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| − | [[Image:Somanathapura Keshava templeprofile.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Profile of a Hoysala temple at [[Somanathapura]]]]
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| − | '''Hoysala architecture''' ({{lang-kn|ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ ವಾಸ್ತುಶಿಲ್ಪ}}) indicates the distinctive building style developed under the rule of the [[Hoysala Empire]] in the region known today as [[Karnataka]], [[India]], between the 11th and the 14th centuries. Hoysala influence stood at its peak in the 13th century, when it dominated the [[Deccan Plateau|Southern Deccan]] Plateau region. Large and small temples built during that era remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the [[Chennakesava Temple]] at [[Belur]], the [[Hoysaleswara temple|Hoysaleswara Temple]] at [[Halebidu]], and the [[Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura|Kesava Temple]] at [[Somanathapura]]. Other examples of fine Hoysala craftmanship include the temples at [[Belavadi]], [[Amrithapura]], [[Lakshminarayana Temple (Hosaholalu)|Hosaholalu]] and [[Nuggehalli]]. Study of the Hoysala architectural style has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the impact of Southern Indian style has been more distinct.<ref name="distinct">Percy Brown in Kamath (2001), p. 134</ref>
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| − | The vigorous temple building activity of the Hoysala Empire arose from the social, cultural and political events of the period. The stylistic transformation of the ''Karnata'' temple building tradition reflected religious trends popularized by the [[Vaishnava]] and [[Virashaiva]] philosophers as well as the growing military prowess of the Hoysala kings who desired to surpass their [[Western Chalukya]] overlords in artistic achievement. Temples built prior to Hoysala independence in the mid-12th century reflect significant Western Chalukya influences, while later temples retain some features salient to Chalukyan art but have additional inventive decoration and ornamentation, features unique to Hoysala artisans. About one hundred temples have survived in present-day Karnataka state, mostly in the [[Malnad]] (hill) districts, the native home of the Hoysala kings.
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| − | As popular tourist destinations in Karnataka, Hoysala temples offer an excellent opportunity for pilgrims and students of architecture to examine [[medieval]] Hindu architecture in the ''Karnata Dravida'' tradition. That tradition began in the 7th century under the patronage of the [[Chalukya dynasty]] of [[Badami]], developed further under the Western Chalukyas of [[Basavakalyan]] in the 11th century and finally transformed into an independent style by the 12th century during the reign of the Hoysalas. Medieval [[Kannada language]] inscriptions displayed prominently at temple locations give details of the temples and offer valuable information about the history of the Hoysala dynasty.
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| − | ==Temple deities==
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| − | {{Main|Hoysala Empire}}
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| − | [[Image:Halebidu Lakshminarayana.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Vishnu with Lakshmi ''(Lakshminarayana)'' at [[Halebidu]]]]
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| − | [[Image:Halebidu shiva.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Shiva, Parvati, Nandi at [[Halebidu]]]]
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| − | Hinduism combines secular and sacred beliefs, rituals, daily practices, and traditions that has evolved over the course of more than two thousand years and embodies complex symbolism combining the natural world with philosophy. Hindu temples began as simple shrines housing a deity and by the time of the Hoysalas had evolved into impressive edifices of worship and transcendence of the daily world. Hoysala temples embraced many traditions of Hinduism and encouraged pilgrims of different Hindu [[devotional movements]].
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| − | The Hoysalas usually dedicated their temples to Lord [[Shiva]] or to Lord [[Vishnu]] (two of the major Hindu gods) but they occasionally chose a different deity. Shiva followers call themselves Shaivas or [[Lingayat]]s while the Vishnu followers call themselves [[Vaishnava]]s. While King [[Vishnuvardhana]] and his descendants declared themselves Vaishnava,<ref name="vaishnava">Kamath (2001), p. 132</ref> records show that the Hoysalas maintained religious harmony by building as many temples dedicated to Shiva as they did to Vishnu.<ref name="equal">Foekema (1996), p. 19</ref> Most of those temples have [[secular]] features with broad themes depicted in their sculptures. That appears in the famous [[Chennakeshava temple]] at [[Belur]] dedicated to Vishnu and in the [[Hoysaleswara temple]] at [[Halebidu]] dedicated to Shiva. The Keshava temple at [[Somanathapura]] uses unique ornamentation, strictly Vaishnavan.<ref name="secular">{{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=Settar S.|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12–25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref>
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| − | Generally Vaishnava temples have been dedicated to [[Keshava]] (or Chennakeshava meaning Beautiful Vishnu) while a small number glorify Lakshminarayana and Lakshminarasimha (Narayana and Narasimha, both Vishnu bodily manifestations of the god or [[avatars]]) with [[Lakshmi]], consort of Vishnu, seated at his feet. Temples dedicated to Vishnu always take the name of the deity. The [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] temples have a [[Lingam|Shiva linga]], symbol of fertility and the universal symbol of Shiva, in the [[shrine]]. The names of Shiva temples can end with the suffix ''eshwara'' meaning ''Lord of''. The name Hoysaleswara for instance means ''Lord of Hoysala''. The temple can also be named after a devotee who commissioned the construction of the temple, an example being the Bucesvara temple at Koravangala named after a devotee Buci.<ref name="name">Foekema (1996), pp. 19–20</ref> The horizontal rows of exquisitely detailed, intricately carved images of Gods, Goddesses and their attendants on the temple outer wall panels represent the most striking sculptural decorations.
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| − | The [[Doddagaddavalli]] Lakshmi Devi temple (Goddess of wealth) provides an exception as it deifies neither Vishnu nor Shiva. The defeat of the Jain [[Western Ganga Dynasty]] (of present day south Karnataka) by the Cholas in early 11th century, and the rising numbers of followers of [[Vaishnava|Vaishnava Hinduism]] and [[Virashaivism]] in the 12th century, mirrored a decreased interest in [[Jainism]].<ref name="jain">Kamath (2001), pp. 112, 132</ref> Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory glorified [[Shravanabelagola]] and [[Kambadahalli]]. The Hoysalas built [[Jain]] temples to satisfy the needs of its Jain population, a few of which have survived in [[Halebidu]] containing icons of Jain [[tirthankaras]]. They constructed stepped wells called ''Pushkarni'' or ''Kalyani'', the ornate [[temple tank|tank]] at Hulikere being an example. The tank has twelve minor shrines containing Hindu deities.<ref name="tank">Foekema (1996), plate 27</ref>
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| − | [[Image:Hulikere Hoysala Kalyani(tank).JPG|250px|right|thumb|Hoysala stepped temple tank ''(Kalyani)'' at Hulikere, Karnataka]]
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| − | The two main deities found in Hoysala temple sculpture include Lord [[Shiva]] and Lord [[Vishnu]] in their various forms and [[avatar]]s (incarnations). Shiva usually stands with four arms holding a [[trident]] and a small drum among other emblems that symbolise objects worshipped independently.<ref name="Shiva">Foekema (1996), p. 31</ref> Any male icon portrayed in that way represents Shiva although a female icon may sometimes be portrayed with these attributes as Shiva’s consort, [[Parvathi]]. Various depictions of Lord Shiva show him in action, such as slaying a demon or dancing on the head of an elephant. His consort, [[Parvati]], or [[Nandi]] the bull often accompany him. He may be represented as [[Bhairava]], another of Shiva’s many manifestations.
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| − | [[Vishnu]] takes the form of a male icon depicted holding certain objects such as a [[conch]] (symbol of eternal, heavenly space) and a wheel (eternal time and destructive power). His consort, [[Lakshmi]] ocassionally holds those objects. In all the depictions Vishnu holds four objects: a conch, a wheel, a [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus]] and a [[Mace (club)|mace]]. Those can be held in any of the icon’s hands, making possible twenty four different forms of Vishnu, each with a unique name.<ref name="vishnu">Foekema (1996), p. 32</ref> Apart from those, Vishnu may appear in any of his ten [[Avatars#The Ten Avatars of Vishnu.2C or Dasavatara|''avataras'']] (bodily manifestations) which include Vishnu sitting on Anantha (celestial snake and keeper of life energy), with Lakshmi seated on his lap (Lakshminarayana), with the head of a lion disemboweling a demon on his lap ([[Narasimha|Lakshminarasimha]]), with head of a boar walking over a demon ([[Varaha]]), in the [[Krishna]] avatar (as [[Sree Venugopala|Venugopala]] or the cow herder playing the [[Venu]] (flute}, dancing on the head of the snake [[Kaliya]], lifting a hill such as [[Govardhana]]), with his feet over head of a small figure ''([[Vamana]])'', with Lakshmi seated on [[Garuda]], and the eagle (stealing the [[Pandanus fascicularis|parijata tree]]).
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| − | ==Temple complex==
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| − | {{See also|Chennakesava Temple|Hoysaleswara temple|Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura}}
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| − | [[Image:Balligavi Kedareshwara profile.JPG|thumb|right|Temple profile—staggered square plan ''mantapa'' at [[Balligavi]]]]
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| − | [[Image:Somanathapura_Keshava_temple.JPG|right|thumb|Symmetrical architecture on ''[[Jagati (temple)|jagati]]'' at [[Somanathapura]]]]
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| − | A Hindu temple serves as a place of contact between the gods or deities and man. The centre or [[sanctum sanctorum]] ([[garbhagriha]]), where the image of the deity resides, constitutes the focus of a temple, so temple architecture moves the devotee from outside to the garbhagriha through ambulatory passageways for [[circumambulation]] and halls or chambers ''([[mandapa|mantapas]])'' that become increasingly sacred while approaching the deity.
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| − | Hoysala temples have distinct parts that merge to form a unified organic whole, in contrast to the temples of [[Tamil Nadu|Tamil country]] where different parts of a temple stand independently.<ref name="parts">Foekema (1996), p. 21</ref> Although superficially unique, Hoysala temples resemble each other structurally. Characterised by a complex profusion of sculpture decorating all the temple parts chiseled of soft [[soapstone]] (chloritic schist), a good material for intricate [[Stone carving|carving]] characterizes the temple complex. Executed mostly by local craftsmen, the temples exhibit architectural features that distinguish them from other temple architectures of South India.<ref name="soap">Kamath (2001), p. 136</ref>
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| − | Most Hoysala temples have a plain covered entrance [[porch]] supported by [[lathe]] turned (circular or bell-shaped) [[Columns|pillars]] sometimes carved with deep fluting and moulded with decorative motifs. The temples may be built upon a platform raised by about a metre called “[[Jagati (temple)|jagati]].” The ''jagati'', apart from giving a raised look to the temple, serves as a ''[[Pradakshina]]patha'' for circumambulation around the temple as the ''[[Garbhagriha|garbagriha]]'' ([[Sanctum sanctorum|inner sanctum]]) lacks such a feature.<ref name="pradakshina">Kamath (2001), p. 135</ref> Such temples will have an additional set of steps leading to an open ''[[mantapa]]'' (open hall) with [[parapet]] walls. The [[Chennakesava Temple at Somanathapura|Keshava Temple]] at Somanathapura offers a good example of that style. The ''jagati'', constructed in unity with the rest of the temple,<ref name="prefect">Foekema (1996), p. 25</ref> follows a star-shape design and the walls of the temple follow a zig-zag pattern, a Hoysala innovation.<ref name="innovate">{{cite web|title=History of Karnataka-Religion, Literature, Art and Architecture in Hoysala Empire|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje|publisher=1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|work=|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> A pair of small shrines, each with a deity and a miniature tower directly facing the entrance, ocassionally adorn either side of steps of the ''Jagati'', repeated for all entrances leading to the ''Jagati''. Devotees first complete a ritual [[circumambulation]] on the ''jagati'' starting from the main entrance by walking in a clockwise direction (towards the left) before entering the ''mantapa'', following the sculptural clockwise-sequenced [[reliefs]] (sequence of epic scenes) on the outside temple walls depicting the Hindu epics. Temples without a ''jagati'' have steps flanked by elephant balustrades (parapets) that lead to the ''mantapa'' from ground level. The ''Bucesvara'' temple in Korvangla, [[Hassan District]] provides an example of a temple without the raised platform. In temples with two shrines ''(dvikuta)'', the ''[[Vimana (shrine)|vimanas]]'' (shrine or [[cella]]) may be placed either next to each other or on opposite sides.<ref name="adjacent">The Hoysaleswara shrine and Shantaleswara shrine in the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu offer examples. (Foekema 1996, p. 59)</ref> The Lakshmidevi temple at [[Doddagaddavalli]] has a minor shrine at each of the four corners of the walled temple complex in addition to five major shrines.
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| − | ==Architectural elements==
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| − | ===Mantapa===
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| − | [[Image:Belur2.JPG|thumb|left|Ornate [[lintel (architecture)|lintel]] over mantapa entrance]]
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| − | The ''[[mantapa]]'' serves as prayer halls. The entrance to the ''mantapa'' normally has a highly ornate overhead [[lintel]] called a ''makaratorana'' (''makara'', an imaginary beast and ''torana'', an overhead decoration).<ref name="makara">Kamath (2001), p. 135</ref> The open ''mantapa'', serving the purpose of an outer hall (outer ''mantapa''), constitutes a regular feature in larger Hoysala temples leading to an inner small closed ''mantapa'' and the shrine(s). The open ''mantapas'' have seating areas made of stone with the ''mantapa’s'' parapet wall acting as a back rest. The seats may follow the same staggered square shape of the parapet wall. The open ''mantapa'' represents the largest part of the temple, supporting larger congregations of people. Numerous pillars support the ceiling creating many bays,<ref name="bay">a square or rectangular compartment in the hall (Foekema 1996, p. 93)</ref> The shape of the open ''mantapa'' appears in staggered-square form, in the style used in most Hoysala temples.<ref name="stagger">Also called “cross-in-square” style, although a retangular shape. (Foekema, 1996, p. 22)</ref> Even the smallest open ''mantapa'' has thirteen bays. The walls have parapets that have half pillars supporting the outer ends of the roof which allow plenty of light making all the sculptural details visible. The ''mantapa'' ceiling generally displays ornate sculptures, both mythological and floral. The ceiling consists of deep and domical surfaces and contain sculputral depictions of banana bud motifs and other such decorations.<ref name="banana">{{cite web|title=Here, the past unfolds itself in all its glory & might—Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura|url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/articles/UB%20githa/hoysala.htm|author=Githa U.B.|publisher=Chitralakshana|work=Deccan Herald, Tuesday, May 11, 2004|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> The Amritheswara temple in [[Chikmagalur district]] has forty eight domes in the ''mahamantapa'' (great open hall).
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| − | [[Image:Chikkamagalur Amritheswara navaranga.JPG|left|thumb|Open ''Mantapa'' with shining, lathe-turned pillars at [[Amrithapura]]]]
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| − | Small temples consist of only a closed ''mantapa'' (enclosed with walls extending all the way to the ceiling) and the shrine. The closed ''mantapa'', well decorated inside and out, larger than the vestibule connecting the shrine and the ''mantapa'', has four lathe turned pillars to support the ceiling which may be deeply domed. The four pillars divide the hall into nine bays. The nine bays result in nine finely decorated ceilings.<ref name="nine">The four pillars and nine bays of a closed ''mantapa'' serves as a norm in Hoysala temples (Foekema 1996, p. 22)</ref> Pierced stone [[latticework]] screens placed between pillars to filter the light marks a characteristic Hoysala stylistic element.
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| − | A porch adorns the entrance to a closed mantapa consisting of an awning supported by two half pillars ([[engaged column]]s) and two parapets all richly decorated. The closed ''mantapa'' connects to the shrine(s) by a vestibule, a square area that also connects the shrines. Its outer walls bare fine decorations but the small vestibule, makes this a less conspicuous part of the temple. The vestibule also has a short tower called the ''sukanasi'' or “nose”<ref name="nose"> because it looks like an extension of the main tower (Foekema 1996, p. 22)</ref> with the Hoysala emblem mounted. In [[Belur]] and [[Halebidu]], those sculptures have large proportions, placed at all doorways.
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| − | The outer and inner ''mantapa'' (open and closed) have circular [[lathe]] turned pillars<ref name="lathe">A common feature of Western Chalukya-Hoysala temples (Kamath 2001, p.117)</ref>, they have four brackets at the top. Over each bracket stands sculptured figure(s) called [[salabhanjika]] or ''madanika''. The pillars may also exhibit fine ornamental carvings on the surface with all pillars unique.<ref name="unique">The Hoysalas may have encouraged different groups of artists to execute pillars and those groups may have been in competition to produce unique pillars, (Sastri 1955, p. 429)</ref> That marks the difference of Hoysala art from the work of their early overlords, the [[Western Chalukyas]], who added sculptural details to the circular pillar base and left the top plain. The lathe turned pillars have 16, 32 or 64 pointes; some take a bell shape and have properties that reflect light. The Parsvanatha Basadi at Halebidu provides a good example.<ref name="lightreflection">{{cite web|title=Architecture in Hoysala Empire|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje|publisher=1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|work=|accessdate=2006-12-28}}</ref> The [[monolith]] shaft of the pillar stamds on a square base with beautifully sculptured figures adorning the top.
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| − | [[Image:roofarchitecture som.JPG|right|thumb|Star shaped ''Vimana'' at [[Somanathapura]]]]
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| − | ===Vimana===
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| − | The ''[[Vimana (shrine)|vimana]]'', also called the [[cella]], contains the most sacred shrine wherein resides the image of the presiding deity. A tower, quite different outside than inside, often tops the ''vimana''. Inside, the vimana appears plain and square whereas outside, it has profuse decorations, taking either a star shape or staggered square or a combination of those designs, creating many projections and recesses that seem to multiply as lighting falls on it.<ref name="cross-in-square">Foekema (1996), p. 21</ref> Each projection and recess has a complete rhythmic and repetitive decorative articulation, comprised of blocks and [[Molding (decorative)|moulding]]s, obscuring the tower profile. Depending on the number of shrines (and hence number of towers), the temples classify as as ''ekakuta'' (one), ''dvikuta'' (two), ''trikuta'' (three), ''chatushkuta'' (four) and ''panchakuta'' (five). Most Hoysala temples belong to the ''ekakuta'', ''dvikuta'' or ''trikuta'' classifications.<ref name="kuta">Sometimes a ''trikuta'' may have less than three towers as only the central shrine has a tower (Foekema 1996, p. 25)</ref> In temples with multiple shrines, all essential parts duplicate to provide symmetry and balance. A temple’s minor shrine usually has its own tower. In some cases, a temple ''trikuta'' has only one tower over the main shrine (in the middle), so the terminology ''trikuta'' may be inaccurate. Smaller shrines attached to the outer walls and facing outward from a larger ''vimana'' form a common feature.
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| − | The highest point of the temple ''(kalasa)'' has the shape of a beautiful water pot and stands on top of the tower. That portion of the ''vimana'' often crumbles from age, artisans replacing with a metallic pinnacle. Below the ''kalasa'', a large, highly sculptured structure resembling a dome made from large stones, looking like a helmet, stands.<ref name="helmet">Foekema (1996), p. 27</ref> It may be 2 m by 2 m in size and follows the shape of the shrine. Below that structure domed roofs sit in a square plan, all of them much smaller and crowned with small ''kalasas''. Mixed with other small roofs of different shapes, they have ornate decorates. The tower of the shrine usually has three or four tiers of rows of decorative roofs while the tower on top of the ''sukanasi'' has one less tier, making the tower look like an extension of the main tower (“nose”). One decorated roof tier runs on top of the wall of a closed ''mantapa'' above the heavy eaves of an open ''mantapa'' and above the porches.
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| − | [[Image:Somanathapura wall-panel.jpg|thumb|right|Outer wall panel with six horizontal mouldings at [[Somanathapura]]]]
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| − | Below the superstructure of the ''[[vimana (tower)|vimana]]'', temple “[[eave]]s”<ref name="eave"> sit under the projecting roof overhanging the wall (Foekema 1996, p. 93)</ref> project half a meter from the wall. Below the eaves two different decorative schemes may be found, depending on whether a temple had been built in the early or the later period of the empire. In the early temples built prior to the 13th century, sits one eave and below that stand decorative miniature towers. A panel of Hindu deities and their attendants sits below those towers followed by a set of five different mouldings forming the base of the wall.
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| − | In the later temples a second eave runs about a metre below the upper eaves with decorative miniature towers placed between them. The wall images of gods sit below the lower eaves followed by six different mouldings of equal size, broadly termed horizontal treatment.<ref name="horizontal">Kamath (2001), p. 134</ref> The six mouldings at the base divide in two sections. Going from the very base of the wall, the first horizontal layer contains a procession of elephants, above which stand horsemen and then a band of foliage. The second horizontal section has depictions of the Hindu epics and ''[[Puranas|puranic]]'' scenes executed with detail. Above that, two friezes of [[Yalli (motif)|yalis]] (or ''makara'', an imaginary beast) and ''hamsas'' (swans) appear. The ''vimana'' (tower) divides into three horizontal sections, even more ornate than the walls.<ref name="yali"> Art critic Percy Brown calls that one of the distinguishing features of Hoysala art (Kamath 2001, p. 134)</ref>
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| − | ===Sculpture===
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| − | [[Image:Belur sthambha-buttalika.jpg|right|thumb|''Sthamba buttalika'', Chola influence in Hoysala art at [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]]]]
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| − | [[Image:Belur madanika.jpg|right|thumb|''Madanika'' [[bracket (architecture)|bracket]] at [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]]]]
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| − | Hoysala artists have won fame for their sculptural detail, whether in the depiction of the [[Hindu]] epics, ''[[Yalli (motif)|Yali]]'' (mythical creature), deities, ''[[Kirthimukha]]'' (Gargoyle), eroticism or aspects of daily life. Their medium, the soft chlorite schist, enabled a virtuoso carving style. Their workmanship shows an attention paid to precise detail. Every aspect down to a finger nail or toe nail has been created perfectly.
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| − | [[Salabhanjika]], a common form of Hoysala sculpture, represents an old Indian tradition going back to Buddhist sculpture. ''Sala'' refers to the [[Sal|Sala tree]] and ''bhanjika'' the chaste maiden. In the Hoysala idiom, ''madanika'' figures constitute decorative objects put at an angle on the outer walls of the temple near the roof so worshippers who circumambulate the temple could view them.<ref name="shila">{{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=Settar S|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12–25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> They served the purpose of bracket figures to pillars inside the ''mantapa''. Artists sculpted those ''madanika'' as seemingly engaged in artistic skills such as music (holding musical instruments) and dance. ''Kirthimukhas'' (demon faces) adorn the towers of [[Vimana (tower)|''vimana'']] in some temples. Sometimes the artists left behind their signature on the sculpture they created.
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| − | The ''sthamba buttalikas'' refer to pillar images that show traces of [[Chola]] art in the Chalukyan touches. Some of the artists working for the Hoysalas may have been from Chola country, a result of the expansion of the empire into Tamil speaking regions of Southern India. The image of ''mohini'' on one of the pillars in the ''[[mandapa|mantapa]]'' (closed hall) of the Chennakeshava temple represents a fine example of Chola art.<ref name="sthamba">{{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=Settar S|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12–25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref>
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| − | Wall panels present general life themes such as the act of reining horses, the type of stirrup used, the depiction of dancers, musicians, instrumentalists, rows of animals such as lions and elephants (with all animals unique). The Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebidu presents perhaps the best depiction the epics [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]] in temple art.<ref name="ramayana">The epic [[frieze]] constitutes the most exciting feature of their sculptures (Foekema 1996, p. 29)</ref><ref name="ramayana1">{{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=Settar S|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12–25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref>
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| − | The Hoysala artist handled ecrotica with discretion. They avoided exhibitionism, carving erotic themes into recesses and niches, generally miniature in form making them inconspicuous. Those erotic representations associate with the ''Shakta'' practice. The temple doorway displays heavily engraved ornamentation called ''Makaratorana'' (''makara'' or imaginary beast) and each side of the doorway exhibits sculptured ''Salabanjika'' (maidens).
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| − | Apart from those sculptures, entire sequences from the [[Hindu]] epics (commonly the [[Ramayana]] and the [[Mahabharata]]) have been sculptured in a clockwise direction starting at the main entrance.<ref name="clockwise">Foekema (1996), p. 29</ref> The right to left sequence follows the same direction taken by the devotees in their ritual [[circumambulation]] as they wind inward toward the inner sanctum. Depictions from mythology such as the epic hero [[Arjuna]] shooting fish, the elephant headed God [[Ganesha]], the Sun God [[Surya]], the weather and war god [[Indra]], and [[Brahma]] with [[Sarasvati]] commonly appear. Also [[Durga]]frequently appear in the temples, with several arms holding weapons given to her by other Gods, in the act of killing a buffalo (a demon in a buffalo’s form) and [[Harihara]] (a fusion Shiva and Vishnu) holding a conch, wheel and trident. The artisan signed many of those friezes, the first known instance of signed art work in India.<ref>{{cite book
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| − | | first= Binda
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| − | | last= Thapar
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| − | | year= 2004
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| − | | title= Introduction to Indian Architecture
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| − | | edition=
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| − | | publisher= Periplus Editions
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| − | | location=Singapore
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| − | | pages= p 69
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| − | | id= ISBN 0794600115}}</ref>
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| − | ==Research==
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| − | [[Image:Chikkamagalur_Amruthapura_kirthimukha.JPG|left|thumb|''Kirthi Mukha'' decoration (demon faces) on tower at [[Amrithapura]]]]
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| − | Surveys in modern times have indicated that the Hoysalas built 1500 structures of which about a hundred temples have survived to date.<ref name="records">They built 1,500 temples in 958 centers, according to historical records, between 1000–1346 C.E. {{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=Settar S|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12–25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> The Hoysala style represents an offshoot of the [[Western Chalukya]] style popularised in the 10th century – 11th century time period.<ref name="offshoot">Kamath (2001), p. 134</ref><ref name="offshoot1">{{cite web|title=History of Karnataka-Religion, Literature, Art and Architecture in Hoysala Empire|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm|author=Arthikaje|publisher=1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|work=|accessdate=2006-11-13}}—James Fergusson and Henry Cousens opine the Hoysala style has features in common to Western Chalukya style.</ref> Distinctively [[Indian architecture#Hindu architecture|Dravidian]], Hoysala architecture qualifies as an independent style owing to its unique features.<ref name="independent">Hoysala architecture and sculpture requires phenomenal concentration, skill and religious consciousness (Percy Brown in Kamath 2001, p. 134)</ref> While the Hoysalas introduced innovative features into their architecture they also borrowed features from the earlier great builders of ''Karnata'' like the [[Kadambas]], [[Western Chalukyas]]. Those features included the use of chloritic schist or [[Soapstone]] as basic building material,<ref name="schist">Kamath (2001) p. 136</ref><ref name="schist1">{{cite web|title=Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 1996|url=http://www.indoarch.org/|author=Kamiya Takeo|publisher=Gerard da Cunha|work=Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India|accessdate=2006-11-13}}—The Western Chalukya carvings had been performed on green schist (Soapstone), a technique adopted by the Hoysalas</ref> pierced stone window screens resoundingly popular in Hoysala temples,<ref name="window">Unusually common in earlier Western Chalukya temples (Kamath 2001, p. 116)</ref> and the [[Vimanam|''vimana'']] which follows a star shaped pattern.<ref name="star">{{cite web|title=Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 1996|url=http://www.indoarch.org/|author=Kamiya Takeyo|publisher=Gerard da Cunha|work=Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India|accessdate=2006-11-13}}—The Western Chalukya architecture has a star-shaped plan for the ''vimana''</ref> All those features proved popular with their early overlords, the Western Chalukyas. Other features included the stepped style of ''vimana'' tower called the ''Kadamba Shikhara'' inherited from the Kadambas.<ref name="kadambashikara"> The [[Shikhara]], called Kadamba Shikhara, had been most prominent feature of the [[Kadamba]] architecture. The Shikhara takes a pyramid shape, rising in steps without any decoration and has a ''stupika'' or ''kalasha'' on the top (Kamath 2001, p. 38)</ref> Hoysala sculptors engrained in their craftsmanship knowledge of the effect of light and shade on carved walls which they used to maximum effect in their sculptures in the numerous projections and recesses. The Hoysala sculpture in all its richness presents a challenge to photographers.<ref name="light">{{cite web|title=Hoysala Heritage|url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |author=Settar S|publisher=Frontline, From the publishers of the Hindu|work=Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 08, April 12–25, 2003|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> Art historians compare the artistic skill of the Hoysalas on stone to the finesse of an ivory worker or a goldsmith. The abundance of jewelry worn by the sculpted figures, the variety of hairstyles and head dresses depicted gives a fair idea of the social life styles of the Hoysala times.<ref name"hair">Sastri (1955), p. 429</ref>
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| − | ==Notable craftsmen==
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| − | [[Image:Buchesvara Korvangla.jpg|left|thumb|Elephant balustrades in Bucesvara temple without ''jagati'' at Korvangla]]
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| − | <!-- [[Image:Somanathapura_Keshava_templeprofile.JPG|left|thumb|Eaves and horizontal treatment of walls at [[Somanathapura]]]] —>
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| − | The Hoysalas had the services of great architects and sculptors, some names standing out in their history. While medieval Indian artists preferred to remain anonymous, Hoysala artists signed their works, which has given researchers fascinating details of their lives, family, and guild. Apart from the architects and sculptors, people of other guilds such as goldsmiths, ivory carvers, carpenters, silversmiths also contributed to the completion of temples. The artists came from diverse geographical backgrounds, including famous locals. Prolific architects included [[Amarashilpi Jakanachari]],<ref name="famous">{{cite web|title=In need of support|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/aug92005/spectrum92548200588.asp|author=Raghavendra, Srinidhi|publisher=Deccan Herald|work=Deccan Herald, Spectrum, Tuesday, August 9, 2005|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> a native of Kaidala in [[Tumkur district]], who also built temples for the [[Western Chalukyas]]. [[Ruvari Malithamma]] built the Kesava temple at [[Somanathapura]] and worked on forty other monuments, including the Amriteshwara temple at [[Amritapura]]. Malithamma specialised in ornamentation, and his works span six decades. He typically signed his sculptures in shorthand as ''Malli'' or simply ''Ma''.<ref name="ruvari">{{cite web|title=Here, the past unfolds itself in all its glory & might-Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura|url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/articles/UB%20githa/hoysala.htm|author=Githa U.B.|publisher=Chitralakshana|work=Deccan Herald, Tuesday, May 11, 2004|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref><ref name="ruvari1">{{cite web|title=Architectural marvel
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| − | |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jan202004/spt6.asp|author=Premkumar P.B.
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| − | |publisher=Deccan Herald|work=Spectrum, Deccan Herald, Tuesday, January 20, 2004|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> Dasoja and his son Chavana from [[Balligavi]] worked as the architects for [[Chennakesava Temple]] at [[Belur]], Kedaroja performed as the chief architect of the [[Hoysaleswara temple]] at [[Halebidu]].<ref name="dasoja">Kamath (2001), p. 135</ref> Their influence appears in other temples built by the Hoysalas as well. Names of other locals found in inscriptions include Maridamma, Baicoja, Caudaya, Nanjaya and Bama,<ref name="architect">Sastri (1955), p. 299</ref><ref name="architect1">Kamath (2001), p. 135</ref> Malloja, Nadoja, Siddoja,<ref name="balli">{{cite web|title=A glimpse of the lost grandeur|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jan252005/spt7.asp|author=Chandragutti, Raghavendra |publisher=Deccan Herald|work=Spectrum, Deccan Herald, Tuesday, January 25, 2005|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref> Masanithamma, Chameya and Rameya. Artists from Tamil country included Pallavachari and Cholavachari.<ref name="local">{{cite web|title=Here, the past unfolds itself in all its glory & might-Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura|url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/articles/UB%20githa/hoysala.htm|author=Githa U.B.|publisher=Chitralakshana|work=Deccan Herald, Tuesday, May 11, 2004|accessdate=2006-11-13}}</ref>
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| − | <br clear="all">
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| − | ==Notable temples==
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| − | {{Famous Hoysala temples}}
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| − | [[Image:Doddagaddavalli Lakshmidevi temple1.JPG|thumb|right|Kadamba ''shikara'' (tower)with ''Kalasa'' (pinnacle) on top at [[Doddagaddavalli]]]]
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| − | [[Image:Sukanasa.JPG|thumb|right|Pierced stone window screens at [[Somanathapura]]]]
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| − | [[Image:Aralaguppe32.jpg|thumb|right|Chennakeshava Temple at Aralaguppe, Karnataka]]
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| − | {{-}}
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| − |
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| − | ==See also==
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| − | * [[Indian Architecture]]
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| − | * [[Vijayanagara Architecture]]
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| − | * [[Badami Chalukya Architecture]]
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| − | * [[Hoysala Empire]]
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| − |
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| − | ==Notes==
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| − | {{Reflist|2}}
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| − | ==References==
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| − | {{col-begin}}
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| − | {{col-2}}
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| − | <div class="references-small">
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| − | *{{cite book |last=Foekema|first=Gerard |title= A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples|origyear=1996|year=|publisher= Abhinav|location= New Delhi|isbn=81-7017-345-0}}
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| − | *{{cite book |last= Kamath|first= Suryanath U.|title= A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present|origyear=1980|year= 2001|publisher= Jupiter books|location= Bangalore|oclc= 7796041|id= {{LCCN|809|0|5179}}}}
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| − | *{{cite book |last= Nilakanta Sastry|first= K.A.|title= A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|origyear=1955|year=2002|publisher= Indian Branch, Oxford University Press|location= New Delhi|isbn= 0-19-560686-8}}
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| − | *{{cite web|author=Settar S|title=Hoysala heritage |url=http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm |publisher=Frontline|work=history and craftsmanship of Belur and Halebid temples|accessdate=2006-11-13}}
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| − | *{{cite web|author=Kamat, Jyotsna|title=The Hoysala Dynasty
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| − | |url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/hoysala.htm|publisher= Kamat’s Potpourri|work=The Hoysala dynasty: 1000 C.E. to 1346 C.E.|accessdate=2006-11-13}}
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| − | </div>
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| − | {{col-2}}
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| − | <div class="references-small">
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| − | *{{cite web|author=Arthikaje|title=Architecture in Hoysala Empire|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka47.htm |publisher=OurKarnataka.Com|work=History of karnataka|accessdate=2006-11-13}}
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| − | *{{cite web|author=Kamiya Takeo|title=Architecture of Indian Subcontinent|url=http://www.indoarch.org/place.php?placelink=R%3D5%2BS%3D18%2BP%3D0%2BM%3D0|publisher=Architecture Autonomous|work=Indian Architecture|accessdate=2006-11-13}}
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| − | *{{cite web|author=Ragavendra, Srinidhi|title=In need of support |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/aug92005/spectrum92548200588.asp|publisher=Spectrum|work=|accessdate=2006-11-13}}
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| − | *{{cite web|author=Githa U.B.|title=Hoyasala architecture in Somanathapura |url=http://www.chitralakshana.com/articles/UB%20githa/hoysala.htm|publisher=chitralakshana|work=History of Indian art|accessdate=2006-11-13}}
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| − | *{{cite web|author=Hardy, Adam|title=Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation—The Karnata Dravida Tradition 7th to 13th Centuries|url=https://www.vedamsbooks.com/no10217.htm|publisher=|work=Art History|accessdate=2006-11-12}}
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| − | *{{cite web|author=Premakumar, B.P.|title=Architectural marvel
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| − | |url=http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/jan202004/spt6.asp|publisher=Spectrum|work=Deccan Herald|accessdate=2006-11-12}}
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| − | </div>
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| − | {{col-end}}
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| − | ==External Links==
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| − | * [http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm History of Karnataka]. Retrieved November 3, 2007.
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| − | * [http://www.indoarch.org/ Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent]. Retrieved November 3, 2007.
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| − | * [http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/20030425000206700.htm Front Line: Hoysala heritage]. Retrieved November 3, 2007.
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| − | {{archhistory}}
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| − | [[Category:History]]
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| − | [[Category:Archaeology]]
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| − | [[Category:Archaeological sites]]
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| − | {{credits|168233122}}
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