizes Standard [[Hindi language|Hindi]], at universities in cities such as [[Lucknow]], [[Aligarh]] and [[Hyderabad (India)|Hyderabad]], Urdu is spoken, learned, and regarded as a language of prestige.
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| − | == Classification and Related Languages ==
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| − | Urdu is a member of the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] family of languages (those languages descending from [[Sanskrit]]), which is in turn a branch of the [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian group]] (which comprises the Indo-Aryan and the Iranian branches), which itself is a member of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] linguistic family. If [[Hindi language|Hindi]] and Urdu are considered to be the same language ([[Hindustani language|Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu]]), then Urdu can be considered to be a part of a [[dialect continuum]] which extends across eastern Iran, Afghanistan and modern Pakistan<ref>Phukan, 2000.</ref>, right into eastern India. These idioms all have similar grammatical structures and share a large portion of their vocabulary. Punjabi, for instance, is very similar to Urdu; Punjabi written in the [[Shahmukhi]] script can be understood by speakers of Urdu with little difficulty, but spoken Punjabi has a very different [[phonology]] (pronunciation system) and can be harder to understand for Urdu speakers.
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| − | == Dialects ==
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| − | Urdu has four recognized dialects: [[Dakhini]], Pinjari, [[Rekhta]], and Modern Vernacular Urdu (based on the [[Khariboli]] dialect of the Delhi region). Sociolinguists also consider Urdu itself one of the four major variants of the [[Hindi]]-Urdu dialect continuum. In recent years, the Urdu spoken in Pakistan has been evolving and has acquired a particularly Pakistani flavor of its own, having absorbed many of that country's indigenous words and proverbs. Many Pakistani speakers of Urdu have begun to emphasize and encourage their own unique form of Urdu to distinguish it from that spoken in India. Linguists point out that the Pakistani dialect of Urdu is gradually being pulled closer to the Iranic branch of the Indo-European family tree, as well as acquiring many local words from Pakistan's several native languages, and is evolving into a distinctive form from that being spoken in India.<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=hin Ethnologue report for Hindi] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref>
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| − | Modern Vernacular Urdu is the form of the language that is least widespread and is spoken around [[Delhi]], [[Lucknow]]. The Pakistani variant of the language spoken in [[Karachi]] and [[Lahore]] becomes increasingly divergent from the original form of Urdu, as it loses some of the complicated Persian and Arabic vocabulary used in everyday terms.
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| − | [[Dakhini]] (also known as Dakani, Deccani, Desia, Mirgan) is spoken in [[Maharashtra]] state in India and around [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] and other parts of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. It has fewer Persian and Arabic words than standard Urdu. Dakhini is widely spoken in all parts of [[Karnatka]], [[Tamil Nadu]] and Andhra Pradesh. Urdu is read and written as in other parts of India. A number of daily newspapers and several monthly magazines in Urdu are published in these states.
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| − | In addition, [[Rekhta]] (or Rekhti), the language of Urdu poetry, is sometimes counted as a separate dialect.
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| − | == Levels of Formality in Urdu ==
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| − | The order of words in Urdu is not as rigidly fixed as it is thought to be by traditional grammarians. Urdu is often called an SOV language (Subject-Object-Verb language), because usually (but not invariably), an Urdu sentence begins with a subject and ends with a verb. However, Urdu speakers or writers enjoy considerable freedom in placing words in an utterance to achieve stylistic effects, see Bhatia and Koul (2000, pp. 34–35).
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| − | Urdu in its less formalized [[register (linguistics)|register]] has been referred to as a ''[[rekhta]]'' (ریختہ, {{IPA|[reːxt̪aː]}}), meaning "rough mixture." The more formal register of Urdu is sometimes referred to as ''zabān-e-Urdu-e-mo'alla'' (زبانِ اردوِ معلہ, {{IPA|[zəba:n e: ʊrd̪uː eː moəllaː]}}), the "Language of Camp and Court."
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| − | The [[etymology]] of the words used by a speaker of Urdu determines how polite or refined his speech is. For example, Urdu speakers distinguish between پانی ''pānī'' and آب ''āb'', both meaning "water;" or between آدمی ''ādmi'' and مرد ''mard'', meaning "man." The former in each set is used colloquially and has older [[Hindustani]] origins, while the latter is used formally and poetically, being of [[Persian language|Persian]] origin. If a word is of [[Persian language|Persian]] or [[Arabic]] origin, the level of speech is considered to be more formal and grand. Similarly, if Persian or Arabic grammar constructs, such as the [[izafat]], are used in Urdu, the level of speech is also considered more formal and elegant. If a word is inherited from [[Sanskrit]], the level of speech is considered more colloquial and personal.
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| − | === Politeness ===
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| − | Urdu is supposed to be very subtle, and a host of words are used to show respect and politeness. This emphasis on politeness, which is reflected in the vocabulary, is known as '''takalluf''' in Urdu. These words are generally used when addressing elders, or people with whom one is not acquainted. For example, the English pronoun 'you' can be translated into three words in Urdu: the singular forms ''tu'' (informal, extremely intimate, or derogatory) and ''tum'' (informal and showing intimacy called "apna pun" in Urdu) and the plural form ''āp'' (formal and respectful). Similarly, verbs, for example, "come," can be translated with degrees of formality in three ways:
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| − | # '''آئے''' āiye/{{IPA|[aːɪje]}} or '''آئیں''' āe<sup>n</sup>/[aːẽː] ( formal and respectful)
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| − | # '''آو''' āo/[aːo] (informal and intimate with less degree)
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| − | # '''آ''' ā/[aː] (extremely informal, intimate and potentially derogatory).
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| − | Example in a [[sher]] by the poet [[Daag Dehlvi]]:
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| − | <blockquote>
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| − | '''Transliteration'''<br />
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| − | ranj kii jab guftaguu hone lagii<br />
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| − | āp se tum tum se tuu hone lagii <br />
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| − | '''Gloss'''<br />
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| − | Grief/distress of when conversation started happening<br />
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| − | You(formal) to you(informal), you(informal) to you(intimate) started happening<br />
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| − | </blockquote>
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| − | == Vocabulary ==
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| − | Urdu has a vocabulary rich in words with [[Languages of India|Indian]] and [[Middle Eastern]] origins. The borrowings are dominated by words from [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. There are also a small number of borrowings from [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and more recently [[English language|English]]. Many of the words of Arabic origin have different nuances of meaning and usage than they do in Arabic.
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| − | The most used word in written Urdu is ''ka'' (کا), along with its other variants ''ki,kay,ko'' (کی، کے، کو). Though Urdu has borrowed heavily from other languages, its most-used words, including nouns, pronouns, numbers, body parts and many other everyday words, are its own.
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| − | == Writing System ==
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| − | {{main|Urdu alphabet}}
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| − | {{further|[[Hindustani orthography]]}}
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| − | {{further|[[Uddin and Begum Urdu-Hindustani Romanization]]}}
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| − | [[Image:Urdu alphabets.png|thumb|265px|The Urdu Nasta’liq alphabet, with names in the Devanāgarī and Latin alphabets]]
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| − | {{IPA notice}}
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| − | Nowadays, Urdu is generally written right-to left in an extension of the [[Persian alphabet]], which is itself an extension of the [[Arabic alphabet]]. Urdu is associated with the ''[[Nasta'liq|Nasta’liq]]'' style of Arabic calligraphy, whereas [[Arabic language|Arabic]] is generally written in the modernized ''[[Naskh (script)|Naskh]]'' style. ''Nasta’liq'' is notoriously difficult to typeset, so Urdu newspapers were hand-written by masters of calligraphy, known as ''katib'' or ''khush-navees'', until the late 1980s.
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| − | Historically, Urdu was also written in the [[Kaithi]] script. A highly-Persianized and technical form of Urdu was the ''lingua franca'' of the law courts of the British administration in [[Bengal]], [[Bihar]], and the North-West Provinces and Oudh. Until the late nineteenth century, all proceedings and court transactions in this register of Urdu were written officially in the Persian script. In 1880, [[Ashley Eden|Sir Ashley Eden]], the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, abolished the use of the Persian alphabet in the law courts of Bengal and Bihar and ordered the exclusive use of Kaithi, a popular script used for both Urdu and [[Hindi]]<ref>King, 1994.</ref> Kaithi's association with Urdu and Hindi was ultimately eliminated by the political contest between these languages and their scripts, which resulted in the Persian script being definitively linked to Urdu.
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| − | More recently in India, {{Unicode|Urdū}} speakers have adopted Devanagari for publishing Urdu periodicals and have innovated new strategies to mark {{Unicode|Urdū}} in Devanagari as distinct from Hindi in Devanagari<ref>Ahmad, R., 2006.</ref> The popular {{Unicode|Urdū}} monthly magazine, महकता आंचल ''(Mahakta Anchal)'', is published in Delhi in Devanagari in order to target the generation of Muslim boys and girls who do not know the Persian script. Such publishers have introduced new orthographic features into Devanagari for the purpose of representing {{Unicode|Urdū}} sounds. One example is the use of अ (Devanagari ''a'') with vowel signs to mimic contexts of ع ''([[ayin|‘ain]])''. The use of modified Devanagari gives {{Unicode|Urdū}} publishers a greater audience, but helps them to preserve the distinct identity of {{Unicode|Urdū}}.
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| − | The [[Daily Jang]] was the first Urdu newspaper to be typeset digitally in ''Nasta’liq'' by computer. There are efforts underway to develop more sophisticated and user-friendly Urdu support on computers and the Internet. Today, nearly all Urdu newspapers, magazines, journals, and periodicals are composed on computers using various Urdu software programs.
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| − | A list of the Urdu alphabet and pronunciation is given below. Urdu contains many historical spellings from Arabic and Persian, and therefore has many irregularities. The Arabic letters ''yaa'' and ''haa'' are split into two in Urdu: one of the ''yaa'' variants is used at the ends of words for the sound [i], and one of the ''haa'' variants is used to indicate the [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] consonants. The [[retroflex consonant]]s needed to be added as well; this was accomplished by placing a superscript ط (''to'e'') above the corresponding [[dental consonant]]s. Several letters which represent distinct consonants in Arabic are conflated in Persian, and this has carried over to Urdu.
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| − | ! Letter !! Name of letter !! Pronunciation in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ا}} || ''alif'' || {{IPA|[ə, ɑ]}} after a consonant; silent when initial. Close to an English long 'a' as in Mask.
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ب}} || ''bé'' || {{IPA|[b]}} English b.
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| − | | {{lang|ur|پ}} || ''pé'' || {{IPA|[p]}} English p.
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ت}} || ''té'' || [[dental consonant|dental]] {{IPA|[t̪]}} Spanish t.
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ٹ}} || {{Unicode|''ṭé''}} || [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] {{IPA|[ʈ]}} Close to unaspirated English T.
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ث}} || ''sé'' || {{IPA|[s]}} Close to English s
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ج}} || {{Unicode|''jīm''}} || {{IPA|[dʒ]}} Same as English j
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| − | | {{lang|ur|چ}} || {{Unicode|''cé''}} || {{IPA|[tʃ]}} Same as English ch, not like Scottish ch
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ح}} || {{Unicode|''baṛī hé''}} || {{IPA|[h]}} voiceless h
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| − | | {{lang|ur|خ}} || ''khé'' || {{IPA|[x]}} Slightly rolled version of Scottish "ch" as in loch
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| − | | {{lang|ur|د}} || {{Unicode|''dāl''}} || dental {{IPA|[d̪]}} Spanish d.
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ڈ}} || {{Unicode|''ḍāl''}} || retroflex {{IPA|[ɖ]}} Close to English d.
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ذ}} || {{Unicode|''zāl''}} || {{IPA|[z]}} English z.
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ر}} || ''ré'' || dental {{IPA|[r]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ڑ}} || {{Unicode|''ṛé''}} || retroflex {{IPA|[ɽ]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ز}} || ''zé'' || {{IPA|[z]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ژ}} || ''zhé'' || {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|س}} || {{Unicode|''sīn''}} || {{IPA|[s]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ش}} || {{Unicode|''shīn''}} || {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ص}} || {{Unicode|''su'ād''}} || {{IPA|[s]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ض}} || {{Unicode|''zu'ād''}} || {{IPA|[z]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ط}} || ''to'é'' || {{IPA|[t]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ظ}} || ''zo'é'' || {{IPA|[z]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ع}} || ''‘ain'' || {{IPA|[ɑ]}} after a consonant; otherwise {{IPA|[ʔ]}}, {{IPA|[ə]}}, or silent.
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|غ}} || ''ghain'' || {{IPA|[ɣ]}} voiced version of {{IPA|[x]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ف}} || ''fé'' || {{IPA|[f]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ق}} || {{Unicode|''qāf''}} || {{IPA|[q]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ک}} || {{Unicode|''kāf''}} || {{IPA|[k]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|گ}} || {{Unicode|''gāf''}} || {{IPA|[g]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ل}} || {{Unicode|''lām''}} || {{IPA|[l]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|م}} || {{Unicode|''mīm''}} || {{IPA|[m]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ن}} || {{Unicode|''nūn''}} || {{IPA|[n]}} or a [[nasal vowel]]
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|و}} || {{Unicode|''vā'o''}} || {{IPA|[v, u, ʊ, o, ow]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ہ, ﮩ, ﮨ}} || {{Unicode|''choṭī hé''}} || {{IPA|[ɑ]}} at the end of a word, otherwise {{IPA|[h]}} or silent
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ھ}} || {{Unicode|''doe cashmī hé''}} || indicates that the preceding consonant is [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] (p, t, c, k) or [[breathy voice|murmured]] (b, d, j, g).
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ء}} || ''hamzah'' || {{IPA|[ʔ]}} or silent
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ی}} || {{Unicode|''choṭī yé''}} || {{IPA|[j, i, e, ɛ]}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | {{lang|ur|ے}} || {{Unicode|''baṛī yé''}} || {{IPA|[eː]}}
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| − | |}
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| − |
| |
| − | === Transliteration ===
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| − |
| |
| − | Urdu is occasionally also written in Roman script. [[Roman Urdu]] has been used since the days of the [[British Raj]], partly as a result of the availability and low cost of Roman [[movable type]] for printing presses. The use of Roman Urdu was common in contexts such as product labels. Today it is regaining popularity among users of text-messaging and Internet services and is developing its own style and conventions. [[Habib R. Sulemani]] says, "The younger generation of Urdu-speaking people around the world are using Romanized Urdu on the Internet and it has become essential for them, because they use the Internet and English is its language. A person from Islamabad chats with another in Delhi on the Internet only in Roman {{Unicode|Urdū}}. They both speak the same language but with different scripts. Moreover, the younger generation of those who are from the English medium schools or settled in the West, can speak Urdu but can’t write it in the traditional Arabic script and thus Roman Urdu is a blessing for such a population."
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| − |
| |
| − | Roman {{Unicode|Urdū}} also holds significance among the Christians of [[North India]]. {{Unicode|Urdū}} was the dominant native language among Christians of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan in the early part of 1900s and is still used by some people in these Indian states. Roman {{Unicode|Urdū}} was a common way of writing among Indian Christians in these states up to the 1960s. The Bible Society of India publishes Roman {{Unicode|Urdū}} Bibles which were widely sold late into the 1960s (they are still published today). Church songbooks are also common in Roman {{Unicode|Urdū}}. However, the usage of Roman {{Unicode|Urdū}} is declining with the wider use of Hindi and English in these states. The major [[Hindi-Urdu]] [[South Asian cinema|South Asian film industries]], [[Bollywood]] and [[Lollywood]], make use of Roman {{Unicode|Urdū}} for their movie titles.
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| − |
| |
| − | Usually, bare transliterations of Urdu into Roman letters omit many [[phoneme|phonemic]] elements that have no equivalent in English or other languages commonly written in the [[Latin alphabet]]. It should be noted that a comprehensive system has emerged with specific notations to signify non-English sounds, but it can only be properly read by someone already familiar with Urdu, Persian, or Arabic for letters such as:{{lang|ur|ژ خ غ ط ص}} or {{lang|ur|ق}} and [[Hindi]] for letters such as {{lang|ur|ڑ}}. This script may be found on the Internet, and it allows people who understand the language, but are without knowledge of its written forms, to communicate with each other.
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| − |
| |
| − | == Examples ==
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| − |
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| − | {| class="wikitable" style="width: 80%"
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| − | |-
| |
| − | ! English
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| − | ! Urdu
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| − | ! Transliteration
| |
| − | ! Notes
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| − | |-
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| − | | Hello
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| − | | السلام علیکم
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| − | | {{IPA|assalāmu ‘alaikum}}
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| − | | ''lit.'' "Peace be upon you." اداب {{IPA|[aˈdaːb]}} would generally be used to give respect و علیکم السلام {{IPA|[ˈwaɭikum ˈaʔsaɭam]}} is the correct response.
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| − | |-
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| − | | Hello
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| − | | آداب عرض ہے
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| − | | {{IPA|ādāb arz hai}}
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| − | | "Regards to you" (''lit'' "Regards are expressed"), a very formal [[secular]] greeting.
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| − | |-
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| − | | Good Bye
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| − | | خدا حافظ
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| − | | {{IPA|khudā hāfiz}}
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| − | | ''Khuda'' is [[Persian language|Persian]] for God, and ''hāfiz'' is from Arabic ''hifz'' "protection." So ''lit.'' "May God be your Guardian." Standard and commonly used by Muslims and non-Muslims, or ''al vida'' formally spoken all over
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| − | |-
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| − | | yes
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| − | | ہاں
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| − | | {{IPA|hā<sup>n</sup>}}
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| − | | casual
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| − | |-
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| − | | yes
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| − | | جی
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| − | | {{IPA|jī}}
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| − | | formal
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| − | |-
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| − | | yes
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| − | | جی ہاں
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| − | | {{IPA|jī hā<sup>n</sup>}}
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| − | | confident formal
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| − | |-
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| − | | no
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| − | | نا
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| − | | {{IPA|nā}}
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| − | | casual
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| − | |-
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| − | | no
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| − | | نہیں، جی نہیں
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| − | | {{IPA|nahī<sup>n</sup>, jī nahī<sup>n</sup>}}
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| − | | formal;jī nahī<sup>n</sup> is considered more formal
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| − | |-
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| − | | please
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| − | | مہربانی
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| − | | {{IPA|meharbānī}}
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| − | |
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| − | |-
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| − | | thank you
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| − | | شکریہ
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| − | | {{IPA|shukrīā}}
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| − | |
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| − | |-
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| − | | Please come in
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| − | | تشریف لائیے
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| − | | {{IPA|tashrīf laīe}}
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| − | | ''lit.'' "Bring your honor"
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| − | |-
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| − | | Please have a seat
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| − | | تشریف رکھیئے
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| − | | {{IPA|tashrīf rakhīe}}
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| − | | ''lit.'' "Place your honor"
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| − | |-
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| − | | I am happy to meet you
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| − | | اپ سے مل کر خوشی ہوئی
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| − | | {{IPA|āp se mil kar khvushī (khushī) hūye}}
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| − | | ''lit.'' "Meeting you has made me happy"
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| − | |-
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| − | | Do you speak English?
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| − | | کیا اپ انگریزی بولتے ہیں؟
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| − | | {{IPA|kya āp angrezī bolte hai<sup>n</sup>?}}
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| − | | ''lit.'' "Do you speak English?"
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| − | |-
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| − | | I do not speak Urdu.
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| − | | میں اردو نہیں بولتا/بولتی
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| − | | {{IPA|mai<sup>n</sup> urdū nahī<sup>n</sup> boltā/boltī}}
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| − | | ''boltā'' is masculine, ''boltī'' is feminine
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| − | |-
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| − | | My name is ...
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| − | | میرا نام ۔۔۔ ہے
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| − | | {{IPA|merā nām .... hai}}
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| − | |
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| − | |-
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| − | | Which way to [[Lahore]]?
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| − | | لاھور کس طرف ہے؟
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| − | | {{IPA|lāhaur kis taraf hai?}}
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| − | |
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| − | |-
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| − | | Where is [[Lucknow]]?
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| − | | لکھنئو کہاں ہے؟
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| − | | {{IPA|lakhnau kahā<sup>n</sup> hai}}
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| − | |-
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| − | | Urdu is a good language.
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| − | | اردو اچھی زبان ہے
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| − | | {{IPA|urdū acchī zubān hai}}
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| − | |}
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| − |
| |
| − | === Sample text ===
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| − | {{seealso|Hindi#Sample_Text}}
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| − | The following is a sample text in {{IPA|zabān-e urdū-e muʻallā}} (formal Urdu), of the Article 1 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] (by the [[United Nations]]):
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| − |
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| − | ====Urdu text====
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| − | :'''دفعہ 1:''' تمام انسان آزاد اور حقوق و عزت کے اعتبار سے برابر پیدا ہوۓ ہیں۔ انہیں ضمیر اور عقل ودیعت ہوئی ہی۔ اسلۓ انہیں ایک دوسرے کے ساتھ بھائی چارے کا سلوک کرنا چاہیۓ۔
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| − |
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| − | ====Transliteration ([[Library of Congress|ALA-LC]])====
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| − | :{{IPA|'''Dafʻah 1:''' Tamām insān āzād aur ḥuqūq o ʻizzat ke iʻtibār se barābar paidā hu’e heṇ. Unheṇ z̤amīr aur ʻaql wadīʻat hu’ī he. Isli’e unheṇ ek dūsre ke sāth bhā’ī chāre kā sulūk karnā chāhi’e}}.
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| − |
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| − | ====Gloss (word-for-word)====
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| − | :'''Article 1:''' All humans free[,] and rights and dignity *('s) consideration from equal born are. To them conscience and intellect endowed is. Therefore, they one another *('s) brotherhood *('s) treatment do must.
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| − |
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| − | ====Translation (grammatical)====
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| − | :'''Article 1:''' All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience. Therefore, they should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
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| − |
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| − | '''Note:''' ''*('s) represents a possessive case which when written is preceded by the possessor and followed by the possessed, unlike the English 'of'.''
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| − |
| |
| − | ==Common Difficulties Faced in Learning Urdu==
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| − | * The [[phonetics|phonetic]] mechanism of some sounds peculiar to Urdu (eg. ṛ, dh etc): The distinction between aspirated and unaspirated consonants is difficult for English speakers. The distinction between dental and alveolar (or retroflex) consonants also poses problems. English speakers will find that they need to carefully distinguish between four different d-sounds and four different t-sounds.
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| − | * Pronunciation of vowels: In English, unstressed vowels tend to have a "[[schwa]]" quality. The pronunciation of such vowels in English is changed to an "uh" sound; this is called reducing a vowel sound. The second syllable of "unify" is pronounced /{{IPA|ə}}/, not {{IPA|i}}. The same for the unstressed second syllable of "person" which is also pronounced /{{IPA|ə}}/ rather than "oh." In Urdu, English-speakers must constantly be careful not to reduce these vowels.
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| − | **In this respect, probably the most important mistake would be for English speakers to reduce final "ah" sounds to "uh." This can be especially important because an English pronunciation will lead to misunderstandings about grammar and gender. In Urdu, وہ بولتا ہے ''voh boltā hai'' is "he talks" whereas وہ بولتی ہے ''voh boltī hai'' is "she talks." A typical English pronunciation in the first sentence would be "voh boltuh hai," which will be understood as "she talks" by most Urdu-native speakers.
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| − | * The 'a' ending of many gender-masculine words of native origin, due to [[romanization]], is highly confused by non-native speakers, because the short 'a' is dropped in Urdu (i.e. ہونا ''honā'').
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| − | * The verbal [[concordance]]: Urdu exhibits [[split ergativity]]; for example, a special noun ending is used to mark the subject of a transitive verb in the perfect tense, but not in other tenses.
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| − | * Relative-correlative constructions: In English interrogative and relative pronouns are the same word. In "Who are you?" the word "who" is an interrogative, or question, pronoun. In "My friend who lives in Sydney can speak Urdu," the word "who" is not an interrogative, or question-pronoun. It is a relative, or linking-pronoun. In Urdu, there are different words for each. The interrogative pronoun tends to start with the "k" sound:" kab = when?, kahā<sup>n</sup> = where?, kitnā = how much? This is similar to the 'W' in English, which is used for the same purpose. The relative pronouns are usually very similar but start with "j" sounds: jab = when, jahā<sup>n</sup> = where, jitnā = how much.
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| − |
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| − | == Literature ==
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| − |
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| − | Urdu has only become a literary language in recent centuries, as Persian and Arabic were formerly the idioms of choice for "elevated" subjects. However, despite its late development, Urdu literature boasts some world-recognized artists and a considerable corpus.
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| − |
| |
| − | === Prose ===
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| − | ====Religious====
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| − |
| |
| − | After Arabic and Persian, Urdu holds the largest collection of works on Islamic literature and [[Sharia]]. These include translations and interpretation of [[Qur'an]], commentary on ''Hadith'', ''Fiqh'', [[history]], [[spirituality]], [[Sufism]] and [[metaphysics]]. A great number of classical texts from [[Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]], have also been translated into Urdu. Relatively inexpensive publishing, combined with the use of Urdu as a [[lingua franca]] among Muslims of [[South Asia]], has meant that Islam-related works in Urdu outnumber such works in any other South Asian language. Popular Islamic books, originally written in Urdu, include [[Fazail-e-Amal]], [[Bahishti Zewar]] the [[Bahar-e-Shariat]].
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| − |
| |
| − | ====Literary====
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| − |
| |
| − | Secular prose includes all categories of widely known fiction and non-fiction work, separable into genres. The ''dāstān'', or tale, a traditional story which may have many characters and complex plotting, has now fallen into disuse.
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| − |
| |
| − | The ''afsāna'', or [[short story]], is probably the best-known genre of Urdu fiction. The best-known ''afsāna'' writers, or ''afsāna nigār'', in Urdu are [[Saadat Hasan Manto]], [[Qurratulain Hyder]] (Qurat-ul-Ain Haider), [[Munshi Premchand]], [[Ismat Chughtai]], [[Krishan Chander]], [[Ghulam Abbas]], [[Banu Qudsia]] and [[Ahmed Nadeem Qasmi]]. Munshi Premchand became known as a pioneer in the ''afsāna,'' though some contend that his were not technically the first, as Sir Ross Masood had already written many short stories in Urdu.
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| − |
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| − | [[Novel]]s form a genre of their own, in the tradition of the English novel. Other genres include ''saférnāma'' (odyssey, travel story), ''mazmoon'' (essay), ''sarguzisht,'' ''inshaeya,'' ''murasela,'' and ''khud navvisht'' (autobiography).
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| − |
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| − | === Poetry ===
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| − | [[Image:Ghalib.gif|frame|right|Mirza Ghalib (1796–1869), a respected poet of Urdu.]]
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| − | Urdu has been the premier language of poetry in South Asia for two centuries, and has developed a rich tradition in a variety of poetic genres. The 'Ghazal' in Urdu represents the most popular form of subjective poetry, while the '[[Nazm]]' exemplifies the objective kind, often reserved for narrative, descriptive, didactic or satirical purposes. The broad heading of Nazm can include the classical forms of poems known by specific names such as '[[Masnavi]]' (a long narrative poem in rhyming couplets on any theme: romantic, religious, or didactic), '[[Marsia]]' (an elegy traditionally meant to commemorate the martyrdom of Hazrat [[Imam Hussain]] Alla hiss salam, grandson of Prophet Muhammad Sal lal laho allaha wa allahe wa sallam, and his comrades of the [[Karbala]] fame), or 'Qasida' (a panegyric written in praise of a king or a nobleman), because all these poems have a single presiding subject, logically developed and concluded. However, these poetic species have an old-world aura about their subject and style, and are different from the modern Nazm, supposed to have come into vogue in the later part of the nineteenth century.
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| − |
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| − | * ''[[Diwan (poetry)|Diwan]]'' (دیوان) A collection of poems by a single author; it may be a 'selected works', or the whole body of work.
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| − | * ''[[Doha (poetry)|Doha]]'' (دوہا) A form of self-contained rhyming couplet in poetry.
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| − | * ''[[Geet]]'' (گیت)
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| − | * ''[[Ghazal]]'' (غزل), as practiced by many poets in the Arab tradition. [[Mir Taqi Mir|Mir]], [[Ghalib]], [[Momin]], [[Dagh]], [[Jigar Muradabadi]], [[Majrooh Sutanpuri]], [[Faiz]], [[Firaq Gorakhpur]],[[Iqbal]], [[Zauq]] , [[Makhdoom]], [[Akbar Ilahabadi]] and [[Seemab Akbarabadi]] are well-known composers of ''Ghazal''.
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| − | * ''[[Hamd]]'' (حمد) A poem or song in praise of [[Allah]]
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| − | * ''[[Kalam (poetry)|Kalam]]'' (کلام) Kalam refers to a poet’s total body of poetic work.
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| − | * ''[[Kulyat]]'' (کلیات) A published collection of [[poetry]] by one poet.
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| − | * ''[[Marsia]]'' (مرثیہ) An elegiac poem written to commemorate the martyrdom and valor of Hazrat Imam Hussain and his comrades of the Karbala.
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| − | * ''[[Masnavi]]'' (مثنوی) The masnavi consists of an indefinite number of couplets, with the rhyme scheme aa/bb/cc, etc..
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| − | * ''[[Musaddas]]'' (مسدس) A genre in which each unit consists of 6 lines (''misra'').
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| − | * ''[[Mukhammas]]'' A type of Persian or Urdu poetry with Sufi connections based on a pentameter. The word mukhammas means 'fivefold' or 'pentagonal'.
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| − | * ''[[Naat]]'' (نعت) Poetry that specifically praises Muhammad.
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| − | * ''[[Nazm]]'' (نظم) Urdu poetic form that is normally written in rhymed verse.
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| − | * ''[[Noha]]'' (نوحہ) a genre of Arabic, Persian, or Urdu prose depicting the martyrdom of Imam Hussein. Strictly speaking noha is the sub-parts of Marsia.
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| − | * ''[[Qasida]]'' (قصیدہ) A form of poetry from pre-Islamic Arabia which typically runs more than 50 lines, and sometimes more than 100. It is often a panegyric written in praise of a king or a nobleman.
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| − | * ''[[Qata|Qat'ã]]'' (قطعہ)
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| − | * ''[[Rubai]]'' (a.k.a. Rubayyat or Rubaiyat) (رباعیات) Arabic: رباعیات) (a plural word derived from the root arba'a meaning 'four') means "quatrains" in the Persian language. Singular: ruba'i (rubai, ruba'ee, rubayi, rubayee). The rhyme scheme is AABA, i.e., lines 1, 2 and 4 rhyme.
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| − | * ''[[Sehra]]'' (سہرا) A poem sung at a wedding in praise of the groom, praying to God for his future wedded life. There are no specifications for a Sehra except that it should rhyme and be of the same meter. Sehras are generally written by individuals praising their brothers, so they are very varied in style and nature.
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| − | * ''[[Shehr a'ashob]]''
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| − | * ''[[Soz]]'' (سوز) An elegiac poem written to commemorate the martyrdom and valour of Hazrat Imam Hussain and his comrades of the Karbala.
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| − |
| |
| − | Foreign forms such as the [[sonnet]], '''azad nazm''' (a.k.a [[Free verse]]) and [[haiku]] have also been used by some modern Urdu poets.
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| − |
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| − | Probably the most widely recited, and memorized genre of contemporary Urdu poetry is ''[[naat|nāt]]''—panegyric poetry written in praise of the Prophet [[Muhammad]] Sal lal laho allaha wa allahe wa sallam. ''Nāt'' can be of any formal category, but is most commonly in the ''ghazal'' form. The language used in Urdu ''nāt'' ranges from the intensely colloquial to a highly Persianized formal language. The great early twentieth century scholar Imam [[Ahmad Raza Khan]], who wrote many of the most well known ''nāts'' in Urdu, epitomized this range in a ''ghazal'' of nine stanzas ''(bayt)'' in which every stanza contains half a line each of Arabic, Persian, formal Urdu, and colloquial Hindi. The same poet composed a ''salām''—a poem of greeting to the Prophet Muhammad Sal lal laho allaha wa allahe wa sallam, derived from the unorthodox practice of ''qiyam'', or standing, during the ''[[mawlid]],'' or celebration of the birth of the Prophet—''Mustafā Jān-e Rahmat,'' which, due to being recited on Fridays in some Urdu speaking mosques throughout the world, is probably one of the more frequently recited Urdu poems of the modern era.
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| − |
| |
| − | Another important genre of Urdu prose are the poems commemorating the martyrdom of [[Imam Hussain]] Allah hiss salam and [[Battle of Karbala]], called ''[[noha]]'' (نوحہ) and ''[[marsia]]''. '''[[Anees]]''' and '''[[Dabeer]]''' are famous in this regard.
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| − |
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| − |
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| − | An '''Ash'ār''' (اشعار) (Couplet) consists of two lines, [[Misra (Urdu)|Misra]] (مصرعہ); the first line is called ''Misra-e-oola'' (مصرع اولی) and the second is called 'Misra-e-sānī' (مصرعہ ثانی). Each verse embodies a single thought or subject (sing) [[She'r]] (شعر).
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| − |
| |
| − | ====Example of Urdu Poetry====
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| − | As in [[Ghalib]]'s famous couplet where he compares himself to his great predecessor, the master poet [[Mir Taqi Mir|''Mir'']]:<ref>[http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ghalib/036/36_11.html?urdu Columbia University: Ghazal 36, Verse 11] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref>
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| − | <div style="direction: rtl;">
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| − | '''{{Unicode|ریختا کے تم ہی استاد نہیں ہو غالب}}'''<BR>
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| − | '''{{Unicode|کہتے ہیں اگلے زمانے میں کوئی میر بھی تھا}}'''
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| − | </div>
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| − |
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| − | =====Transliteration=====
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| − | :''Rekhta ke tumhi<sup>n</sup> ustād nahī<sup>n</sup> ho Ghālib''
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| − | :''Kahte hain<sup>n</sup> agle zamāne mein<sup>n</sup> ko'ī Mīr bhī thā''
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| − |
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| − | =====Translation=====
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| − | :You are not the only master of poetry O'Ghalib,
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| − | :They say, in the past; was also someone Mir
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| − |
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| − | == History ==
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| − | Urdu developed as local Indo-Aryan dialects came under the influence of the Muslim courts that ruled South Asia from the early thirteenth century. The official language of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], the [[Mughal Empire]], and their successor states, as well as the cultured language of poetry and literature, was [[Persian language|Persian]], while the language of religion was [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. Most of the [[Sultan]]s and nobility in the Sultanate period were Persianized Turks from [[Central Asia]] who spoke [[Turkish language|Turkish]] as their mother tongue. The [[Mughal]]s were also from Persianized Central Asia, but spoke Turkish as their first language; however the Mughals later adopted Persian. Persian became the preferred language of the Muslim elite of north India before the Mughals entered the scene. Babur's mother tongue was Turkish and he wrote exclusively in Turkish. His son and successor Humayun also spoke and wrote in Turkish. Muzaffar Alam, a noted scholar of Mughal and Indo-Persian history, suggests that Persian became the ''lingua franca'' of the empire under Akbar for various political and social factors due to its non-sectarian and fluid nature.<ref>Alam, Muzaffar. "The Pursuit of Persian: Language in Mughal Politics." In ''Modern Asian Studies'', vol. 32, no. 2. (May, 1998), pp. 317–349.</ref> The mingling of these languages led to a [[vernacular]] that is the ancestor of today's Urdu. Dialects of this vernacular are spoken today in cities and villages throughout [[Pakistan]] and northern [[India]]. Cities with a particularly strong tradition of Urdu include [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], [[Karachi]], [[Lucknow]] and [[Lahore]].
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| − |
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| − | === The Name ''Urdu'' ===
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| − | The term “Urdu” came into use when [[Shah Jahan]] built the [[Red Fort]] in Delhi. The word ''Urdu'' itself comes from a [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] word ''ordu'', "tent" or "army," from which English also gets the word "horde." Hence Urdu is sometimes called "Lashkarī zabān" or “the language of the army.” Furthermore, armies of India were often composed of soldiers with various native tongues. Hence, Urdu was the language chosen to address the soldiers, as it abridged several languages.
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| − |
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| − | Wherever Muslim soldiers and officials settled, they carried Urdu with them. Urdu enjoyed a commanding status in the literary courts of late Muslim rulers and [[Nawab]]s, and flourished under their patronage, partially displacing [[Persian language|Persian]] as the language of elite in the Indian society of that time.
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| − |
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| − | Urdu continued as one of many languages in Northwest India. In 1947, Urdu was established as the national language of Pakistan, in the hope that this move would unite and homogenize the various ethnic groups of the new nation. Urdu suddenly went from the language of a minority to the language of the majority. It also became the official language of some of the various [[List of Indian state and union territory capitals|states of India]]. Today, Urdu is taught throughout Pakistani schools and spoken in government positions, and it is also common in much of Northern India. Urdu's sister language, Hindi, is the official language of India.
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| − |
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| − | == Urdu and Hindi ==
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| − | Because of their great similarities of grammar and core vocabularies, many linguists do not distinguish between Hindi and Urdu as separate languages, at least not in reference to the informal spoken registers. For them, ordinary informal Urdu and Hindi can be seen as variants of the same language ([[Hindustani]]) with the difference being that Urdu is supplemented with a Perso-Arabic vocabulary and Hindi a Sanskritic vocabulary. Additionally, there is the convention of Urdu being written in Perso-Arabic script, and Hindi in Devanagari. The standard, "proper" grammars of both languages are based on [[Khariboli]] grammar, the dialect of the Delhi region. So, with respect to grammar, the languages are mutually intelligible when spoken, and can be thought of as the same language.
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| − |
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| − | Despite their similar grammars, however, Standard Urdu and Standard Hindi are distinct languages in regard to their very different vocabularies, their writing systems, and their political and sociolinguistic connotations. Put simply, in the context of everyday casual speech, Hindi and Urdu can be considered dialects of the same language. In terms of their mutual intelligibility in their formal or "proper" registers, however, they are much less mutually intelligible and can be considered separate languages—they have basically the same grammar but very different vocabularies. There are two fundamental distinctions between them:
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| − |
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| − | * The source of vocabulary (borrowed from [[Persian language|Persian]] or inherited from Sanskrit): In colloquial situations in much of the Indian subcontinent, where neither learned vocabulary nor writing is used, the distinction between the Urdu and Hindi is very small.
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| − |
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| − | * The most important distinction at this level is in the script: if written in the Perso-Arabic script, the language is generally considered to be Urdu, and if written in Devanagari it is generally considered to be Hindi. Since the [[Partition of India]], the formal registers used in education and the media in India have become increasingly divergent from Urdu in their vocabulary. Where there is no colloquial word for a concept, Standard Urdu uses Perso-Arabic vocabulary, while Standard Hindi uses Sanskrit vocabulary. This results in the official languages being heavily Sanskritized or Persianized, and unintelligible to speakers educated in the formal vocabulary of the other standard.
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| − |
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| − | Hindustani is the name often given to the language as it developed over hundreds of years throughout India (which formerly included what is now Pakistan). In the same way that the core vocabulary of English evolved from Old English (Anglo-Saxon) but includes a large number of words borrowed from French and other languages (whose pronunciations often changed naturally so as to become easier for speakers of English to pronounce), what may be called [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] can be said to have evolved from Sanskrit while borrowing many Persian and Arabic words over the years, and changing the pronunciations (and often even the meanings) of those words to make them easier for Hindustani speakers to pronounce. Therefore, Hindustani is the language as it evolved organically.
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| − |
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| − | Linguistically speaking, Standard Hindi is a form of colloquial [[Hindustani]], with lesser use of Persian and Arabic loanwords, which inherited its formal vocabulary from Sanskrit; Standard Urdu is also a form of Hindustani, de-Sanskritized, with a significant part of its formal vocabulary consisting of loanwords from Persian and Arabic. The difference is thus in the vocabulary, and not the structure of the language.
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| − |
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| − | The difference is also sociolinguistic: When people speak Hindustani (when they are speaking colloquially), speakers who are Muslims will usually say that they are speaking Urdu, and those who are Hindus will typically say that they are speaking Hindi, even though they are speaking essentially the same language.
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| − |
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| − | The two standardized registers of Hindustani — Hindi and Urdu — have become so entrenched as separate languages that often nationalists, both [[Muslim]] and [[Hindu]], claim that Hindi and Urdu have always been separate languages. However, there are unifying forces. For example, it is said that Indian [[Bollywood]] films are made in "Hindi," but the language used in most of them is almost the same as that of Urdu speakers. The dialogue is frequently developed in English and later translated to an intentionally neutral Hindustani which can be easily understood by speakers of most North Indian languages, both in India and in Pakistan.
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| − |
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| − | Also see [[Hindi]].
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| − |
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| − | == Urdu and Bollywood ==
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| − | The Indian film industry based in [[Mumbai]] is often called [[Bollywood]] (بالی وڈ). The dialogues in Bollywood movies are written using a vocabulary that could be understood by Urdu and Hindi speakers alike. The film industry wants to reach the largest possible audience, and it cannot do that if the vocabulary of the dialogues is too one-sidedly Sanskritized or Persianized. This rule is broken only for song lyrics, which use elevated, poetic language. Often, this means using poetic Urdu words (of Arabic and Persian origin) or poetic Hindi words (of Sanskrit origin). A few films, like [[Umrao Jaan]], [[Pakeezah]], and [[Mughal-e-azam]], have used vocabulary that leans more towards Urdu, as they depict places and times when Urdu would have been used.<ref>[http://www.uiowa.edu/~incinema/Hindinote.html Hindi? Urdu? Hindustani? Hindi-Urdu?] Retrieved December 16, 2007.</ref>. Hindi movies that are based on Hindu mythological stories always use Sanskritized Hindi.
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| − |
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| − | From the 1950s through the 1970s, Bollywood films displayed the name of the film in Hindi, Urdu, and Roman scripts. Most Bollywood films today present film titles in the [[Roman alphabet]], although some also include the Devanagari and Nasta`liq scripts.
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| − |
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| − | ==Dakkhini Urdu==
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| − |
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| − | Dakkhini Urdu is a dialect of the Urdu language spoken in the Deccan region of southern India. It is distinct by its mixture of vocabulary from Marathi and Telugu, as well as some vocabulary from Arabic, Persian and Turkish that is not found in the standard dialect of Urdu. In terms of pronunciation, the easiest way to recognize a native speaker is their pronunciation of the letter "qāf" (ﻕ) as "kh" (ﺥ). The majority of people who speak this language are from [[Bangalore]], [[Hyderabad (India)|Hyderabad]], [[Mysore]] and parts of [[Chennai]]. Dakkhin Urdu, mainly spoken by the [[Muslims]] living in these areas, can also be divided into two dialects: North Dakkhini, spoken in a wide range from South [[Maharashtra]], [[Gulbarga]] and mainly [[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]]; and South Dakkhini, spoken along Central [[Karnataka]], Bangalore, North [[Tamil Nadu]] extending uptil Chennai and Nellore in [[Andhra Pradesh]].
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| − |
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| − |
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| − | Distinct words, very typical of Dakkhini dialect of Urdu:
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| − |
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| − | Nakko (instead of Nahi in Traditional Urdu) =No
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| − |
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| − | Hau (instead of Han in Traditional Urdu) =Yes
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| − |
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| − | Kaiku (instead of Kyun in Traditional Urdu) =Why
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| − |
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| − | Mereku (North Dakkhini), Manje (South Dakkhin) (instead of Mujhe in Traditional Urdu) = For me
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| − |
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| − | Tereku (North Dakkhini), Tuje (South Dakkhini) (instead of Tujhe in Traditional Urdu) =For you
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| − |
| |
| − | ==See also==
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| − |
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| − | *[[Ghazal]]
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| − | *[[Languages of India]]
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| − | *[[Languages of Pakistan]]
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| − |
| |
| − | == Notes ==
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| − | {{reflist}}
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| − |
| |
| − | == References ==
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| − |
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| − | * Ahmad, Rizwan. 2006. [http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/NWAV/Abstracts/Papr172.pdf "Voices people write: Examining Urdu in Devanagari."] Retrieved December 16, 2007.
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| − | * Alam, Muzaffar. 1998. ''"The Pursuit of Persian: Language in Mughal Politics."'' In ''Modern Asian Studies'', vol. 32, no. 2. (May, 1998), pp. 317–349.
| |
| − | * Asher, R. E. (Ed.). 1994. ''The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics''. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-035943-4.
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| − | * Azād, Muḥammad Husain, and Pritam Singh Safir. 1994. ''Aab e hayat.'' Delhi: National Book Trust. ISBN 8123709536 ISBN 9788123709536
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| − | *Āzād, Muḥammad Ḥusain, Frances W. Pritchett, and Shamsurraḥmān Fārūqī. 2001. ''Āb-e hayāt shaping the canon of Urdu poetry.'' New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195653580 ISBN 9780195653588
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| − | * Azim, Anwar. 1975. ''Urdu a victim of cultural genocide''. In Z. Imam (Ed.), ''Muslims in India'' (p. 259).
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| − | *Bhatia, Tej K. 1996. ''Colloquial Hindi: The Complete Course for Beginners''. London, UK & New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11087-4 (Book), ISBN 0415110882 (Cassettes), ISBN 0415110890 (Book & Cassette Course)
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| − | *Bhatia, Tej K. and Koul Ashok. 2000. ''"Colloquial Urdu: The Complete Course for Beginners.''" London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-13540-0 (Book); ISBN 0-415-13541-9 (cassette); ISBN 0-415-13542-7 (book and casseettes course)
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| − | * Chatterji, Suniti K. 1960. ''Indo-Aryan and Hindi'' (rev. 2nd ed.). Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay.
| |
| − | * Dua, Hans R. 1992. ''"Hindi-Urdu as a pluricentric language."'' In M. G. Clyne (Ed.), ''Pluricentric languages: Differing norms in different nations''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-012855-1.
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| − | * Dua, Hans R. 1994a. ''Hindustani.'' In Asher, 1994; pp. 1554.
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| − | * Dua, Hans R. 1994b. ''Urdu.'' In Asher, 1994; pp. 4863–4864.
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| − | * Kelkar, A. R. 1968. ''Studies in Hindi-Urdu: Introduction and word phonology. Poona: Deccan College.
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| − | * Khan, M. H. 1969. ''Urdu.'' In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), ''Current trends in linguistics'' (Vol. 5). The Hague: Mouton.
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| − | * King, Christopher R. 1994. ''One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India''. Bombay: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195635655 ISBN 9780195635652
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| − | * Narang, G. C. and D. A. Becker. 1971. ''Aspiration and nasalization in the generative phonology of Hindi-Urdu''. ''Language'', ''47'', 646–767.
| |
| − | * Phukan, S. 2000. ''The Rustic Beloved: Ecology of Hindi in a Persianate World, The Annual of Urdu Studies'', vol 15, issue 5, pp. 1–30
| |
| − | *Rahim, Rizwana. "Urdu in India," 3-part review (Retrieved December 16, 2007.):
| |
| − | **[http://www.pakistanlink.com/Opinion/2005/Sep05/30/02.HTM Urdu in India - I]
| |
| − | **[http://www.pakistanlink.com/Opinion/2005/Oct05/14/02.HTM Urdu in India - II]
| |
| − | **[http://www.pakistanlink.com/Opinion/2005/Oct05/21/05.HTM Urdu in India - III]
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| − | * Rai, Amrit. 1984. ''A house divided: The origin and development of Hindi-Hindustani''. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-561643-X.
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| − | *Snell, Rupert ''Teach yourself Hindi: A complete guide for beginners.'' Lincolnwood, IL: NTC ISBN 0844238635 ISBN 9780844238630 ISBN 0844237957 ISBN 9780844237954
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| − | *Snell, Rupert, and S. C. R. Weightman. 1992. ''Hindi''. Lincolnwood, Ill: NTC Pub. ISBN 0844237957 ISBN 9780844237954
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| − |
| |
| − | == External links ==
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| − |
| |
| − | {{InterWiki|code=ur}}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === About the language ===
| |
| − | Retrieved December 17, 2007.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | *[http://languages.iloveindia.com/urdu.html Languages in India: Urdu Language]
| |
| − | *[http://www.theurdulanguage.com/ The Urdu Language] Urdu History
| |
| − | *[http://sasw.chass.ncsu.edu/fl/faculty/taj/hindi/abturdu.htm North Carolina State University: About Urdu -] Nasta`liq With the Help of Devanagari
| |
| − | *[http://www.urdu.zoonic.com An Urdu Language Poetic Site -]
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Research ===
| |
| − | Retrieved December 17, 2007.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | *[http://www.nla.gov.pk/ National Language Authority], Pakistan
| |
| − | *[http://www.urducouncil.nic.in/welcome.html The National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language], India
| |
| − | *[http://www.typeurdu.com/ Online Urdu Keyboard]
| |
| − | *[http://dsal.uchicago.edu/digbooks/dig_toc.html?BOOKID=PK1983.N2_1999_V1 Introductory Urdu (Volume 1)]
| |
| − | *[http://dsal.uchicago.edu/digbooks/dig_toc.html?BOOKID=PK1983.N2_1999_V2 Introductory Urdu (Volume 2)]
| |
| − | *[http://forums.urdutech.com UrduTech.com] Urdu Software/Programs/Scripts Research & Development.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Professional Publications===
| |
| − | Retrieved December 17, 2007.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | *[http://urdustudies.com/ The Annual of Urdu Studies] - the major English-language open access humanities journal dedicated to Urdu
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Online dictionaries ===
| |
| − | Retrieved December 17, 2007.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | * Online Urdu Dictionary [http://www.ijunoon.com/urdudic/ www.ijunoon.com/urdudic/] Convert English words to Urdu.
| |
| − | *Platts, John T. (John Thompson). [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/platts/ A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi, and English.] London: W. H. Allen & Co., 1884.
| |
| − | *Shakespear, John. [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/shakespear/ A Dictionary, Hindustani and English.] 3rd ed., much enl. London: Printed for the author by J.L. Cox and Son: Sold by Parbury, Allen, & Co., 1834.
| |
| − | *[http://www.dictionaryurdu.com/ Urdu dictionary] Roman Urdu Dictionary.
| |
| − | *[http://dictionary.urdustuff.com/ Urdu dictionary] Free Online Urdu dictionary tool.
| |
| − | *[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/translation/Urdu/ Webster's Urdu-English Dictionary]
| |
| − | *[http://www.urduseek.com/ Online Dictionary]
| |
| − | *[http://www.lexicool.com/dlink.asp?ID=0FW3HU5663&L1=34&L2=44 LexCool] Hindi/Urdu-English-Kalasha-Khowar-Nuristani-Pashtu Comparative Word List
| |
| − | *[http://www.languageshome.com/English-Urdu.htm Basic words and phrases in Urdu]
| |
| − | *[http://wikitravel.org/en/Urdu_phrasebook Urdu Phrasebook from WikiTravel]
| |
| − | *[http://www.freeurdudictionary.com/ FreeUrduDictionary.com] Free Urdu Dictionary.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Online Urdu script instruction ===
| |
| − | Retrieved December 17, 2007.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | *[http://www.ukindia.com/zurdu1.htm UK India: Learn to Read Urdu]
| |
| − | *[http://www.unics.uni-hannover.de/nhtcapri/urdu-alphabet.html Urdu Alphabet] with Devanagari equivalents
| |
| − | *[http://www.neosense.com/2005/11/27/urdu-extension-2/ Urdu Extension] Urdu Extension parses the Urdu text in real time and replaces with a matched ligature
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === News and current affairs ===
| |
| − | Retrieved December 17, 2007.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | *[http://news.urdutech.com Urdu Tech News] - First online newspaper providing technology related news & tutorials in Urdu.
| |
| − | *[http://www.urdustan.com/akhbaar/ akhbaar] - headlines from popular Urdu newspapers.
| |
| − | *[http://www.hindustanexpressdaily.com/ Hindustan Express Daily Urdu Newspaper]
| |
| − | *[http://www.khalid.googlepages.com/ Urdu] - Poetry, Interview, Travelogue, Multimedia Links.
| |
| − | *[http://www.inquilab.com/ The Inquilab Urdu Daily:] India's Leading Urdu Daily
| |
| − | *[http://www.jang.com.pk Daily Jang:] Leading Urdu Newspaper of Pakistan
| |
| − | *[http://www.urdubox.com/ Urdu News] - Worlds Largest Urdu News
| |
| − | *[http://bbc.co.uk/urdu/ BBC News] in Urdu
| |
| − | *[http://www.jasarat.com Daily Jasarat] Online Urdu newspaper
| |
| − | *[http://www.urduware.com UrduWare News] Consolidated Online Urdu News and Links
| |
| − | *[http://www.express.com.pk Daily Express] Read Urdu News online.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Libraries and literature===
| |
| − | Retrieved December 17, 2007.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | *[http://u4u.com/ u4u.com ] Over 516,000 pages of Urdu Literature
| |
| − | *[http://www.UrduCl.com/ Allama Iqbal Urdu cyber library] Digital library of Urdu books
| |
| − | *[http://kitaabghar.com/ Kitaab Ghar] Free online Urdu Digital Library of Books & Literature
| |
| − | *[http://www.freeurdubooks.com/ FreeUrduBooks.Com Huge Collection of Urdu Books]
| |
| − | *[http://www.urdupages.com Urdu pages:] Urdu educational website
| |
| − | *[http://www.UrduArticles.com/ UrduArticles.com] Read 10,000 Urdu articles by 2010
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Urdu Community ===
| |
| − | Retrieved December 17, 2007.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | *[http://forums.urdutech.com/viewforum.php?f=24 Free Urdu Blogging Service]
| |
| − | *[http://www.forums.com.pk Pakistan's bigget Urdu Community (Uni-Code) ]
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Urdu magazines===
| |
| − | Retrieved December 17, 2007.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | *[http://www.itmesh.com/ ITMesh magazine] - First online urdu IT magazine
| |
| − | *[http://www.ibitians.com/ IBITIANS.com] Best Urdu Site, Literature, Columns & Articles
| |
| − | *[http://www.ibtada.com/ Ibtada.com] Largest Urdu Magazine
| |
| − | *[http://www.computingpk.com/ Computingpk کمپیوٹنگ:] Premier Urdu computing magazine in Pakistan
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| − |
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| − | {{Indo-Iranian languages}}
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| − | [[Category:Languages]]
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| − | {{credits|Urdu|174048575}}
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