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| − | {{Hdeity infobox| <!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hindu mythology—>
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| − | Image = Sivakempfort.jpg
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| − | | Caption = A statue in [[Bangalore]] depicting Shiva meditating
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| − | | Name = Shiva
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| − | | Sanskrit_Transliteration = {{IAST|Śiva}}
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| − | | Devanagari = {{lang|sa|शिव}}
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| − | | God of =
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| − | | Mantra = Aum Namah Sivaya
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| − | | Weapon = Trident (Trishul)
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| − | | Consort = Parvati or Sati or Shakti or [[Durga]]
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| − | | Abode = Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}}
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| − | | Mount = Nandi (bull)
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| − | '''Shiva''' (from [[Sanskrit]]: शिव, meaning "Auspicious one") is a principal deity of [[Hinduism]] who is especially revered among the cluster of Hindu groups known as ''[[Shaivism|Shaivites]]''.<ref>Tattwananda, p. 45.</ref> Widely worshipped by Hindu communities throughout India and the world, Shiva is an ancient Hindu deity that is associated with the paradoxical motifs of destruction and regeneration, eroticism and asceticism, sexuality and celibacy. Hindu religious [[iconography]] and [[mythology]] simultaneously describe him as a great ascetic as well as co-generator of the universe along with [[Shakti]] (the female principle of creation).
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| − | In images and sculpture, Shiva is often represented as immersed in deep meditation or dancing the ''Tandava'' upon the demon of ignorance in his manifestation of [[Nataraja]], the lord of the dance. Shiva is usually worshipped as the ''Shiva linga''. Ostensibly, the linga is a phallic symbol (representing the male sexual organ) that symbolizes Shiva's creative regenerative power, potentiality, and, paradoxically, his ascetic restraint. Due to the symbol's sexual associations, however, it has often been seen as controversial and criticized by outsiders.
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| − | Shiva also plays a central role in the teachings of [[Tantra]], whereby the interaction of Shiva and Shakti represent the renewal of the cosmos through the ongoing interplay of male-female sexual energy.
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| − | ==Etymology==
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| − | The Sanskrit word ''{{IAST|śiva}}'' or ''Shivam'' ([[Devanagari]] {{lang|sa|िशव}}) is an adjective meaning kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.<ref>Apte, p. 919.</ref><ref>Macdonell, p. 314.</ref> As a proper name it means "The Auspicious One", used as a euphemistic name for the [[Vedas|vedic]] god [[Rudra]].<ref>Macdonell, p. 314.</ref> In simple English transliteration, it is written either as ''Shiva'' or ''Siva''. Pronunciation is written in the International Phonetic Alphabet as {{IPA2|ɕivə}}. In the Rig Veda, [[Indra]] uses this word to describe himself several times. (2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3)
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| − | In the [[Tamil language]], ''Siva'' literally means "the supreme one". The renowned Hindu philosopher [[Adi Sankara]] interprets Shiva to mean either "The Pure One," (i.e., the One who is not affected by three [[Gunas]] of Prakrti, Sattva, Rajas and Tamas) or "the One who purifies everyone by the very utterance of His name."<ref> Sri Vishnu Sahasranama, Ramakrishna Math edition, pg.47 and pg. 122.</ref> Swami Chinmayananda, in his translation of Vishnu Sahasranama further elaborates on that verse: Shiva means the One who is eternally pure, or the One who can never have any contamination of the imperfection of Rajas and Tamas <ref>Swami Chinmayananda's translation of Vishnu sahasranama, pg. 24, Central Chinmaya Mission Trust .</ref>
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| − | The name Shiva may have derived from the Dravidian word “Siva” meaning “to be red”, making it the equivalent of Rudra, “the red” Rig Veda.<ref>Encyclopedia of Indian Tribes By Shyam Singh Shashi, p. 190</ref>
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| − | ==Historical development==
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| − | ===The Pashupati seal===
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| − | [[Image:Pashupati.gif|thumb|right|An Indus Valley seal with the seated figure termed ''pashupati''.]]
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| − | A seal discovered during excavation of the [[Mohenjo-daro]] archaeological site in the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure.<ref>Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.</ref> This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals,or Lord of Beings Sanskrit ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'')<ref>For translation of ''{{IAST|paśupati}}'' as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.</ref> seal shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.<ref>For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 ''in'': Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref> Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.
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| − | This claim has not fared well with some modern academics. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull.<ref>Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.</ref><ref>Flood (2003), pp. 204-205.</ref> Historian John Keay is more specifically dismissive, saying:
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| − | :"...there is little evidence for the currency of this myth. Rudra, a Vedic deity later identified with Shiva, is indeed referred to as ''pasupati'' because of his association with cattle; but asceticism and meditation were not Rudra's specialties, nor is he usually credited with an empathy for animals other than [[Cattle| kine]]. More plausibly, it has been suggested that the Harappan figure's heavily horned headgear bespeaks a bull sect, to which numerous other representations of bulls lend substance."<ref>Keay, p. 14.</ref>
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| − | ===Rudra===
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| − | Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god [[Rudra]]<ref>Michaels, p. 216.</ref> and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in a number of Hindu traditions. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.
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| − | The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700–1100 B.C.E. based on [[Linguistics|linguistic]] and philological evidence.<ref>For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see: Oberlies, p. 158.</ref> A god named [[Rudra]] is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33 he is described as the "Father of the Maruts", a group of storm gods.<ref>Doniger, pp. 221-223.</ref> Furthermore, the Rudram, one of the most sacred hymns of Hinduism found both in the Rig and the Yajur Vedas, and addressed to Rudra, invokes him as Shiva in several instances.
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| − | The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudra is not universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:
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| − | :"To what extent {{IAST|Śiva}}'s origins are in fact to be sought in Rudra is extremely unclear. The tendency to consider {{IAST|Śiva}} an ancient god is based on this identification, even though the facts that justify such a far-reaching assumption are meager."<ref>Michaels, p. 217.</ref>
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| − | Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|Śarva}}'')<ref>For {{IAST|Śarva}} as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p. 910.</ref> and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra.<ref>For archer and arrow associations see Kramrisch, Chapter 2, and for the arrow as an "essential attribute" see: Kramrisch, p. 32.</ref> This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=306}}</ref> The word is derived from the Sanskrit root ''{{IAST|śarv}}-'' which means "to injure" or "to kill"<ref>For root ''{{IAST|śarv}}-'' see: Apte, p. 910.</ref> and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name {{IAST|Śarva}} as "One who can kill the forces of darkness".<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=306}}</ref> The names {{IAST|Dhanvin}} ("Bowman")<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 33.</ref> and {{IAST|Bāṇahasta}} ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands")<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 33.</ref><ref>For translation of {{IAST|Bāṇahasta}} as "Armed with arrows in his hands") see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=294}}.</ref> also refer to archery.
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| − | ===Identification with Vedic deities===
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| − | Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities, including [[Agni]], [[Indra]], [[Prajapati|{{IAST|Prajāpati}}]], Vāyu, and others.<ref>For Shiva being identified with Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, and others see: Chakravarti, p. 70.</ref>
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| − | ====Agni====
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| − | Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.<ref>For general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref><ref>For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: Kramrisch, pp. 15-19.</ref> The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva.<ref>For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as {{IAST|Rudra-Śiva}}." see: Chakravarti, p. 17.</ref> The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the ''Nirukta'', an important early text on etymology, which says "Agni is called Rudra also".<ref>For translation from ''Nirukta'' 10.7, see: Sarup (1927), p. 155.</ref> The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
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| − | :"The fire myth of {{IAST|Rudra-Śiva}} plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination."<ref>Kramrisch, p. 18.</ref>
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| − | In the ''Śatarudrīa'', some epithets of Rudra such as {{IAST|Sasipañjara}} ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and {{IAST|Tivaṣīmati}} ("Flaming bright") suggest a fusing of the two deities.<ref>For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets {{IAST|Sasipañjara}} and {{IAST|Tivaṣīmati}} see: Sivaramamurti, p. 45.</ref> Agni is said to be a bull<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv06048.htm Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni and Others] Retrieved August 9, 2008.</ref> and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.<ref>For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.</ref><ref>RV 8.49; 10.155.</ref> In medieval sculpture both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.<ref>For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref>
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| − | ====Indra====
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| − | There are several similarities between the Vedic god [[Indra]] and Shiva. both deities are known for having a thirst for [[Soma]]. Moreover, each is associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the [[Aum]] sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term ''{{IAST|śiva}}'' is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,<ref>For text of RV 2.20.3a as {{lang|sa|स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा िशवो नरामस्तु पाता ।}} and translation as "May that young adorable ''Indra'', ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshiper" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.</ref> 6.45.17,<ref>For text of RV 6.45.17 as {{lang|sa|यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती िशवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ }} and translation as "''Indra'', who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 91, volume 3.</ref><ref>For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: {{Harvnb|Griffith|1973|p=310}}.</ref> and 8.93.3.<ref>For text of RV 8.93.3 as {{lang|sa|स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥}} and translation as "May ''Indra'', our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: Arya & Joshi (2001), p. 48, volume 2.</ref>)
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| − | Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.<ref>For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti, p. 89.</ref><ref>RV 7.19.</ref>
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| − | Indra is likened to a white elephant named 'Airavat' instead of the bull.
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| − | However, in the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.<ref>For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 8.</ref>
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| − | As a result of these multifarious precursors, modern historians believe that the figure of Shiva as we know him today was built-up over time, with the ideas of many regional sects being amalgamated into a single figure.<ref>Keay, p. xxvii.</ref>
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| − | ==Attributes of Shiva==
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| − | [[Image:Shiva and Parvati.jpg|thumb|Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, with crescent moon on his head, the Ganga flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull necklace, covered in ashes and Trisula and Damaru are seen in the background.]]
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| − | [[Image:Gangadhara.jpg|thumb|Shiva Bearing the Descent of the Ganges River as Parvati and Bhagiratha, and the bull Nandi look, folio from a Hindi manuscript by the saint Narayan, circa 1740]]
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| − | *'''Third Eye:''' Shiva is often depicted with a third eye with which he burned Desire ({{IAST|Kāma}}) to ashes.<ref>For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref> There has been controversy regarding the original meaning of Shiva's name ''Tryambakam'' (''Sanskrit'': त्र्यम्बकम्), which occurs in many scriptural sources.<ref>For a review of theories about the meaning of ''tryambaka'', see: Chakravarti, pp.37-39.</ref> In classical Sanskrit the word ''ambaka'' denotes "an eye", and in the ''Mahabharata'' Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "Having Three Eyes".<ref>For usage of the word ''ambaka'' in classical Sanskrit and connection to the Mahabharata depiction, see: Chakravarti, pp. 38-39.</ref> However, in Vedic Sanskrit the word ''{{IAST|ambā}}'' or ''{{IAST|ambikā}}'' means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "Having Three Mothers" that was used by Max Müller and Arthur Macdonell.<ref>For translation of Tryambakam as "having three mothers" and as an epithet of Rudra, see: Kramrisch, p. 483.</ref><ref>For vedic Sanskrit meaning and "having three mothers" as the translation of Max Müller and Macdonell, see: Chakravarti, pp. 37-38.</ref> Since no story is known in which Shiva had three mothers, E. Washburn Hopkins suggested that the name refers not to three mothers, but to three Mother-goddesses who are collectively called the {{IAST|Ambikās}}.<ref>For discussion of the problems in translation of this name, and the hypothesis regarding the {{IAST|Ambikās}} see: Hopkins (1968), p. 220.</ref> Other related translations have been "having three wives or sisters", or based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess {{IAST|Ambikā}}.<ref>For the {{IAST|Ambikā}} variant, see: Chakravarti, pp. 17, 37.</ref>
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| − | *'''Blue Throat:''' The epithet ''{{IAST|Nīlakaṇtha}}'' (''Sanskrit'' {{lang|sa|नीलकण्ठ}}; ''nīla'' = blue, ''{{IAST|kaṇtha}}'' = throat)<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=290}}</ref><ref>See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.</ref> refers to a story in which Shiva drank the poison churned up from the world ocean.<ref>For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.</ref><ref>Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref>
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| − | * '''Crescent Moon:''' Shiva bears on his head the crescent of the moon.<ref>For the moon on the forehead see: Chakravarti, p. 109.</ref> The epithet ''{{IAST|Chandraśekhara}}'' (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|चन्द्रशेखर}} "Having the moon as his crest" - ''chandra'' = Moon, ''{{IAST|śekhara}}'' = crest, crown)<ref>For ''{{IAST|śekhara}}'' as crest or crown, see: Apte, p. 926.</ref> refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.<ref>For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: Chakravarti, p. 58.</ref> The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with [[Soma]], and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly emplored, and in later literature Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the Moon.<ref>For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: Chakravarti, pp. 57-58.</ref>
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| − | *'''Matted Hair:''' Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets ''{{IAST|Jaṭin}}'', "The One with matted hair"<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 22.</ref> and ''Kapardin'', "Endowed with matted hair"<ref>For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=279}}.</ref> or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".<ref>Kramrisch, p. 475.</ref>
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| − | *'''Sacred Ganga:''' The Ganga river flows from the matted hair of Shiva. The epithet ''Gaṅgādhara'' ("Bearer of the river Gaṅgā") refers to this feature. The Ganga (Ganges), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.<ref>For Shiva supporting {{IAST|Gaṅgā}} upon his head, see: Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref> The legend of Bhagiratha states that when the sage of that name invoked the gods to send the divine Ganges to earth to relieve a drought and purify the remains of his ancestors, he was warned that the earth had not the capacity to withstand the descent of the Ganges from heaven, in pursuit of which he propitiated Siva to receive the Ganges upon her descent from heaven and release her with diminished force. Siva agreed to trap the youthful and mischievous Ganges in his matted locks and release her to the earth. It was thus, according to Hindu legend, that the Ganges came to be trapped in Siva's locks, and to be portrayed as flowing therefrom, in all representations of Siva.
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| − | *'''Ashes:''' Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma).<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref> Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy.<ref>Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.</ref> These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 161.</ref> One epithet for Shiva is "Inhabitant of the cremation ground" (''Sanskrit'': {{IAST|śmaśānavāsin}}, also spelled Shmashanavasin) referring to this connection.<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 23.</ref>
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| − | *'''[[Tiger]] skin:''' He is often shown seated upon a tiger skin,<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref> an honour reserved for the most accomplished of Hindu ascetics, the Brahmarishis. {{cite web |url=http://www.tamilstar.com/mythology/brahmarishis |title=Mythology ~ The birth of Brahmarishis |accessdate= Retrieved August 9, 2008. |format=HTML }}
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| − | *'''Serpents:''' Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151</ref>
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| − | *'''Trident:''' (Sanskrit: Trishula) Shiva's particular weapon is the trident.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref>
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| − | *'''Drum:''' A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a ''damaru'' (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|ḍamaru}}'').<ref>Michaels, p. 218.</ref><ref>For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.</ref> This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation<ref>Jansen, p. 44.</ref> known as [[Nataraja]]. A specific hand gesture ([[mudra]]) called ''{{IAST|ḍamaru-hasta}}'' (Sanskrit for "{{IAST|ḍamaru}}-hand") is used to hold the drum.<ref>Jansen, p. 25.</ref> This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the {{IAST|Kāpālika}} sect.<ref>For use by {{IAST|Kāpālikas}}, see: Apte, p. 461.</ref>
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| − | *'''Nandi''', also known as ''Nandin'', is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: ''vāhana'').<ref>For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: Chakravarti, pp. 99-105.</ref><ref>For spelling of alternate proper names {{IAST|Nandī}} and Nandin see: Stutley, p. 98.</ref> Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name ''{{IAST|Paśupati}}'' or Pashupati (''Sanskrit'' पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "Lord of cattle"<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=291}}</ref> and by Kramrisch as "Lord of Animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.<ref>Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref>
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| − | * '''GanaGaṇa''' : In [[Hinduism]], the {{IAST|Gaṇa}}s ([[Devanagari]]: {{lang|sa|गण}}) are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailasa. They are often referred to as the Boothaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their Lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the Lord on behalf of the devotee. [[Ganesha]] was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence [[Ganesha]]'s title ''{{IAST|gaṇa-īśa}}'' or ''{{IAST|gaṇa-pati}}'', "lord of the {{IAST|gaṇas}}".<ref>Anna L. Dallapiccola, ''Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend.'' ISBN 0-500-51088-1 </ref>
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| − | *'''Mount Kailāsa''' in the [[Himalayas]] is his traditional abode.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 151.</ref> In Hindu mythology, Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}} is conceived as resembling a ''[[Linga]]'', representing the center of the universe.<ref>For identification of Mount {{IAST|Kailāsa}} as the central ''linga'', see: Stutley (1985), p. 62.</ref>
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| − | *'''[[Varanasi]]''' (Benares) is considered as the city specially-loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.<ref>Keay, p. 33.</ref>
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| − | ==Mythology==
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| − | According to Gavin Flood, "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox", whose attributes include opposing themes.<ref>For quotation "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.</ref> The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.
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| − | ===Destroyer versus benefactor===
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| − | [[Image:Dakshayani.jpg|right|thumb|Shiva carrying the corpse of his consort दाक्षायनि (सती) Dakshayani (Sati).]]
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| − | In the Yajurveda two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrific (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|rudra}}'') and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|śiva}}'') forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here."<ref>For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.</ref> In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.<ref>For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1988|p=20-21}}.</ref> The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names.
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| − | The name ''[[Rudra]]'' (''Sanskrit'' रुद्र) reflects his fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name ''Rudra'' is derived from the root ''rud-'' which means "to cry, howl."<ref>For ''rud-'' meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.</ref> Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form ''raudra'', which means wild, of ''rudra'' nature, and translates the name ''Rudra'' as "the Wild One" or "the Fierce God".<ref>Citation to M. Mayrhofer, ''Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary'', ''s.v.'' "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.</ref> R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "Terrible".<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=301}}.</ref> ''Hara'' (''Sanskrit'' हर) is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "One who captivates", "One who consolidates", and "One who destroys."<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=314}}.</ref> Kramrisch translates it as "The Ravisher".<ref>Kramrisch, p. 473.</ref> Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as ''{{IAST|Kāla}}'' (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|काल}}), "Time", and as ''{{IAST|Mahākāla}}'' (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|महाकाल}}), "Great Time", which ultimately destroys all things.<ref>For translation of {{IAST|Mahākāla}} as "Time beyond time" see: Kramrisch, p. 476.</ref><ref>For the name {{IAST|Kāla}} translated as "time; death", see: Kramrisch, p. 474.</ref><ref>The name {{IAST|Kāla}} appears in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(The Supreme Lord of) Time". See: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=280}}.</ref> Bhairava (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|भैरव}}), "Terrible" or "Frightful"<ref>For {{lang|sa|भैरव}} as one of the eight forms of Shiva, and translation of the adjectival form as "terrible" or "frightful" see: Apte, p. 727, left column.</ref> is a fierce form associated with annihilation.<ref>For Bhairava form as associated with terror see: Kramrisch, p. 471.</ref>
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| − | In contrast, the name {{IAST|Śaṇkara}} (''Sanskrit'' शङ्कर), "Beneficent"<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=306}}</ref> or "Conferring Happiness"<ref>Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref> reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher [[Adi Shankara|{{IAST|Śaṇkara}}]] (c. 788-820 C.E.), who is also known as Shankaracharya.<ref>For adoption of the name {{IAST|Śaṇkara}} by Shankaracarya see: Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref><ref>For dating Shankaracharya as 788-820 C.E. see: Flood (1996), p. 92.</ref> The name ''{{IAST|Śambhu}}'' (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|शम्भु}}), "Causing Happiness", also reflects this benign aspect.<ref>For translation of {{IAST|Śambhu}} as "Causing Happiness" see: Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref><ref>For speculation on the possible etymology of this name, see: Chakravarti, pp. 28 (note 7), and p. 177.</ref>
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| − | ===Ascetic versus householder===
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| − | [[Image:Shiva parivar.jpg|thumb|right|An illustration of the family of Shiva, consisting of Shiva, [[Parvati]], [[Ganesha]] and Skanda (Kartikeya)]]
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| − | He is depicted as both an ascetic yogin and as a householder, roles which are mutually exclusive in Hindu society.<ref>For the contrast beteween ascetic and householder depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151.</ref> When depicted as a yogin he may be shown sitting and meditating.<ref>For Shiva's representation as a yogin, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.</ref> His epithet ''Mahāyogin'' (The Great [[Yoga|Yogi]]: {{IAST|Mahā}} = great, Yogin = one who practices [[Yoga]]) refers to his association with yoga.<ref>For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, Chakravarti, pp. 23, 32, 150.</ref> While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that concepts of tapas, [[yoga]], and [[asceticism]], became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.<ref>For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.</ref>
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| − | As a family man and householder he has a wife, [[Parvati]] (also known as {{IAST|Umā}}), and two sons, [[Ganesha]] and Skanda. His epithet ''{{IAST|Umāpati}}'' ("The husband of {{IAST|Umā}}") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, {{IAST|Umākānta}} and {{IAST|Umādhava}}, also appear in the sahasranama.<ref>For {{IAST|Umāpati}}, {{IAST|Umākānta}} and {{IAST|Umādhava}} as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=278}}.</ref> {{IAST|Umā}} in epic literature is known by many names, including [[Parvati|{{IAST|Pārvatī}}]].<ref>For {{IAST|Umā}} as the oldest name, and variants including {{IAST|Pārvatī}}, see: Chakravarti, p. 40.</ref><ref>For {{IAST|Pārvatī}} identified as the wife of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 479.</ref> She is identified with [[Devi]], the Divine Mother, and with [[Shakti]] (divine energy).
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| − | Shiva and Parvati are the parents of Karthikeya and [[Ganesha]]. Karthikeya is worshipped in southern India (especially in [[Tamil Nadu]] and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in northern India, is better known by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.<ref>For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, ''Preface''.</ref>
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| − | ==Manifestations==
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| − | ===Nataraja===
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| − | [[Image:NatarajaMET.JPG|right|thumbnail|[[Bronze]] Chola Statue depicting Shiva dancing as ''[[Nataraja]]''. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.]]
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| − | The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Tamil: நடராஜா, Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|naṭarāja}}'', "Lord of Dance") is popular.<ref>For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110-111.</ref><ref>For interpretation of the ''{{IAST|naṭarāja}}'' form see: Zimmer, pp. 151-157.</ref> The names ''Nartaka'' ("Dancer") and ''Nityanarta'' ("Eternal Dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.<ref>For names Nartaka (''Sanskrit'' नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=289}}.</ref> His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period.<ref>For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.</ref> In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: ''{{IAST|nṛtyamūrti}}'') are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in [[Tamil Nadu]] (in southern India) in particular.<ref>For popularity of the ''{{IAST|nṛtyamūrti}}'' and prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.</ref>
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| − | ==={{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}}===
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| − | {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|दक्षिणामूर्ति}})<ref>For iconographic description of the {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), p. 47.</ref> literally describes a form (''{{IAST|mūrti}}'') of Shiva facing south (''{{IAST|dakṣiṇa}}''). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of [[yoga]], music, and wisdom, and giving exposition on the shastras.<ref>For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: Kramrisch, p. 472.</ref> This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>For characterization of {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} as a mostly south Indian form, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.</ref> Elements of this ''motif'' can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.<ref>For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as {{IAST|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}}, see: Chakravarti, p. 155.</ref>
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| − | ===Mruthyunjaya===
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| − | Literally translated as 'victor over death', this is an aspect of Shiva worshipped as the conqueror of Death as manifested in the Hindu lord of death, [[Yama]]. The particular legend in question deals with the sage Markandeya, who was fated to die at the age of sixteen. On account of the sage's worship and devotion to Shiva, the Lord vanquished Yama to liberate his devotee from death. Shiva is often worshipped as Mruthyunjaya by the aged or ill, to ward off death and mitigate its harshness when it does occur. He is worshipped as such at the temples of Thirupainyeeli, near Trichinopoly, and at a shrine in Thirukadaiyur, near Chidambaram.
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| − | ===Ardhanarishvara===
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| − | [[Image:Arthanari.png|right|thumb|upright|Chola bronze from the 11th century. Shiva in the form of [[Ardhanarisvara]].]]
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| − | An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara shows him with one half of the body as male, and the other half as female.<ref>Goldberg, p. 1.</ref> According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form, (''{{IAST|Ardhanārīśvara}}'') is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", and not as "half-man, half-woman".<ref>Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.</ref>
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| − | ==={{IAST|Tripurāntaka}}===
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| − | Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, ''Tripura'', of the Asuras.<ref>For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p. 46.</ref> Shiva's name {{IAST|Tripurāntaka}} (''Sanskrit'': {{lang|sa|त्रिपुरान्तक}}), "Ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.<ref>For the {{IAST|Tripurāntaka}} form, see: Sivaramamurti (1976), pp. 34, 49.</ref>
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| − | ===Lingam===
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| − | [[Image:108shivalingas.jpg|right|thumb|108 shiva [[linga]]s carved on the rock at the banks of river Tungabhadra, [[Hampi]]]]
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| − | Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a ''lingam'' is also important.<ref>Michaels, p. 216.</ref><ref>Flood (1996), p. 29.</ref><ref>Tattwananda, pp. 49-52.</ref> These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column.
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| − | In [[Shaivism]], Shiva is the God of all and is worshipped by all, from Devas (gods) such as [[Brahma]], [[Indra]], by Asuras(demons) like Bana, [[Ravana]], by humans like [[Adi Shankara]], Nayanars, by creatures as diverse as Jatayu, an eagle, and Vali, an ape. Furthermore, people of different backgrounds and qualities worship Shiva with many temples having histories of even [[crane (bird)|crane]]s, [[bee]]s, [[elephant]]s, [[spider]]s, [[snake]]s, worshipping Shiva and getting blessed. It concludes that the Good Lord blesses anyone who worships him with sincere devotion as there is no discrimination based on the seeker.
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| − | Although Lord Shiva loves His devotees equally and does not ignore the meditation even of demons such as the [[rakshasa]]s and [[asura]]s, He always finds ways to protect [[dharma|righteousness]] and never allows any evil to triumph over good.
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| − | In South India, five temples of Shiva are held to be particularly important, as being manifestations of him in the five elemental substances:
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| − | # Tiruvannamalai, as fire
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| − | # Chidambaram, as ether
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| − | # Srikalahasti, as air
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| − | # Tiruvanaikal, as water
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| − | # Conjeeveram, as earth
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| − | ==Names of Shiva==
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| − | [[Image:statueofshiva.JPG|right|thumb|A statue of Shiva near Indira Gandhi International Airport, [[Delhi]]]]
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| − | In Hinduism, deities are called by many names, which describe them in different ways. These names often refer to specific stories about the deities, functions they perform, or ways of thinking about them. Study of these names is helpful to understanding deities from multiple points of view. Some names are used by more than one deity, so looking for names that ''uniquely'' describe a deity is one way to pinpoint their functions.
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| − | His role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets ''{{IAST|Mahādeva}}'' ("great god"; ''{{IAST|mahā}}'' = great + ''deva'' = god), ''{{IAST|Maheśvara}}'' ("great lord"; ''{{IAST|mahā}}'' = great + ''{{IAST|īśvara}}'' = lord), and ''Parameśvara'' ("Supreme Lord").
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| − | There are at least eight different versions of the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=viii-ix}}</ref> Shiva also has DashaSahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa. The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the ''Śatarudriya'', is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.<ref>For an overview of the ''Śatarudriya'' see: Kramrisch, pp. 71-74.</ref><ref>For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: Sivaramamurti (1976).</ref>
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| − | Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as Avatars. [[Adi Shankara]], the 8th-century philosopher of non-dualist [[Vedanta]] was named "Shankara" after Lord Shiva and is considered to have been an incarnation of Shiva.<ref>Padma Purana 6.236.7-11</ref> In the ''Hanuman Chalisa'' [[Hanuman]] is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.<ref>Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5</ref>
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| − | ==Relationship to Vishnu==
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| − | [[Image:Harihara.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vishnu]] (left half - blue) and [[Shiva]] (right half - white)]]
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| − | During the Vedic period, both Vishnu and Shiva (as identified with Rudra) played relatively minor roles, but by the time of the Brahmanas (c. 1000-700 B.C.E.) both were gaining ascendance.<ref>For relatively minor position in Vedic times, and rise in progress by 1000-700 B.C.E. see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125, note 2.</ref> By the Puranic period both deities had major sects that competed with one another for devotees.<ref>For the rise in popularity of Shiva and Vishnu, and the role of Puranas in promoting sectarian positions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 110-111.</ref> Many stories developed showing different types of relationships between these two important deities.
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| − | Sectarian forces each presented their own preferred deity as supreme. Vishnu in his myths "becomes" Shiva.<ref>For Visnu becoming Shiva in [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava]] myths, see: Zimmer (1946), p. 125.</ref> The ''Vishnu Purana'' (4th c. CE) shows Vishnu awakening and becoming both {{IAST|Brahmā}} to create the world, and Shiva to destroy it.<ref>For Vishnu Purana dating of 4th c. CE and role of Vishnu as supreme deity, see: Flood (1996), p. 111.</ref> Shiva also is viewed as a manifestation of Vishnu in the ''Bhagavata Purana''.<ref>For identification of Shiva as a manifestation of Vishnu see: ''Bhagavata Purana'' 4.30.23, 5.17.22-23, 10.14.19.</ref> In Shaivite myths, on the other hand, Shiva comes to the fore and acts independently and alone to create, preserve, and destroy the world.<ref>For predominant role of Shiva in some myths, see: Zimmer (1946), p. 128.</ref> In one Shaivite myth of the origin of the lingam, both Vishnu and {{IAST|Brahmā}} are revealed as emanations from Shiva's manifestation as a towering pillar of flame.<ref>For the ''lingodbhava'' myth, and Vishnu and Brahmā as emanations of Shiva, see: Zimmer (1946), pp. 128-129.</ref> The ''Śatarudrīya'', a Shaivite hymn, says that Shiva is "of the form of Vishnu".<ref>For translation of the epithet {{lang|sa|शिपिविष्ट}} (IAST: ''{{IAST|śipiviṣṭa}}'') as "salutation to him of the form of Vishṇu" included in the fifth ''{{IAST|anuvāka}}'', and comment that this epithet "links {{IAST|Śiva}} with {{IAST|Vishṇu}}" see: Sivaramamurti, pp. 21, 64.</ref> Difference in viewpoints between the two sects is apparent in the story of Śarabha (also spelled "Sharabha"), the name of Shiva's incarnation in the composite form of man, bird, and beast. Shiva assumed that unusual form to chastise Vishnu in his hybrid form as [[Narasimha]], the man-lion, who killed Hiranyakashipu, an ardent devotee of Shiva.<ref>For {{IAST|Śarabha}} as an "animal symplegma" form of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 481.</ref><ref>For incarnation in composite form as man, bird, and beast to chastise Narasimha, see: Chakravarti, p. 49.</ref>
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| − | Syncretic forces produced stories in which the two deities were shown in cooperative relationships and combined forms. Harihara is a the name of a combined deity form of both Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara).<ref>Chakravarti, pp. 54-55.</ref> This dual form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in the [[Mahabharata]].<ref>For Harirudra citation to Mbh. III.39.76f see: Hopkins (1969), p. 221.</ref> An example of a collaboration story is one given to explain Shiva's epithet {{IAST|Mahābaleśvara}}, "Lord of Great Strength" (Maha = great, Bala = strength, {{IAST|Īśvara}} = Lord). This name refers to story in which [[Ravana|{{IAST|Rāvaṇa}}]] was given a ''[[linga]]'' as a boon by Shiva on the condition that he carry it always. During his travels, he stopped near the present Deoghar in Bihar to purify himself and asked Narada a devotee of Vishnu in the guise of a Brahmin to hold the ''linga'' for him, but after some time Narada put it down on the ground and vanished. When Ravana returned, he could not move the ''linga'', and it is said to remain there ever since.<ref>For the story of {{IAST|Rāvaṇa}} and the {{IAST|Mahābaleśvara}} ''linga'' see: Chakravarti, p. 168.</ref>
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| − |
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| − | == Notes ==
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| − | {{reflist|2}}
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| − |
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| − | ==References==
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| − | *{{Citation
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| − | | last=Apte
| |
| − | | first=Vaman Shivram
| |
| − | | year=1965
| |
| − | | title=The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary
| |
| − | | place=Delhi
| |
| − | | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
| |
| − | | edition=Fourth revised and enlarged
| |
| − | | isbn=81-208-0567-4
| |
| − | }}
| |
| − | *Arya, Ravi Prakash & K. L. Joshi. ''{{IAST|Ṛgveda Saṃhitā}}: Sanskrit Text, English Translation''. Parimal Publications, Delhi, 2001, ISBN 81-7110-138-7 (Set of four volumes). Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45; 2003 reprint: 81-7020-070-9.
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| − | *{{Citation
| |
| − | | last=Chakravarti
| |
| − | | first=Mahadev
| |
| − | | year=1994
| |
| − | | title=The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through The Ages
| |
| − | | place=Delhi
| |
| − | | publisher= Motilal Banarsidass
| |
| − | | edition=Second Revised
| |
| − | | isbn=81-208-0053-2
| |
| − | }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book |last=Chidbhavananda |first=Swami |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Siva Sahasranama Stotram: With Navavali, Introduction, and English Rendering |year=1997 |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam |location= |isbn=81-208-0567-4 }}
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| − | *{{cite book |last=Courtright |first=Paul B. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title={{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings |year=1985 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=ISBN 0-19-505742-2 }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |coauthors= |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn= 0-521-43878-0}}
| |
| − | *{{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin (Editor)|coauthors= |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|year=2003 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd.|location=Malden, MA|isbn=1-4051-3251-5 }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book |last=Goldberg |first=Ellen |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Lord Who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective|year=2002 |publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany, New York |isbn= 0-7914-5326-X}}
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| − | *{{Citation
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| − | | last=Griffith
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| − | | first=T. H.
| |
| − | | year=1973
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| − | | title=The Hymns of the {{IAST|Ṛgveda}}
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| − | | place=Delhi
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| − | | publisher= Motilal Banarsidass
| |
| − | | edition=New Revised
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| − | | isbn=81-208-0046-X
| |
| − | }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book |last=Gupta |first=Shakti M.|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva|year=1988 |publisher=Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd.|location=Bombay |isbn=81-7039-186-5 }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book |last=Hopkins |first=E. Washburn |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Epic Mythology|year=1969 |publisher=Biblo and Tannen |location=New York |isbn= }} Originally published in 1915.
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| − | *{{cite book |last=Jansen |first=Eva Rudy|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Book of Hindu Imagery|year=1993 |publisher=Binkey Kok Publications BV |location=Havelte, Holland |isbn=90-74597-07-6 }}
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| − | *{{cite book |last=Keay |first=John|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=India: A History |year=2000 |publisher=Grove Press |location=New York |isbn=0-8021-3797-0 }}
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| − | *{{cite book |series= |last=Kramrisch |first=Stella |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Presence of Śiva |year=1981 |publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=0-691-01930-4 }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book |last=Macdonell |first=Arthur Anthony |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary |year=1996 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |location=New Delhi |isbn=81-215-0715-4 }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book |last=Michaels |first=Axel|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Hinduism: Past and Present |year=2004 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey|isbn=0-691-08953-1 }}
| |
| − | *{{cite book |last=Sarup |first=Lakshman|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The {{IAST|Nighaṇṭu}} and The Nirukta |year=1920-1927 |publisher=|location=|isbn= }} Reprint: Motilal Banarsidass, 2002, ISBN 81-208-1381-2.
| |
| − | *{{Citation
| |
| − | | last=Sharma
| |
| − | | first=Ram Karan
| |
| − | | year=1988
| |
| − | | title=Elements of Poetry in the Mahābhārata
| |
| − | | place=Delhi
| |
| − | | publisher= Motilal Banarsidass
| |
| − | | edition=Second
| |
| − | | isbn=81-208-0544-5
| |
| − | }}
| |
| − | *{{Citation
| |
| − | | last=Sharma
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| − | | first=Ram Karan
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| − | | year=1996
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| − | | title={{IAST|Śivasahasranāmāṣṭakam}}: Eight Collections of Hymns Containing One Thousand and Eight Names of Śiva
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| − | | place=Delhi
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| − | | publisher= Nag Publishers
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| − | | edition=
| |
| − | | isbn=81-7081-350-6
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| − | }}
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| − | *{{cite book |last=Stutley |first=Margaret|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography|year=1985 |publisher=|location=|isbn= }} First Indian Edition: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2003, ISBN 81-215-1087-2.
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| − | *{{cite book |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization |year=1946 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=0-691-01778-6 }}
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| − | *{{cite book |last= |first=|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Hanuman Chalisa |year=1985 |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math |location=Chennai, India|isbn=81-7120-086-9 }}
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| − | [[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
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| − | [[Category: Religion]]
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| − | [[Category: Hinduism]]
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| − | {{Credits|218047834}}
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