Difference between revisions of "Social learning" - New World Encyclopedia
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[[Category:Psychology]] | [[Category:Psychology]] | ||
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| − | '''Observational learning''' or '''social learning''' occurs when individuals watch and then imitate the behavior of others. It is also known as "modeling". It is most associated with the work of psychologist [[Albert Bandura]], who conducted some of the most important studies in the area and developed '''social learning theory'''. Although observational learning can take place at any stage in life, it is thought to be particularly important during [[childhood]]. Because of this, social learning theory has influenced debates on the effect of [[television]] violence and parental [[role model]]s on children's behavior. Bandura's [[Bobo doll experiment]] is widely cited in psychology as a demonstration of observational learning | + | '''Observational learning''' or '''social learning''' occurs when individuals watch and then imitate the behavior of others. It is also known as "modeling". It is most associated with the work of psychologist [[Albert Bandura]], who conducted some of the most important studies in the area and developed '''social learning theory'''. Although observational learning can take place at any stage in life, it is thought to be particularly important during [[childhood]]. Because of this, social learning theory has influenced debates on the effect of [[television]] violence and parental [[role model]]s on children's behavior. Bandura's [[Bobo doll experiment]] is widely cited in psychology as a demonstration of observational learning. Observational learning allows for learning without any change in behavior and has therefore been used as an argument against strict [[behaviorism]] which argued that behavior change must occur for new behaviors to be acquired. |
==Development of Social Learning Theory== | ==Development of Social Learning Theory== | ||
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===Bobo doll experiment=== | ===Bobo doll experiment=== | ||
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The original''' Bobo doll experiment''' took place in 1961. Additional studies of this type were conducted by Bandura in 1963 and 1965. A Bobo doll is an inflatable toy that is approximately the same size as a prepubescent [[child]]. | The original''' Bobo doll experiment''' took place in 1961. Additional studies of this type were conducted by Bandura in 1963 and 1965. A Bobo doll is an inflatable toy that is approximately the same size as a prepubescent [[child]]. | ||
| − | Bandura's goal in this experiment was to expose children to adult models exhibiting either aggressive or | + | Bandura's goal in this experiment was to expose children to adult models exhibiting either aggressive or non aggressive behaviors and then observe whether or not the children imitate these behaviors. Bandura hypothesized that the subjects that witnessed the aggressive adult model behavior would attempt to imitate or act in similar aggressive ways even when the model was not present and that these children's' behavior would differ greatly from that of the children who witnessed non aggressive models or no models at all (the control group). He believed that, when the model was not present, the children who witnessed the non aggressive adult behavior would not only show less aggression than those who witnessed the aggressive behavior but also less aggression than those who saw no model at all. In addition, Bandura predicted that the children would be more likely to imitate the model's behavior if the model was of the same sex and that boys would be more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior than girls. |
| − | The subjects studied in this experiment involved 36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University Nursery School ranging in age between 3 and 6. The control group was comprised of 24 children. To avoid skewed results | + | The subjects studied in this experiment involved 36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University Nursery School ranging in age between 3 and 6. The control group was comprised of 24 children. To avoid skewed results, the experimenter and the teacher rated each child based on physical aggression, verbal aggression, and object aggression prior to the experiment. This allowed Bandura to group the children based on average aggression level. |
====Method and Results==== | ====Method and Results==== | ||
| + | Each child was exposed to the experiment individually. The first part of the experiment involved bringing a child and the adult model into a playroom. In the playroom, the child was seated in one corner and the adult model was seated in another corner containing a tinker toy set, a mallet, and an inflatable Bobo doll. After a minute of playing with the tinker toy set, the aggressive model would attack the Bobo doll. For each subject, the aggressive model reacted identically with a sequence of physical violence and verbal violence. The non aggressive model simply played with the tinker toys for the entire period. Following the 10 minute period with the models, each child was taken into another playroom filled with highly entertaining toys. In order to spark anger or frustration in the child, he or she was only allowed to play with the toys for a very short period of time. The final stage of the experiment took place in the last room in which the child was left alone for 20 minutes with a series of aggressive and non aggressive toys to play with. Judges watched each child behind a one-way mirror and evaluated the subject based on various measures of aggressive behavior. | ||
| − | + | The first measure recorded was based on physical aggression. Verbal aggression was the second measure. The judges counted each time the children imitated one of the phrases the aggressive adult model said and recorded their results. The third measure of aggression was based on how many times the child exhibited other forms of aggression besides hitting the Bobo doll. The fourth measurement calculated all non imitative forms of aggression exhibited by the children that was not demonstrated by the adult model. | |
| − | + | Bandura found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in physically aggressive ways than those who were not exposed to the aggressive model. The same pattern applied to the instances of imitative verbal aggression exhibited by the child exposed to the aggressive model. Both the physical and verbal aggression were rarely, if ever, exhibited by the children exposed to the nonaggressive model or no model at all. | |
| − | Bandura | + | Bandura had also hypothesized that the nonaggressive models would have an aggressive-inhibiting effect on the children. However, the results supporting this hypothesis were ambiguous. Because of this inconsistency, Bandura determined the results for this prediction inconclusive. |
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| − | |||
The results concerning gender differences strongly supported Bandura's prediction that children are more influenced by same-sex models. Boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than boys exposed to aggressive female models. While the results for the girls shows similar findings, the results were less drastic. Overall, the evidence strongly supported that males have a tendency to be more aggressive than females. | The results concerning gender differences strongly supported Bandura's prediction that children are more influenced by same-sex models. Boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than boys exposed to aggressive female models. While the results for the girls shows similar findings, the results were less drastic. Overall, the evidence strongly supported that males have a tendency to be more aggressive than females. | ||
====Conclusions==== | ====Conclusions==== | ||
| + | Bandura successfully supported his theory of social learning in this experiment, that specific behaviors such as aggression can be learned through observing and imitating others even if reinforcement is not used either on the model or the subject. He came to the conclusion that children observing adult behavior are influenced to think that this type of behavior is acceptable thus weakening the child's aggressive inhibitions. The result of reduced aggressive inhibitions in children is that they are more likely to respond to future situations in a more aggressive manner. | ||
| − | + | Also important in this experiment is the result that males are drastically more inclined to physically aggressive behaviors than females. Bandura explains that in our society, aggression is considered to be a distinct male trait. Because of this, boys are raised and culturally influenced to be more aggressive and, therefore, it is more acceptable when males exhibit this trait. Girls, not confident of displaying physical aggression, almost matched the boys in Bandura's experiments in terms of verbal aggression, indicating that the manifestation of the aggressive impulse is different from male to female. | |
| − | |||
| − | Also important in this experiment is the result that males are drastically more inclined to physically aggressive behaviors than females. Bandura explains that in our society, aggression is considered to be a distinct male trait. Because of this, boys are raised and | ||
====1963 experiment==== | ====1963 experiment==== | ||
| − | The 1963 experiment mentioned above found that observing aggressive behaviour via video playback is less influential on a subject than is observing the same aggressive act in person. This experiment is important to psychology because it was a precedent that sparked | + | The 1963 experiment mentioned above found that observing aggressive behaviour via video playback is less influential on a subject than is observing the same aggressive act in person. This experiment is important to psychology because it was a precedent that sparked more studies over the past forty years about the effects of viewing violence in the media on children. |
==Stages of Social Learning== | ==Stages of Social Learning== | ||
Revision as of 14:52, 7 June 2007
Observational learning or social learning occurs when individuals watch and then imitate the behavior of others. It is also known as "modeling". It is most associated with the work of psychologist Albert Bandura, who conducted some of the most important studies in the area and developed social learning theory. Although observational learning can take place at any stage in life, it is thought to be particularly important during childhood. Because of this, social learning theory has influenced debates on the effect of television violence and parental role models on children's behavior. Bandura's Bobo doll experiment is widely cited in psychology as a demonstration of observational learning. Observational learning allows for learning without any change in behavior and has therefore been used as an argument against strict behaviorism which argued that behavior change must occur for new behaviors to be acquired.
Development of Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura was born in 1925 in Canada. He was educated at the University of British Columbia and the University of Iowa, from which he received his Ph.D. in 1952. While in Iowa, Bandura became interested in discovering the causes of aggression in children. In 1953 he became a professor of psychology at Stanford Univeristy, where he conducted his famous Bobo doll experiment.
Bobo doll experiment
The original Bobo doll experiment took place in 1961. Additional studies of this type were conducted by Bandura in 1963 and 1965. A Bobo doll is an inflatable toy that is approximately the same size as a prepubescent child.
Bandura's goal in this experiment was to expose children to adult models exhibiting either aggressive or non aggressive behaviors and then observe whether or not the children imitate these behaviors. Bandura hypothesized that the subjects that witnessed the aggressive adult model behavior would attempt to imitate or act in similar aggressive ways even when the model was not present and that these children's' behavior would differ greatly from that of the children who witnessed non aggressive models or no models at all (the control group). He believed that, when the model was not present, the children who witnessed the non aggressive adult behavior would not only show less aggression than those who witnessed the aggressive behavior but also less aggression than those who saw no model at all. In addition, Bandura predicted that the children would be more likely to imitate the model's behavior if the model was of the same sex and that boys would be more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior than girls.
The subjects studied in this experiment involved 36 boys and 36 girls from the Stanford University Nursery School ranging in age between 3 and 6. The control group was comprised of 24 children. To avoid skewed results, the experimenter and the teacher rated each child based on physical aggression, verbal aggression, and object aggression prior to the experiment. This allowed Bandura to group the children based on average aggression level.
Method and Results
Each child was exposed to the experiment individually. The first part of the experiment involved bringing a child and the adult model into a playroom. In the playroom, the child was seated in one corner and the adult model was seated in another corner containing a tinker toy set, a mallet, and an inflatable Bobo doll. After a minute of playing with the tinker toy set, the aggressive model would attack the Bobo doll. For each subject, the aggressive model reacted identically with a sequence of physical violence and verbal violence. The non aggressive model simply played with the tinker toys for the entire period. Following the 10 minute period with the models, each child was taken into another playroom filled with highly entertaining toys. In order to spark anger or frustration in the child, he or she was only allowed to play with the toys for a very short period of time. The final stage of the experiment took place in the last room in which the child was left alone for 20 minutes with a series of aggressive and non aggressive toys to play with. Judges watched each child behind a one-way mirror and evaluated the subject based on various measures of aggressive behavior.
The first measure recorded was based on physical aggression. Verbal aggression was the second measure. The judges counted each time the children imitated one of the phrases the aggressive adult model said and recorded their results. The third measure of aggression was based on how many times the child exhibited other forms of aggression besides hitting the Bobo doll. The fourth measurement calculated all non imitative forms of aggression exhibited by the children that was not demonstrated by the adult model.
Bandura found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in physically aggressive ways than those who were not exposed to the aggressive model. The same pattern applied to the instances of imitative verbal aggression exhibited by the child exposed to the aggressive model. Both the physical and verbal aggression were rarely, if ever, exhibited by the children exposed to the nonaggressive model or no model at all.
Bandura had also hypothesized that the nonaggressive models would have an aggressive-inhibiting effect on the children. However, the results supporting this hypothesis were ambiguous. Because of this inconsistency, Bandura determined the results for this prediction inconclusive.
The results concerning gender differences strongly supported Bandura's prediction that children are more influenced by same-sex models. Boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than boys exposed to aggressive female models. While the results for the girls shows similar findings, the results were less drastic. Overall, the evidence strongly supported that males have a tendency to be more aggressive than females.
Conclusions
Bandura successfully supported his theory of social learning in this experiment, that specific behaviors such as aggression can be learned through observing and imitating others even if reinforcement is not used either on the model or the subject. He came to the conclusion that children observing adult behavior are influenced to think that this type of behavior is acceptable thus weakening the child's aggressive inhibitions. The result of reduced aggressive inhibitions in children is that they are more likely to respond to future situations in a more aggressive manner.
Also important in this experiment is the result that males are drastically more inclined to physically aggressive behaviors than females. Bandura explains that in our society, aggression is considered to be a distinct male trait. Because of this, boys are raised and culturally influenced to be more aggressive and, therefore, it is more acceptable when males exhibit this trait. Girls, not confident of displaying physical aggression, almost matched the boys in Bandura's experiments in terms of verbal aggression, indicating that the manifestation of the aggressive impulse is different from male to female.
1963 experiment
The 1963 experiment mentioned above found that observing aggressive behaviour via video playback is less influential on a subject than is observing the same aggressive act in person. This experiment is important to psychology because it was a precedent that sparked more studies over the past forty years about the effects of viewing violence in the media on children.
Stages of Social Learning
There are several conditions required for a person to successfully model the behaviour of someone else. The stages that make up observational learning are: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation. First of all, they have to pay attention to the model engaging in a certain behavior and be able to retain the components of the behavior in long term memory. In addition, the observer must be able to replicate the behavior they have seen. For example, juggling cannot be effectively learned by observing a model juggler if the observer does not already have the ability to perform the component actions (throwing and catching a ball). Finally, the observer must be motivated to carry out the action they have observed and remembered, and must have the opportunity to do so. For example, a suitably skilled person must want to replicate the behavior of a model juggler, and needs to have an appropriate number of items to juggle in hand. The observer is usually motivated because they expect to receive positive reinforcements for the modeled behavior.
Effect on behavior
Social learning has many potential effects on behavior. For example, it can teach new behaviors, increase or decrease the frequency with which previously learned behaviors are carried out and encourage previously forbidden behaviors. Social learning can even increase or decrease behaviors that are merely similar to the one being observed. For example, watching a model excelling in piano playing may encourage an observer to excel in playing the saxophone.
Criticisms of Social Learning Theory
Biological theorists argue that the social learning theory completely ignores individuals' biological differences. Many people believed that the Bobo doll experiment was unethical because the children were specifically trained to be aggressive. According to critics, the study was also inapplicable to real life because the children were teased and became frustrated because they could not touch the toys, which led to a much higher rate of aggressive behvior than would have been observed without that stage of the experiment.
Contemporary Debates
Throughout the years since social learning theory was developed, there have been many debates over whether or not violence on television causes aggressive behavior in children. While there have been many studies that have indicated that television does lead to aggressive behavior, there have also been many that found the opposite effect, that television viewing causes no increase in aggressive behavior and can even deter such behavior.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggressions through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582. Full text
- Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 3-11.
- Kosslyn, Stephen M. and Robin S. Rosenberg. Psychology: The Brain, The Person, The World. 2nd ed. Boston: Pearson, 2004. 246-248.
External links
References and external links
- Bandura, Albert, Ross, Dorothea, & Ross, Sheila A. (1961). Transmission of aggressions through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582 Full text
- Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Hardback: ISBN 0138167443 - Paperback: ISBN 0138167516
- Vicarious Learning Blog: Vicarious Learning, Observational Learning, Knowledge Management and eLearning.
External link
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