Self-esteem

In psychology, self-esteem or self-worth includes a person's subjective appraisal of himself or herself as intrinsically positive or negative to some degree (Sedikides & Gregg, 2003).

Self-esteem involves both self-relevant beliefs (e.g., "I am competent/incompetent", "I am liked/disliked") and associated self-relevant emotions (e.g., triumph/despair, pride/shame). It also finds expression in behavior (e.g., assertiveness/timorousness, confidence/caution). In addition, self-esteem can be construed as an enduring personality characteristic (trait self-esteem) or as a temporary psychological condition (state self-esteem). Finally, self-esteem can be specific to a particular dimension (e.g., "I believe I am a good writer, and feel proud of that in particular") or global in extent (e.g., "I believe I am a good person, and feel proud of myself in general").

Major Definitions of Self-Esteem

The term “self-esteem” was first coined by William James in 1890. One of the oldest concepts in psychology, self-esteem is the third most frequently occurring theme in psychological literature. At present, over 25,000 articles, chapters, and books refer to the topic (Rodewalt & Tragakis, 2003). Given such a long and varied history, it is not surprising to find that many theoretical perspectives have their own definition of self esteem. Each approach has generated its own research, findings, and practical applications.

James presents two seemingly contradictory views of self-esteem. The first sees self esteem as a ratio of successes compared to failures in areas of life that are important to a given individual or that individual’s “success (to) pretensions” ratio (James, 1890). However, James also describes self esteem as an "average self feeling... independent of objective reasons". Albert Bandura in his theory of social learning developed the concept of "self-efficacy" which is similar to many concepts of self esteem. In the mid 1960s, Maurice Rosenberg defined self-esteem in terms of a stable sense of personal worth or worthiness that can be measured by a self-report such as the Self Esteem Survey (SES). In describing the theoretical assumptions behind instruments such as the SES, Anastasi and Urbina state that "there is widespread agreement that self esteem (is) a general evaluative attitude (and) a crucial determinant of... coping ability and a sense of well-being".

Nathaniel Branden (1969) defined self-esteem as a relationship between one’s competence and one’s worthiness. This definition sees self-esteem as the result of dealing with challenges of living in a worthy or respectable way and doing so consistently over time. This two-factor approach is a balanced definition that seems to be capable of dealing with limits of defining self-esteem primarily in terms of competence or worth alone (Mruk, 2006). For Carl Rogers, true self esteem recognizes one's limitations while maintaining an individual self satisfaction that does not require continuous validation. Similarly, Deci and Ryan differentiate between "contingent" self esteem and "true" self esteem where the former is based on achieving externally set standards while the latter is based on behavior regulated by personal choice and control.

Measurement

For the purposes of empirical research, self-esteem is typically assessed by a self-report questionnaire yielding a quantitative result. The validity and reliability of the questionnaire are established prior to use. The two most widely used measurement instruments are the Self Esteem Scale developed by Morris Rosenberg and the Self Perception Profile by Susan Harter. The quality of self-esteem can be indirectly assessed in several ways: 1) in terms of its constancy over time (stability), 2) in terms of its independence upon particular conditions being met (non-contingency), and 3) in terms of how ingrained it is at a basic psychological level (implicitness or automaticity).

Criticisms

A review of self-esteem literature by Roy Baumeister confirmed that high self-regard per se is not necessarily good nor does it translate into higher estimates by others of a person's intellect, appearance or virtue. Self-esteem as panacea is "a very compelling illusion". Some social constructionists argue that modern day America, with its overwhelming cultural bias towards self-enhancement, has promoted self-esteem as a universal human goal that all must strive towards perfecting. This assumption of universality fails to consider the absence of such an emphasis in other flourishing cultures, where high self-esteem is not as celebrated and central a concept. It also does not take into account the relationship between self-esteem and fulfillment based on self-valued accomplishment.

In a policy paper for the Center for Equal Opportunity, Nina H. Shokraii noted that self esteem that is not based on actual accomplishments "threatens to deny children the tools they will need in order to experience true success". Ryan and Deci emphasize that autonomy is more of a determinant of sustainable achievement than self esteem is. A person will be more persistant with work that is autonomously chosen whether or not they have high level of self esteem. Accomplishing a goal that is internally motivating tends to lead to true self esteem.

Self-esteem, grades and relationships

From the late 1960s to the early 1990s it was assumed as a matter of course that a student's self-esteem was a critical factor in the grades that they earn in school, in their relationships with their peers, and in their later success in life. Based on this assumption, many American groups created programs to increase the self-esteem of students. The expectations of these programs were that grades would increase, conflicts would decrease, and happy, successful lives would follow.

Until the 1990s, little peer-reviewed and controlled research was done on this topic. Peer-reviewed research undertaken since then has not validated these previous assumptions. Recent research indicates that inflating students' self-esteem has no positive effect on grades. One study has shown that inflating self-esteem by itself can actually decrease grades (Baumeister 2005.

High self-esteem correlates highly with self-reported happiness. However, it is not clear which, if either, necessarily leads to the other (Baumeister 2004).

Self esteem vs Narcissism

Kernis and Goldman (2001) describe some commonly considered characteristics of self esteem that can be contrasted with characters of those theories emphasizing the adaptation-aiding goal of self esteem. Since the characteristics do not help in one's adaptation and achievement, they must be considered caharacteristic of a false sense of self esteem. Seven characteristics of false selgf esteem are excessive pride, feeling of superiority to most, willingness to defend against any perceived threats to self esteem, self promotion, behavior that hides any sign of weakness, tendency to undermine the legitimacy of any perceived threat to self esteem, extraordinary measures to protect, maintain and enhance positive feelings. These are not the characteristics of a self esteem encouraged in youth by teachers and parents and are more aligned with those of narcissism. Narcissism is characterized by self-centeredness, constant seeking attention, excessive admiration of self, and socialization only with high status people.

Bushman and Baumeister (1998) describe narcissism in terms similar to the false self esteem. The narcissist uses the self efficacy that should lead to self esteem in an emotional not cognitive manner resulting in an inflated, unfounded sense of self worth. The narcissist hides insecurity and defensiveness behind a false front of self regard. "Narcissists care passionately about being superior to others." They seek constant validation by trying to win the "approval and admiration of others".

Self-esteem and economic motivation

Adam Smith discusses self-love as an economic motivation. Ranking by country 1.Serbia 2.Chile 3.Israel 4.Peru 5.Estonia 7.United States 8.Turkey 9.Mexico 10.Croatia

References

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• Roy F. Baumeister, "Violent Pride", in Scientific American, 284, No. 4, pages 96–101; April 2001.
• Roy F. Baumeister, Jennifer D. Campbell, Joachim I. Krueger and Kathleen D. Vohs, "Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles?", Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4 (1), pages 1–44; May 2003.
• Roy F. Baumeister, Jennifer D. Campbell, Joachim I. Krueger and Kathleen D. Vohs, "Exploding the Self-Esteem Myth" Scientific American, January 2005.
• Barbara Lerner, "Self-Esteem and Excellence: The Choice and the Paradox," American Educator, Winter 1985.
• Andrew M. Mecca, Neil J. Smelser and John Vasconcellos (Eds.) The Social Importance of Self-esteem University of California Press, 1989.
• Ruggiero, Vincent R. "Bad Attitude: Confronting the Views That Hinder Student's Learning" American Educator, Summer 2000.
• Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
• Sedikides, C., & Gregg. A. P. (2003). "Portraits of the self." In M. A. Hogg & J. Cooper (Eds.), Sage handbook of social psychology (pp.110-138). London: Sage Publications.
• Baumeister, R., Smart, L. & Boden, J. (1996). Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103, 5–33.
• Branden, N. (1969). The psychology of self-esteem. New York: Bantam.
• Crocker, J., & Park, L. E. (2004). The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological Bulletin, 130(3), 392–414.
• James, W. (1983). The principles of psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1890)
• Mruk, C. (2006). Self-Esteem research, theory, and practice: Toward a positive psychology of self-esteem (3rd ed.). New York: Springer.
• Rodewalt, F. & Tragakis, M. W. (2003). Self-esteem and self-regulation: Toward optimal studies of self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 66–70.
• Nina H. Shokraii. The self-esteem fraud: Why feel-good education does not lead to academic success. The Center for Equal Opportunity. http://www.ceousa.org/READ/self.html

External links

• Counseling To Enhance Self-Esteem
• Self-Esteem and Narcissism: Implications for Practice
• A Buddhist View on Lack of Self-confidence
• [1] - Scientific American
• The costs and causes of low self-esteem
• Our Urgent Need For Self-Esteem by Nathaniel Branden

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