Difference between revisions of "Hossain Mohammad Ershad" - New World Encyclopedia
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After the [[assassination of Ziaur Rahman]] on 30 May 30, 1981 Ershad supported [[Abdus Sattar]], the Vice-President who succeeded Zia as President and ordered the army to suppress the coup attempt of Zia's associates, allegedly led by Major General [[Abul Monjur]]. It is widely speculated that Monjur was used as a scapegoat and that Ershad himself was behind the liquidation of President Zia. Ershad however maintained loyalty to the new president [[Abdus Sattar]], who led the [[Bangladesh Nationalist Party]] to victory in elections in 1982. H M Ershad even allotted a house to Mrs. [[Khaleda Zia]] and her two sons when he took over as Chief Martial Law Administrator. Chowdhury speculates that Ershad wanted to assume power but decided to bide his time. Zia was popular, having reintroduced multi-party democracy and although less charismatic Sattar was respected and even admired. Chowdhury says that Ershad instead began to demand an increased political role for the military. He began to claim that the politicians were corrupt and were "ruing the country."<ref>Chowdhury, page 38.</ref> | After the [[assassination of Ziaur Rahman]] on 30 May 30, 1981 Ershad supported [[Abdus Sattar]], the Vice-President who succeeded Zia as President and ordered the army to suppress the coup attempt of Zia's associates, allegedly led by Major General [[Abul Monjur]]. It is widely speculated that Monjur was used as a scapegoat and that Ershad himself was behind the liquidation of President Zia. Ershad however maintained loyalty to the new president [[Abdus Sattar]], who led the [[Bangladesh Nationalist Party]] to victory in elections in 1982. H M Ershad even allotted a house to Mrs. [[Khaleda Zia]] and her two sons when he took over as Chief Martial Law Administrator. Chowdhury speculates that Ershad wanted to assume power but decided to bide his time. Zia was popular, having reintroduced multi-party democracy and although less charismatic Sattar was respected and even admired. Chowdhury says that Ershad instead began to demand an increased political role for the military. He began to claim that the politicians were corrupt and were "ruing the country."<ref>Chowdhury, page 38.</ref> | ||
| − | Under pressure from high-ranking army commanders for the military to take over the reins of state, Ershad toppled President Sattar in a bloodless coup on 24 March 24, 1982 and proclaimed himself Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) with Justice A. F. M. Ahsanuddin Choudury as nominal President. Ershad took over as president on 11 December, 11 1983. From the start, Ershad was regarded as a usurper. Opposition begam as early as December 1982, when Ershad announced his preference for [[Shari'ah]] law. On March 14, 1983 Khaleda Zia of the BNP and [[Sheikh Hasina]] of the Awami League were both arrested. They were released on March 1. In March, 1985 Ershad held a referendum on his presidency, almiming a "positive vote of 94.15 percent."<ref>Baxter, page 112.</ref> Allegations of election fraud were rampant throughout Ershad's presidency.<Chowdhury, page 39.</ref> Two months later, in a largely uncontested election for local council chairs, Ershad's newly created atyo Party swept the board. In January, 1986 he lifted restrictions on political parties and announced a parliamentary election. This was held later that year but due to irregularities some constituencies repolling took place. The BNP boycotted but the Awami League contested seats and won 76. Jatyo won 153. Smaller parties won 39 and independents won a total of 32. The third largest party was the Jamaat-i-Islam with 10. 5 seats went to the [[communism|communists]]. Sheikh Hasina became official leader of the opposition but rarely attended parliament, which was by-passed by Ershad | + | Under pressure from high-ranking army commanders for the military to take over the reins of state, Ershad toppled President Sattar in a bloodless coup on 24 March 24, 1982 and proclaimed himself Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) with Justice A. F. M. Ahsanuddin Choudury as nominal President. Ershad took over as president on 11 December, 11 1983. From the start, Ershad was regarded as a usurper. Opposition begam as early as December 1982, when Ershad announced his preference for [[Shari'ah]] law. On March 14, 1983 Khaleda Zia of the BNP and [[Sheikh Hasina]] of the Awami League were both arrested. They were released on March 1. In March, 1985 Ershad held a referendum on his presidency, almiming a "positive vote of 94.15 percent."<ref>Baxter, page 112.</ref> Allegations of election fraud were rampant throughout Ershad's presidency.<Chowdhury, page 39.</ref> Two months later, in a largely uncontested election for local council chairs, Ershad's newly created atyo Party swept the board. In January, 1986 he lifted restrictions on political parties and announced a parliamentary election. This was held later that year but due to irregularities some constituencies repolling took place. The BNP boycotted but the Awami League contested seats and won 76. Jatyo won 153. Smaller parties won 39 and independents won a total of 32. The third largest party was the Jamaat-i-Islam with 10. 5 seats went to the [[communism|communists]]. Sheikh Hasina became official leader of the opposition but rarely attended parliament, which was by-passed by Ershad whenever possibe. His system of governance relied on the secretaries of the various ministries with "little political consultation with the ministers."<ref>Baxter, page 113.</ref> Three measures that parliament did ratify were especially controversial. In August, 1986 Ershad resigned as Army Chief of Staff in order to stand for election as president. This time, both the main oppossition parties boycotted the October 15 election, which Ershad easily won against two insignificant candidates. In November, 1986 parliament voted to legalize Ershad's presidency from his assumption of power. |
Two controversial measures did gain parliamentary approval, however. In July, 1987 an Act gave the military representation on local councils. | Two controversial measures did gain parliamentary approval, however. In July, 1987 an Act gave the military representation on local councils. | ||
| + | In June, 1988 the constitution was amended to establish [[Islam]] as the state religion, abandoning state [[secularism]]. This was mainly to strengthen Bangladesh's standing in the Muslim World, not in response to any popular expression of support for this constitutional change. In fact, opposition came from a broad spectrum, including women, the main opposition parties and non-Muslim Bangladeshis.<ref> Late 1988 early 1989 saw some of the worst floods on record, and political activity took second place to relief work. Ershad has been praised for his efficient handling of this emergency.<ref>Ahmed, page 229.<ref> | ||
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| − | + | ===Achievements=== | |
| + | Ershad's regime is remembered as the longest autocratic rule in Bangladesh. There was violence, [[Human rights]] abuse and corruption during his tenure. However, he did oversee some positive developments. In several areas, he continued the policies of the previous regime, including encouraging private business, foreign aid and investment and land reform.<ref>Ahmed, page 229-30.</ref> He established the Ministry of Land to deal with disputes about ownership and to extend ownership to the landless. | ||
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| + | During Ershad's rule, the construction of the [[Jamuna Bridge]] connecting the country's north and south together, was started. The Jamuna Multipurpose Bridge Authority (JMBA) was set up by an ordinance promulgated by the President on [[July 3]] [[1985]] to implement the project. For mobilisation of domestic resources, another ordinance was promulgated by which a Jamuna Bridge surcharge and levy were introduced. A total of Tk 5.08 billion was mobilized in the process till its abolition. | ||
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| + | H M Ershad stabilized the Bangladesh Armed Forces which was facing a series of Coups and counter Coups ever since its emergence as a nation in 1971. He sent Bangladeshi soldiers on UN peace-keeping missions for the first time. | ||
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| + | In March, 1989 his administration passed legislation creating autonomous, elected district councils in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. For decades, disputes between the Hill Tract [[ethnic group|ethnic groups]], mainly [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and Bengalis had caused civil unrest. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Ershad's 18-point development program was similar to Zia's 19-point plan. This included ending [[poverty]], making health care accessible to all citizens, extending micro-credit, decentralization of the administration and increasing agricultural output.<ref>Chowdhury, page 168.</ref> | ||
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=== United Nations Recognitions === | === United Nations Recognitions === | ||
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=== Other Accomplishments === | === Other Accomplishments === | ||
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| − | + | The South Asian Multidisciplinary Academic Journal documents the Bangladesh Army's history regarding this. The Bangladesh Armed Forces did not attempt any coups since Ershad's takeover in 1982 to 1996. The '''Awami League''' in alliance with '''Jatiya Party''' as its ally won the elections in 1996. <ref name="codron">{{cite journal | |
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=== The Downfall === | === The Downfall === | ||
| − | + | By December, 1987 the Awami League had resigned from Parliament, which was then dissolved. In November, 1987 a strike shut Dhakka down and Ershad declared a state of emergency. Both the BNP and the Awami League boycotted the election of March 3, 1998. The Jatyo won 252 seats but the "election was meaningless" due to lack of participation by the main parties.<ref>Baxter, page 114.</ref> Increasingly, the NBP and the Awami League cooperated in opposition, joined by [[labor unions]] and by student organizations as well as Jamaat-i-Islami Bangladesh and other parties. The strikes and protests called by the opposition groups paralyzed the state and its economy. Informed by senior military officers that they were no longer prepared to keep him in power, Ershad resigned on December, 6 1990.<ref>Baxter, page 115.</ref> Justice [[Shahabuddin Ahmed]] was appointed acting president and a "caretaker" government was formed to supervise a fair and free election. Ershad was arrested on corruption charges, . | |
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| + | ===Corruption Charges and Imprisonment=== | ||
| − | + | Ershad faced a range of charges. Some have been dropped. He has been acquitted on several and found guilty of several. In July 1995 he was found guilty of ordering flood rescue craft from a [[Japan}Japanese]] company when their bid was not the lowest and sentenced to three years in prison. He was found guilty of illegally possessing and benefiting from state owned land and sentenced to seven years, later reduced to five on appeal.<ref>Ahmed, pages 230-231.</ref> In 2006, he was sentenced to two more years in jail for corruption.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6179289.stm Jail Sentence for General Ershad.] BBC. December 14 2006. Retrieved December 17, 2008. | |
| − | === | + | ===Later political career=== |
| − | + | Although anti-Ershad sentiment was strong, H M Ershad was allowed to contest the 1991 election from jail. His party won all 5 constituencies which it contested from. Khaleda Zia's BNP won and she became Bangladesh's first woman Prime Minister. The constitution was amended to vest power in a Prime Minister in parliament, making the President, appointed by Parliament, a mainly ceremonial post. The role of a caretaker government between the end of one term and the next election was also formalized. | |
| + | In the 1996 elections, Ershad again won election from jail, aligning his party with the Awami League, which won, against the BNP. Sheikh Hasina took up office as Bangladesh's second woman Prime Minister. On June 30, 2007 Ershad stepped down temporarily from the post of Party Chairman, indicating an end to his political career.<ref>[http://www.thedailystar.net/2007/07/01/d7070101011.htm "Ershad quits party post"], ''The Daily Star.'' July 1, 2007. Retrieved December 17, 2008.</ref> It is speculated that he stepped down under pressure as the Caretaker Government started a series of prosecution and arrest for corruption and criminal charges against political leaders of Awami League and BNP]] including Sheikh Hasina, Khaleda Zia and her son Tareq Rahman <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6446065.stm BBC Khaleda Zia's son is refused bail.] BBC. March 13, 2007. Retrieved December 17, 2008.</ref> among others. | ||
| − | + | However on April 8 2008, Ershad took charge of his Jatiya Party once again <ref>[http://www.bangladeshnews.com.bd/2008/04/08/ershad-claims-party-top-post-again Ershad Cliams Party Top Post Again.] Bangladesh News. April 8, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008.</ref> | |
| − | + | On November 19 2008 Jatiya Party and Awami League agreed to contest the elections jointly when these are held under the Caretaker Govermment. Out of the 300 Constituencies in the Parliament, Ershad's Jatiya Party will contest from 50 seats and Awami League from the rest 250, subject to Election Commisioner's approval of nominated candidates. | |
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== Personal Life == | == Personal Life == | ||
| − | Hussain Mohammad Ershad is married to Raushan Ershad, and they adopted a son and a daughter. He also has a son from his second wife Bidisha Ershad. | + | Hussain Mohammad Ershad is [[marriage|married]] to Raushan Ershad, and they adopted a son and a daughter. He also has a son from his second wife Bidisha Ershad. |
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| − | + | H M Ershad has allegedly married three times. A woman named Mary Mumtaz filed for divorce from Ershad in USA. However as per USA constitution and provision for Immunity from Prosecution for Head of State of a Friendly Nation<ref>[www.state.gov/documents/organization/28494.pdf Marieum Mumtaz v General H. M Ershad.] Memoranudm of Law in Support of Immunity, Supreme Court of New York. June 15, 1990. Retrieved December 17, 2008.</ref> the court ruled against Mumtaz. | |
| − | Ershad | + | His eldest son Shad Ershad had his share of misfortune too, when he tried to help a mentally ill girl who ran away from home. The girl's father filed a missing peron's case, however the government pressured to pursue the case when it was discovered he was with the Former President's son to discredit him <ref>Chazan, David. 2000. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/south_asia/667095.stm Ex Bangladesh Leader Fights for Son.] BBC. March 5. Retrieved December 17, 2008.</ref> |
| − | + | However he has been infamous for extra-marital affairs which were on cover of every newspaper in the country soon after his downnfal which continued till 2006. His affair with Zeenat Mosharraf, a member of Parliament almost removed him from the Chairmanship <ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/ie/daily/19970502/12250683.html Love Affair Could Cost Ershad his Party.] ''Indian Express.'' May 2, 1997. Retrieved December 17, 2008.</ref>. | |
| − | + | His marriage with Bidisha ended in a bitter divorce and sedition charges brought by the BNP Government against Bidisha<ref>[http://www.thedailystar.net/magazine/2005/06/03/news.htm The Story Behind Bidisha's Arrest.] ''Star Weekend Magazine.'' June 17. Retrieved December 17, 2008.</ref>. H M Ershad divorced her for allegedly hiding her first marriage which still was not annulled at the time of their marriage.<ref>Rahman, Waliur. 2005. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4627707.stm Ex-Bangladesh ruler's wife bailed.] BBC. June 27. Retrieved December 17, 2008.</ref> | |
| + | ]</ref> | ||
| − | + | His wife and former first lady of Bangladesh Mrs. Raushan Ershad always stayed by his side despite the infidelity {{cn}}. She was the acting Chairperson when Ershad was in prison, and now leads a rival faction of Jatiya Party. Raushan Ershad was also elected as a Member of [[Parliament]] thrice in the elections of 1991, 1996 and 2001. | |
| − | + | ==Legacy== | |
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==References== | ==References== | ||
| − | * Baxter, Craig. 1998. Bangladesh: from a nation to a state. Nations of the modern world. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press. | + | * Ahmed, Salahuddin. 2004. Bangladesh: past and present. New Delhi: A.P.H. Pub. Corp. ISBN 9788176484695 |
| + | * Baxter, Craig. 1998. Bangladesh: from a nation to a state. Nations of the modern world. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press. ISBN 9780813328546 | ||
* Chakravarti, S. R. 1995.'' Bangladesh under Mujib, Zia, and Ershad: dilemma of a new nation.'' New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications. ISBN 9788124103098 | * Chakravarti, S. R. 1995.'' Bangladesh under Mujib, Zia, and Ershad: dilemma of a new nation.'' New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications. ISBN 9788124103098 | ||
* Chowdhury, Mahfuzul H. 2003. ''Democratization in South Asia: lessons from American institutions.'' Burlington, VT: Ashgate. ISBN 9780754634232. | * Chowdhury, Mahfuzul H. 2003. ''Democratization in South Asia: lessons from American institutions.'' Burlington, VT: Ashgate. ISBN 9780754634232. | ||
Revision as of 09:11, 17 December 2008
thumb|Hossain Mohammad Ershad.
Hussain Muhammad Ershad (Bengali: হুসেইন মুহাম্মাদ এরশাদ Husein Muhammad Ershad) born (February 1, 1930) is a Bangladeshi politician who previously served as Chief of Army Staff of Bangladesh Army and later as Chief Martial Law Administrator 1982 -1986. His rise to the Presidency was in the exact same manner of his predecessor Major General Ziaur Rahman; H M Ershad being elected President of Bangladesh 1986 - 1991.
He is a United Nations Laureate and twice won the parliamentary elections. Although commonly termed as an autocratic military dictator his popularity remained; even when he was in prison Ershad won the Parliamentary Elections from five different constituencies twice - in the elections of 1991 & 1996 . He never regained back any government post but never was off the spotlight in Bangladesh's Political Arena either. He is the Chairman of Jatiya Party which he founded in 1986. It is the third largest party in Bangladesh.
Early life and Military Career
Hussain Muhammad Ershad was born in Rangpur in 1930. He graduated from the University of Dhaka in 1950 and was commissioned into the Pakistan Army in 1952. Between 1960 and 1962, he was an adjutant in the East Bengal regimental depot in Chittagong. He also completed advanced courses from the Command and Staff College in Quetta in 1966. After a brief period serving with a brigade in Sialkot, he was given command of the 3rd East Bengal Regiment in 1969 and the 7th East Bengal Regiment in 1971. During the Bangladesh War of Independence, he was interned along with other Bengali officers stationed in West Pakistan at the outbreak of the 1971 Liberation War and repatriated to Bangladesh in 1973 in accordance with the Simla Agreement between India's Indira Gandhi and Pakistan's Zulfiquar Ali Bhutto. Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag
Under pressure from high-ranking army commanders for the military to take over the reins of state, Ershad toppled President Sattar in a bloodless coup on 24 March 24, 1982 and proclaimed himself Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) with Justice A. F. M. Ahsanuddin Choudury as nominal President. Ershad took over as president on 11 December, 11 1983. From the start, Ershad was regarded as a usurper. Opposition begam as early as December 1982, when Ershad announced his preference for Shari'ah law. On March 14, 1983 Khaleda Zia of the BNP and Sheikh Hasina of the Awami League were both arrested. They were released on March 1. In March, 1985 Ershad held a referendum on his presidency, almiming a "positive vote of 94.15 percent."[1] Allegations of election fraud were rampant throughout Ershad's presidency.<Chowdhury, page 39.</ref> Two months later, in a largely uncontested election for local council chairs, Ershad's newly created atyo Party swept the board. In January, 1986 he lifted restrictions on political parties and announced a parliamentary election. This was held later that year but due to irregularities some constituencies repolling took place. The BNP boycotted but the Awami League contested seats and won 76. Jatyo won 153. Smaller parties won 39 and independents won a total of 32. The third largest party was the Jamaat-i-Islam with 10. 5 seats went to the communists. Sheikh Hasina became official leader of the opposition but rarely attended parliament, which was by-passed by Ershad whenever possibe. His system of governance relied on the secretaries of the various ministries with "little political consultation with the ministers."[2] Three measures that parliament did ratify were especially controversial. In August, 1986 Ershad resigned as Army Chief of Staff in order to stand for election as president. This time, both the main oppossition parties boycotted the October 15 election, which Ershad easily won against two insignificant candidates. In November, 1986 parliament voted to legalize Ershad's presidency from his assumption of power.
Two controversial measures did gain parliamentary approval, however. In July, 1987 an Act gave the military representation on local councils.
In June, 1988 the constitution was amended to establish Islam as the state religion, abandoning state secularism. This was mainly to strengthen Bangladesh's standing in the Muslim World, not in response to any popular expression of support for this constitutional change. In fact, opposition came from a broad spectrum, including women, the main opposition parties and non-Muslim Bangladeshis.Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag He established the Ministry of Land to deal with disputes about ownership and to extend ownership to the landless.
During Ershad's rule, the construction of the Jamuna Bridge connecting the country's north and south together, was started. The Jamuna Multipurpose Bridge Authority (JMBA) was set up by an ordinance promulgated by the President on July 3 1985 to implement the project. For mobilisation of domestic resources, another ordinance was promulgated by which a Jamuna Bridge surcharge and levy were introduced. A total of Tk 5.08 billion was mobilized in the process till its abolition.
H M Ershad stabilized the Bangladesh Armed Forces which was facing a series of Coups and counter Coups ever since its emergence as a nation in 1971. He sent Bangladeshi soldiers on UN peace-keeping missions for the first time.
In March, 1989 his administration passed legislation creating autonomous, elected district councils in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. For decades, disputes between the Hill Tract ethnic groups, mainly Buddhist and Bengalis had caused civil unrest.
Ershad's 18-point development program was similar to Zia's 19-point plan. This included ending poverty, making health care accessible to all citizens, extending micro-credit, decentralization of the administration and increasing agricultural output.[3]
United Nations Recognitions
He was awarded as United Nations Laureate twice during his presidency, from the United Nations. These are: -
1. UN Population Award in 10 June, 1987 [4]
2. UN Environment Award in 1988 [5]
Other Accomplishments
The South Asian Multidisciplinary Academic Journal documents the Bangladesh Army's history regarding this. The Bangladesh Armed Forces did not attempt any coups since Ershad's takeover in 1982 to 1996. The Awami League in alliance with Jatiya Party as its ally won the elections in 1996. [6]
During Ershad's tenure as President of Bangladesh elected in 1986, the Bangladesh Army started its participation in the United Nations Peacekeeping Operations in 1988 for the very first[7] time. [8] The particiaption of Bangladesh Armed Forces in UN Peacekeeping Operations initiated by Ershad turned out to be one of the highest source of foreign currency earners today[9].
The Downfall
By December, 1987 the Awami League had resigned from Parliament, which was then dissolved. In November, 1987 a strike shut Dhakka down and Ershad declared a state of emergency. Both the BNP and the Awami League boycotted the election of March 3, 1998. The Jatyo won 252 seats but the "election was meaningless" due to lack of participation by the main parties.[10] Increasingly, the NBP and the Awami League cooperated in opposition, joined by labor unions and by student organizations as well as Jamaat-i-Islami Bangladesh and other parties. The strikes and protests called by the opposition groups paralyzed the state and its economy. Informed by senior military officers that they were no longer prepared to keep him in power, Ershad resigned on December, 6 1990.[11] Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed was appointed acting president and a "caretaker" government was formed to supervise a fair and free election. Ershad was arrested on corruption charges, .
Corruption Charges and Imprisonment
Ershad faced a range of charges. Some have been dropped. He has been acquitted on several and found guilty of several. In July 1995 he was found guilty of ordering flood rescue craft from a [[Japan}Japanese]] company when their bid was not the lowest and sentenced to three years in prison. He was found guilty of illegally possessing and benefiting from state owned land and sentenced to seven years, later reduced to five on appeal.[12] In 2006, he was sentenced to two more years in jail for corruption.Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag It is speculated that he stepped down under pressure as the Caretaker Government started a series of prosecution and arrest for corruption and criminal charges against political leaders of Awami League and BNP]] including Sheikh Hasina, Khaleda Zia and her son Tareq Rahman [13] among others.
However on April 8 2008, Ershad took charge of his Jatiya Party once again [14]
On November 19 2008 Jatiya Party and Awami League agreed to contest the elections jointly when these are held under the Caretaker Govermment. Out of the 300 Constituencies in the Parliament, Ershad's Jatiya Party will contest from 50 seats and Awami League from the rest 250, subject to Election Commisioner's approval of nominated candidates.
Personal Life
Hussain Mohammad Ershad is married to Raushan Ershad, and they adopted a son and a daughter. He also has a son from his second wife Bidisha Ershad.
H M Ershad has allegedly married three times. A woman named Mary Mumtaz filed for divorce from Ershad in USA. However as per USA constitution and provision for Immunity from Prosecution for Head of State of a Friendly Nation[15] the court ruled against Mumtaz.
His eldest son Shad Ershad had his share of misfortune too, when he tried to help a mentally ill girl who ran away from home. The girl's father filed a missing peron's case, however the government pressured to pursue the case when it was discovered he was with the Former President's son to discredit him [16]
However he has been infamous for extra-marital affairs which were on cover of every newspaper in the country soon after his downnfal which continued till 2006. His affair with Zeenat Mosharraf, a member of Parliament almost removed him from the Chairmanship [17].
His marriage with Bidisha ended in a bitter divorce and sedition charges brought by the BNP Government against Bidisha[18]. H M Ershad divorced her for allegedly hiding her first marriage which still was not annulled at the time of their marriage.[19] ]</ref>
His wife and former first lady of Bangladesh Mrs. Raushan Ershad always stayed by his side despite the infidelity [citation needed]. She was the acting Chairperson when Ershad was in prison, and now leads a rival faction of Jatiya Party. Raushan Ershad was also elected as a Member of Parliament thrice in the elections of 1991, 1996 and 2001.
Legacy
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- ↑ Baxter, page 112.
- ↑ Baxter, page 113.
- ↑ Chowdhury, page 168.
- ↑ United Nations Laureates
- ↑ United Nations Laureates
- ↑ Codron, Jérémie (2007-10-18). Maturation & Distortion of the Bangladeshi Army. SAMAJ Putting Factions Back in the Civil Military Relations Equation Genesis: 55.
- ↑ Bangladesh Army UN Deployment
- ↑ Codron, Jérémie (2007-10-18). Maturation & Distortion of the Bangladeshi Army. SAMAJ - Putting Factions Back in the Civil Military Relations Equation Genesis: 62.
- ↑ [www.bbs.gov.bd Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics]
- ↑ Baxter, page 114.
- ↑ Baxter, page 115.
- ↑ Ahmed, pages 230-231.
- ↑ BBC Khaleda Zia's son is refused bail. BBC. March 13, 2007. Retrieved December 17, 2008.
- ↑ Ershad Cliams Party Top Post Again. Bangladesh News. April 8, 2008. Retrieved December 17, 2008.
- ↑ [www.state.gov/documents/organization/28494.pdf Marieum Mumtaz v General H. M Ershad.] Memoranudm of Law in Support of Immunity, Supreme Court of New York. June 15, 1990. Retrieved December 17, 2008.
- ↑ Chazan, David. 2000. Ex Bangladesh Leader Fights for Son. BBC. March 5. Retrieved December 17, 2008.
- ↑ Love Affair Could Cost Ershad his Party. Indian Express. May 2, 1997. Retrieved December 17, 2008.
- ↑ The Story Behind Bidisha's Arrest. Star Weekend Magazine. June 17. Retrieved December 17, 2008.
- ↑ Rahman, Waliur. 2005. Ex-Bangladesh ruler's wife bailed. BBC. June 27. Retrieved December 17, 2008.
References
- Ahmed, Salahuddin. 2004. Bangladesh: past and present. New Delhi: A.P.H. Pub. Corp. ISBN 9788176484695
- Baxter, Craig. 1998. Bangladesh: from a nation to a state. Nations of the modern world. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press. ISBN 9780813328546
- Chakravarti, S. R. 1995. Bangladesh under Mujib, Zia, and Ershad: dilemma of a new nation. New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications. ISBN 9788124103098
- Chowdhury, Mahfuzul H. 2003. Democratization in South Asia: lessons from American institutions. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. ISBN 9780754634232.
- Khan, Manzur Rashid. 2000. Fall of Ershad and rule of Shahabuddin. Dhaka: Agamee Prakashani. ISBN 9789844014404
- Matīna, Ābadula. 1986. Ershad's election fraud. Bangladesh political scene, no. 3. London: Radical Asia Publications. ISBN 9780907546054
- Matīna, Ābadula. 1988. Bangladesh dictator unmasked: Ershad shows contempt for the electorate. Bangladesh political scene, no. 5. London: Radical Asia Publications. ISBN 9780907546085
- Ziring, Lawrence. 1992. Bangladesh: from Mujib to Ershad: an interpretive study. Karachi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195774207
- "Ershad, Hussain Muhammad". 1984. Current Biography Yearbook. 45. OCLC 51873850
External links
| Preceded by: Lt.Gen. Ziaur Rahman |
Chiefs of Army Staff, Bangladesh |
Succeeded by: Lt.Gen. Atiqur Rahman |
| Preceded by: Abdus Sattar |
President of Bangladesh March 24 1982–27 March 27 1982 |
Succeeded by: A.F.M. Ahsanuddin Chowdhury |
| Preceded by: A.F.M. Ahsanuddin Chowdhury |
President of Bangladesh December 11 1983–6 December 6 1990 |
Succeeded by: Shahabuddin Ahmed |
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