Difference between revisions of "Buckminster Fuller" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
m ({{Contracted}})
(Rough Draft)
Line 2: Line 2:
 
'''Richard Buckminster ("Bucky") Fuller''' ([[July 12]], [[1895]] – [[July 1]], [[1983]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[visionary]], [[designer]], [[architect]], [[poet]], [[author]], and [[inventor]].
 
'''Richard Buckminster ("Bucky") Fuller''' ([[July 12]], [[1895]] – [[July 1]], [[1983]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[visionary]], [[designer]], [[architect]], [[poet]], [[author]], and [[inventor]].
  
−
Throughout his life, Fuller was concerned with the question of whether humanity has a chance to survive lastingly and successfully on planet Earth, and if so, how. Considering himself an average individual without special monetary means or academic degree, he chose to devote his life to this question, trying to find out what an individual like him could do to improve humanity's condition that large organizations, governments, or private enterprises inherently could not do.
 
  
−
Pursuing this lifelong experiment, Fuller wrote twenty-eight books, coining and popularizing terms such as [[Spaceship Earth|"spaceship earth"]], [[ephemeralization]], and [[synergetics]]. He also created a large number of inventions, mostly in the fields of design and architecture, the best-known of which is the [[geodesic dome]].
+
RICHARD BUCKMINSTER FULLER
  
−
Late in his life, after working on his concepts for several decades, Fuller had achieved considerable public visibility. He traveled the world giving lectures, and received numerous honorary doctorates. Most of his inventions, however, never made it into production, and he was strongly criticized in most of the fields that he tried to influence (such as architecture), or simply dismissed as a hopeless [[Utopianism|utopian]]. Fuller's proponents, on the other hand, claim that his work has not yet received the attention that it deserves.
 
  
−
==Biography==
+
INTRODUCTION
−
Fuller was born on [[July 12]] [[1895]] in [[Milton, Massachusetts|Milton]], [[Massachusetts]], the son of Richard Buckminster Fuller and Caroline Wolcott Andrews. The Fuller family in particular produced noted New England non-conformists. Buckminster Fuller's father died when the boy was 12. Spending his youth on a farm on Bear Island off the coast of Maine, he was a boy with a natural propensity for design and for making things. He often made things from materials he brought home from the woods, and he even sometimes made his own tools. Notably, he experimented with designing a new apparatus for the human-powered propulsion of small boats. Years later he decided that this sort of experience had provided him not only an interest in design, but a habit of being fully familiar and knowledgeable about the materials that his ambitious later projects would require for actualization. Indeed, Fuller earned a machinist's certification, and he also knew how to fabricate using the press brake, stretch press, and other tools and equipment relied upon in the sheet-metal trade.
 
  
−
Fuller was sent to [[Milton Academy]], in Massachusetts. Afterwards, he began studying at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] but was expelled from the university twice: first, for entertaining an entire dance troupe; and second, for his "irresponsibility and lack of interest." By his own appraisal, he was a non-conforming misfit in the fraternity environment. Later in life, Fuller received a Sc.D. from [[Bates College]] in 1969.
+
richard buckminster (bucky) fuller's early childhood was filled with patterns, until his family realized he was near-sighted and fitted him with glasses. his pursuit of patterns continued throughout his life. one day while watching bubbles he realized that nature doesn't use Pi to create spheres. this began his search for nature's coordinate system, and mankind's role in the universe. his broad brush-stroke view of history revealed the increasing significance of mind-power over muscle-power. often thought of as an eccentric utopian, fuller's stream of writings and inventions documented his belief that every human being could comprehend the workings of the universe and continue the creative work begun by God. he claimed to be a verb, and predicted a one world family.  
  
−
Between his sessions at [[Harvard]], he worked for a time in Canada as a mechanic in a textile mill, and later as a laborer working 12 hours a day in the meat-packing industry. He married in 1917, and he also served in the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] in [[World War I]]. In the Navy he was employed as an aboard-ship radio operator, as an editor of a publication, and as a crash-boat commander. After discharge, he again worked for a period in the meat-packing business, where he acquired management experience. In the early 1920s he and his father-in-law developed the Stockade Building System for producing light-weight, weatherproof, and fireproof housing — though ultimately the company failed.
+
He was primarily an architect. But was also a critic of the way society has been organized since the time of the Phoencians. And worked tirelessly to change global society through design science. the invitations, awards, and appointments which followed him through all the days of his adult life were not the result of self-promotion, but came as the result of his work.
  
−
In 1927 at the age of 32, [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]] and jobless, living in inferior housing in [[Chicago|Chicago, Illinois]], he saw his beloved young daughter Alexandra die of the complications of [[polio]] and [[spinal meningitis]]. He felt responsible, and this drove him to drink and to the verge of [[suicide]]. At the last moment he decided instead to embark on "an experiment, to find what a single individual can contribute to changing the world and benefiting all humanity."
 
  
−
Fuller accepted a position at a small college in [[North Carolina]], [[Black Mountain College]]. There, with the support of a group of professors and students, he began work on the project that would make him famous and revolutionize the field of engineering, the [[geodesic dome]]. Using lightweight plastics in the simple form of a tetrahedron (a triangular pyramid) he created a small dome. He had designed the first building that could sustain its own weight with no practical limits. The U.S. government recognized the importance of the discovery and employed him to make small domes for the army. Within a few years there were thousands of these domes around the world.
 
  
−
For the next half-century Buckminster Fuller contributed a wide range of ideas, designs and inventions to the world, particularly in the areas of practical, inexpensive shelter and transportation. He documented his life, philosophy and ideas scrupulously in a daily [[diary]] and in 28 publications. Fuller financed some of his experiments with inherited family money, sometimes augmented by funds invested by his professional collaborators, one example being the [[Dymaxion Car]] project.
+
=========
  
−
His international recognition was established by the success of his huge [[geodesic dome]]s in the 1950s. Fuller taught at [[Southern Illinois University Carbondale]] from 1959 – 1970 (Assistant Professor 1959 – 68, full Professor in 1968) in the School of Art and Design. Working as a designer, scientist, developer, and writer, for many years he also lectured all over the world on design. Fuller collaborated at SIU with the designer [[John McHale (artist)|John McHale]].In 1965 Fuller inaugurated the [[World Design Science Decade]] (1965 to 1975) at the meeting of the [[International Union of Architects]] in [[Paris]]. This was (in his own words) devoted to ''applying the principles of science to solving the problems of humanity.''
+
BIOGRAPHY
  
−
Fuller believed human societies would soon be relying mainly on renewable sources of energy, such as solar- and wind-derived electricity. He hoped for an age of "omni-successful education and sustenance of all humanity." He regarded information as "negative entropic".
+
It is impossible to isolate a person from the times they lived, as particularly demonstrated by the life of bucky fuller. He saw unprecidented developments as he traveled through time and space for 88 years.
  
−
Fuller was ultimately awarded 25 US patents and many honorary doctorates. On [[January 16]], [[1970]] Fuller received the Gold Medal award from the [[American Institute of Architects]] and also received numerous other awards.
+
Born July 12, 1895 naked and helpless (and very near-sighted); totally dependent on his family, (R B Fuller and Caroline Wolcott Andrews; and relatives), which depended on what the world had to offer at that time in Milton, Massachusetts, with no expection that his lifetime would see mankind go from horse and buggy to walking on the Moon.  
  
−
He died at the age of 88, a [[guru]] of the design, architecture, and 'alternative' communities (such as [[Drop City]] an experimental artists community to whom he awarded the 1966 "Dymaxion Award" for "poetically economic" domed living structures). His wife was comatose and dying of cancer and while visiting her in the hospital <!-- What was the name of this hospital? —> he exclaimed at one point: "She is squeezing my hand!". He then stood up, suffered a massive heart attack and died an hour later. His wife died 36 hours later. He is buried in [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] near Boston, Massachusetts.
+
Entering kindergarten in 1899 his most vivid memory was welcoming in the new century with his first pair of corrective lens (which later became his trademark).
  
−
==Philosophy and worldview==
+
The first decade of the 1900s was similar to the life of any child growing up on the family farm on Bear Island, off the coast of Maine; elementary school, family influences --especially his uncle Waldo, living on Bear Island, Maine; attending Milton Academy upper school. Fuller began keeping a journal when he was 12, which he later renamed the 'chronofile'. His father [RBF...] had a stroke and died in 1910.  
−
Buckminster Fuller strove to inspire humanity to take a comprehensive view of the finite world we live in and the infinite possibilities for an ever-increasing standard of living within it. Deploring [[Toyota Production System|waste]], he advocated a principle that he termed "[[ephemeralization]]" — which in essence (according to [[Stewart Brand]]) Fuller coined to mean "doing more with less." Wealth can be increased by recycling resources into newer, higher value products whose more technically sophisticated design requires less material. In practice, it has often meant miniaturization, for example, as when table-model calculating machines were succeeded over time by smaller ones, until the calculator of today fits in one's hand. Fuller also introduced [[synergetics]], which explores holistic engineering structures in nature (long before the term [[synergy]] became popular).
 
  
−
Fuller was one of the first to propagate a [[systems theory|systemic]] [[worldview]] (see '[[Operating manual for Spaceship Earth]]', '[[Synergetics]]') and explored principles of [[energy efficiency|energy]] and [[material efficiency]] in the fields of [[architecture]], [[engineering]] and [[design]]. He cited Francois de Chardendes' view that [[petroleum]] from the standpoint of its replacement cost out of our current energy "budget" (essentially the incoming [[solar power|solar flux]]), he declared that it had cost nature "over a million dollars" per U.S. gallon ($300,000/L) to produce. From this point of view its use as a transportation fuel by people commuting to work represents a huge net loss compared to their earnings (See: ''Critical Path'' pp. xxxiv-xxxv).
+
During the second decade he continues his education, graduating from Milton Academy in 1913 and entered Harvard (Class of 1917). But is expelled in 1914, and decides to get a cotton mill job in Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada; then re-enter Harvard —but in 1915 he is expelled again. This time he goes to New York city and gets a grueling 12 hour a day job at the Armour meat packing company.
  
−
[[Image:Bfullermask.jpg|right|frame|Actor Arryck Adams portrays Buckminster Fuller in Elite Theatre Company's 2006 production of [[Godspell]]]]
+
1916 began fuller's military career; entering a US military training camp in Plattsburg, NY as a corporal. A year later he joins the US Naval Reserve and marries [...] on his birthday. [Alexandra—first daughter born?] In 1918 he is assigned to a short special course at Annapolis, and a year later is temporarily assigned to the USS George Washington, then to another special course at Annapolis. Promoted to Lt. USN, he his assigned to the Atlantic war zone on troop transport duty as a personal aide for secret information to Admiral Albert Gleaves. He also saw service on the USS Great Northern and USS Seattle.
  
−
He dedicated himself to advancing the success and fulfillment of humanity and lived by a set of [[Buckminster Fullers self disciplines|self-disciplines]]; he was deeply concerned about [[sustainability]] and about human survival under the existing socio-economic system, yet was profoundly optimistic about humanity's prospects. Defining wealth in terms of knowledge, as the "technological ability to protect, nurture, support, and accommodate all growth needs of life", his analysis of the condition of "Spaceship Earth" led him to conclude that at a certain point in the 1970s humanity had crossed an unprecedented watershed.
+
Fuller had direct experience with Naval prognostication -- [...]— which shaped his thinking about the Universe. But on November 1, 1919 he resigns from the Navy when his Admiral is assigned to commander in chief of the [Asiatic fleet] and his daughter, Alexandra, gets sick.
  
−
What might otherwise sound like an article of faith in some spiritual or philosophical system had for Fuller become an objective fact — that the accumulation of relevant knowledge, combined with the quantities of key recyclable resources that had already been extracted from the earth, had reached a critical level, such that competition for necessities was no longer necessary. Cooperation had became the optimum survival strategy. "Selfishness", he declared, "is unnecessary and...unrationalizable...War is obsolete..."
+
The beginning of the 1920s saw Fuller again working for Armour and Company, but this time as an assistant export manager in their NYC headquarters. But in 1921 he resigns from Armour to become a national account sales manager with the Kelly-Springfield truck company in NYC.
  
−
By considering historical comparisons like the fact that even relatively poor people today are able to travel at speeds and with a degree of comfort which were unobtainable at any price in earlier times, and that illnesses that were fatal even to kings in the past can now be cured with affordable drugs, he concluded that everyone alive today can potentially live like a "billionaire." Hence he described the human race as "four billion billionaires."
+
The following year he resigns from Kelly-Springfield to start a career as an 'independent enterpriser' and joins his father-in-law [...] in developing stockade blocks (the Stockade Building System) and built light-weight, weatherproof, and fireproof houses. That year saw Alexandra die of complications from polio and spinal meningitis
  
−
In the 2001 National Tour for the hit musical [[Godspell]] by [[Stephen Schwartz (composer)|Stephen Schwartz]], Fuller is one of the eight philosophers in the show's Prologue and Tower of Babel songs, with the words, "Man is a complex of patterns and processes."
+
Four years later, in 1926, after not making any money building houses, Fuller resigns as presidnet of Stockade.  
  
−
Besides important comprehensiveness of thought and his philosophical concepts, Fuller's most lasting insights may be geometric. He claimed that the natural [[analytic geometry]] of the universe was based on arrays of [[tetrahedron|tetrahedra]]. He developed this in several ways, from the close-packing of spheres and the number of compressive or tensile members required to stabilize an object in space. Some deep confirming results were that the strongest possible homogeneous [[truss]] is cyclically tetrahedral.
+
1927 was a pivotal year for Fuller. His second daughter [...] had been born. But he was jobless, broke, and had no prospects for the future. At [32] he determined that his life was a failure, and contemplated suicide.  
  
−
==Major design projects==
+
On the pier [which ny river] he nearly threw himself into the icy waters. But decided to embark on an unpresidented 'experiment' to see what one person could do to benefit mankind. And got serious about air-deliverable 'dwelling machines'.
−
Fuller was most famous for his [[geodesic dome]]s, which can be seen as part of military [[radar]] stations, civic buildings, and exhibition attractions. Their construction is based on extending some basic principles to build simple [[tensegrity]] structures ([[tetrahedron]], [[octahedron]], and the closest packing of [[sphere]]s). Built in this way they are extremely lightweight and stable. The patent for geodesic domes was awarded in 1954, part of Fuller's decades-long efforts to explore nature's constructing principles to find design solutions.
 
  
−
Previously, Fuller had designed and built prototypes of what he hoped would be a safer, [[Aerodynamics|aerodynamic]] [[Dymaxion car]] ("[[Dymaxion]]" is contracted from DYnamic MAXimum tensION). To this end he experimented with a radical new approach. He worked with professional colleagues over a period of three years, beginning in 1932. Based on a design idea Fuller had derived from designs of [[aircraft]], the three prototype cars were all quite different from anything on the market. For one thing, each of these vehicles had three, not four, wheels — with two (the drive wheels) in front, and the third, rear wheel being the one that was steered. The engine was located in the rear. Both the chassis and the body were original designs. The aerodynamic, somewhat [[tears|tear]]-shaped body (which in one of the prototypes was about 18 feet long), was large enough to seat 11 people. It somehow resembled a melding of a light aircraft (without wings) and a [[Volkswagen]] van of 1950s vintage. The car was essentially a mini-bus in each of its three trial incarnations, and its concept long predated the [[Volkswagen Type 2]] mini-bus conceived in 1947 by [[Ben Pon]].
+
He publishes his first book, 4-D, and founds a research and development company also called 4-D. He develops his energetic/synergetic geometry; invents a 'dymaxion' dwelling machine as part of his concept of air-deliverable, mass-producable houses based on anticipatory design science.
  
−
Despite its length, and due to its three-wheel design, the Dymaxion Car turned on a small radius and parked in a tight space quite nicely. The prototypes were efficient in fuel consumption for their day. Fuller poured a great deal of his own money (inherited from his mother) into the project, in addition to the funds put in by one of his professional collaborators. An industrial investor was also keenly interested in the unprecedented concept. Fuller anticipated the car could travel on an open highway safely at up to about 100 miles per hour (160 km/h); however, due to some concept oversights, the prototypes proved to be unruly over the speed of 50 mph (80 km/h), and difficult to steer properly. Research came to an end after one of the prototypes was involved in a collision resulting in a fatality.
+
In 1929 Fuller spent time at Romany Marie's Tavern in Greenwich Village, eating dinner and discussing his ideas.
  
−
In 1943, industrialist [[Henry J. Kaiser]] asked Fuller to develop a prototype for a smaller car, and Fuller designed a five-seater; the car never went into the development or production stages.
+
In 1930 Fuller goes to Philadelphia, sells his navy life insurance policy to finance the purchase of T-Square magazine and changes the name to Shelter. But two years later the magazine folds. The closing may have been a strategic move on Fuller's part, because Fortune magazine publishes on article on the housing industry, citing the Dymaxion dwelling machine as the prototype of a new mass production housing industry. But the expected increase in orders doesn't come.
  
−
Another of Fuller's ideas was the alternative-projection [[Dymaxion map]]. This was designed to show the Earth's continents with minimum distortion when projected or printed on a flat surface.
+
Two years later [his mother] dies.
  
−
Fuller's energy-efficient and low-cost [[Dymaxion house]]s garnered much interest, but have never gone into production. Here the term "Dymaxion" is used in effect to signify a "radically strong and light [[tensegrity]] structure". One of Fuller's Dymaxion Houses is on display as a permanent exhibit at [[The Henry Ford]] in [[Dearborn, Michigan]]. Designed and developed in the mid 1940s, this prototype is a round structure (''not'' a dome) shaped something like the flattened "bell" of certain [[jellyfish]]. It has several other innovative features, including revolving dresser drawers, and a fine-mist shower that reduces water consumption. According to Fuller biographer Steve Crooks, the house was designed to be delivered in two [[cylinder (geometry)|cylindrical]] packages, with interior color panels available at local dealers' premises. A circular structure at the top of the house was designed to rotate around a central mast to take advantage of natural winds for cooling and air circulation.
+
In 1936 Fuller moves back to NYC and is involved with experimental television broadcasts by CBS. Two years later he joins the staff of Fortune magazine as its science and technology consultant.
−
[[Image:Mtl-biosphere.jpg|right|thumb|'''The American Pavilion of [[Expo 67]]''', by R. Buckminster Fuller, now the Biosphère, on [[Île Sainte-Hélène]], [[Montreal]]. Fuller developed the geodesic dome in the 1940s in line with his "synergetic" thinking.]]
 
  
−
Conceived nearly two decades before, and developed in [[Wichita, Kansas]], the house was designed to be lightweight and adapted to windy climes. It was to be inexpensive to produce and purchase, and easily assembled. It was to be produced using factories, trained workers, and technologies that had produced [[World War II]] aircraft. "Ultramodern"-looking, it was structured of metal and sheathed in polished aluminum, and the basic model enclosed 1000 square feet (90 m²) of floor area. Due to high-level publicity, there were very many orders in the early Post-War years; however, the company that Fuller and others had formed to produce the houses failed due to internal management problems.
+
The 1940s saw Fuller come into his element as the 'invisible world' begins to emerge. [...] And he begins an informal relationship with the US government.
  
−
Buckminster Fuller made a radical commitment to understanding, discovery, and research. He wanted to be a trailblazer, which is a risky role in any field. His life and his work therefore constituted a kind of noble gamble.
+
In 1940 Fuller leaves Fortune magazine and starts the deployment unit of the Butler Manufacturing Company in Kansas City. [Butler manufactured metal buildings used as radar shacks and dorms for US flyers and mechanics.]
  
−
==Practical achievements==
+
Two years later Fuller joins the US Board of Economic Warfare as its head mechanical engineer in Wahington, DC. And in 1944 he becomes a special assistant to the Deputy Director of the US Foreign Economic Administration.  
−
Certainly, a number of Fuller's projects did not meet success in terms of commitment from industry or acceptance by a broad public. However, many geodesic domes have been built and are in use. According to the [http://www.bfi.org/ Buckminster Fuller Institute] Web site, the largest geodesic-dome structures (listed in descending order from largest diameter) are:
 
−
/
 
−
* Fantasy Entertainment Complex: [[Kyosho Isle, Japan]], 710 feet / 216 m
 
−
* Multi-Purpose Arena: [[Nagoya, Japan]], 614 feet / 187 m
 
−
* [[Tacoma Dome]]: [[Tacoma]], WA, USA, 530 feet / 162 m
 
−
* [[Superior Dome]]: Northern Michigan Univ. [[Marquette, MI]], USA, 525 feet / 160 m
 
−
* Walkup Skydome: Northern Arizona Univ. [[Flagstaff, AZ]], USA, 502 feet / 153 m
 
−
* Round Valley High School Stadium: [[Springerville]]-[[Eagar, AZ]], USA, 440 feet / 134 m
 
−
* Former Spruce Goose Hangar: [[Long Beach, CA]], USA, 415 feet / 126 m
 
−
* Formosa Plastics Storage Facility: [[Mai Liao, Taiwan]], 402 feet / 123 m
 
−
* Union Tank Car Maintenance Facility: [[Baton Rouge, LA]] USA, 384 feet / 117 m
 
−
* Lehigh Portland Cement Storage Facility: [[Union Bridge, MD]] USA, 374 feet / 114 m
 
  
−
Fuller's development of the dome and his roles as a philosopher and as a gadfly within the design and architectural communities left an important legacy. He introduced a number of concepts, and if every one wasn't entirely new, we can still say that he honed each one well.
+
Until 1946 Fuller lived in Wichita, Kansas, where he, as chief design engineer, produced a prototype of the Dymaxion house under the auspices of a coalition of labor, private, and government organizations. Also in '46 Fuller is awarded the first catographic projection patent ever granted by the US Patent Office for his Dymaxion map of the world. [...]
  
−
Thousands of geodesic domes have been built, but they are not an everyday sight in most places. Contrary to initial hopes, in practice most of the smaller owner-built geodesic structures proved to have drawbacks (discussed in the Wikipedia section on [[geodesic dome]]s); plus, as a home, many people have been put off by the domes' unconventional appearance.
+
The following year Fuller invents the geodesic dome (patented in 1954), the first building that could sustain its own weight with no practical limits; and becomes a professor at Black Mountain College in North Carolina. And in 1948 he returns to Massachusetts in a position at MIT, while teaching summer sessions at Black Mountain where he becomes a dean ('49). He also gets involved with the Chicago Institute of Design and a visiting lecturer at MIT.
  
−
An interesting spin-off of Fuller's dome-design conceptualization was the [http://www.soccerballworld.com/Historypg2.htm#Buckminster%20Soccer%20Ball Buckminster Ball], which was the official FIFA approved design for footballs (soccer balls), from their introduction at the 1970 World Cup until recently. The design was essentially a "Geodesic Sphere", consisting of 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal panels. This was used continuously for 34 years until it was replaced by a [http://www.soccerballworld.com/Teamgeist.htm 14-panel version] in the 2006 World Cup.
+
The 1950s saw Fuller's teaching schedule begin to increase, his geometry begins to be recognized by the scientific community, and he recieves his first major award.
  
−
While an envisioned widespread and common adoption of geodesic domes is yet to materialize, Fuller's ideas, teachings, and attitude to life and creativity, in combination, have prodded designers and engineers. What Fuller accomplished, in this sense, was to make professionals and students think "outside the box"; to question convention. Fuller was followed (historically) by other designers and architects (for example, [[Sir Norman Foster]] — especially his "[[Clyde Auditorium|Armadillo]]" project — and [[Steve Baer]]) willing to explore the possibilities of new geometries in the design of buildings, not based on the conventional rectangles. The English writer, playwright, and philosopher [[John Dryden]] wrote something quite relevant to the pioneering forays of Fuller still to be brought to full result: "We must beat the iron while it is hot, but we may polish it at leisure."
+
In 1950 his invited university appointments and lectures included MIT, North Carolina State University, and the University of Michigan. In 1951 Fuller points out the similarities between the DNA helix and his tetrahelix model.
  
−
==Facts and Figures==
+
After the geodesic dome is patented (in '54), the US Marines begin using the domes for airlifted housing. Meanwhile, the work of Thomas Malthus is discredited as [governments] acknowledge that Malthus was wrong ('55).
−
* Fuller was friends with Boston artist [[Pietro Pezzati]].
 
−
* He experimented with [[polyphasic sleep]].
 
−
* He was a [[Unitarian-Universalism|Unitarian-Universalist]].
 
−
* A new [[allotropy|allotrope]] of [[carbon]] ([[fullerene]]) and a particular molecule of that allotrope ([[buckminsterfullerene]] or buckyballs) have been named after him. The Buckminsterfullerene molecule, which consists of 60 carbon atoms, very closely resembles a spherical version of Fuller's geodesic dome.
 
−
* On [[July 12]], [[2004]] the [[United States Post Office]] released a new commemorative stamp honoring R. Buckminster Fuller on the 50th anniversary of his patent for the geodesic dome and on the occasion of his 109th birthday.
 
−
* Fuller documented his life every 15 minutes from 1915 to 1983, leaving behind 270 feet / 80 m worth of journals. He called this the [[Dymaxion Chronofile]]. This is said to be the most documented human life in history.
 
−
* He dedicated the US Pavilion dome at [[Expo 67]] to his wife Anne when they celebrated their 50th wedding anniversary there.
 
−
* Around 1979-1980, Bucky shared a lecture tour across America with philosopher [[Werner Erhard]].
 
−
:''"If somebody kept a very accurate record of a human being, going through the era from the Gay 90s, from a very different kind of world through the turn of the century — as far into the twentieth century as you might live. I decided to make myself a good case history of such a human being and it meant that I could not be judge of what was valid to put in or not. I must put everything in, so I started a very rigorous record."'' [http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2003/january22/bucky-122.html][http://www-sul.stanford.edu//depts/spc/fuller/about.html]
 
−
* Buckminster and [[John Denver]] were very close friends and the song "What One Man Can Do" on John's 1982 album "Seasons of the Heart" was written on the occasion of R. Buckminster's 85th birthday. John dedicated this song to him.
 
  
−
==Neologisms==
+
In 1956 Fuller begins a long-term relationship with Southern Illinois University -Carbondale, with his first visiting lecturer appointment. [...] Two years later, as he is making his first complete circuit of the Earth in the fulfillment of regular university appointments around the globe, Fuller's geometry is discovered to explain nature's fundamental structuring at the atomic and virus levels by nuclear physicists and molecular biologists. And he his awarded the Gold Medal, Scarab by the National Architectural Society.
−
'''''World-around''''' is a term coined by Fuller to replace ''worldwide''. The general belief in a [[flat Earth]] died out in the [[Middle Ages]], so using ''wide'' is an [[anachronism]] when referring to the surface of the Earth — a [[spheroid]]al surface has [[area]] and encloses a [[volume]], but has no width. Fuller held that unthinking use of [[superseded scientific theory|obsolete scientific ideas]] detracts from and misleads intuition. The terms '''sunsight''' and '''sunclipse''' are other neologisms, according to [[Allegra Fuller Snyder]] collectively coined by the Fuller family, replacing ''sunrise'' and ''sunset'' in order to overturn the geocentric bias of most pre-[[Copernicus|Copernican]] [[celestial mechanics]].
+
 
 +
And in 1959 he is appointed by the State Department to visit Russia (USSR) as a representative of engineering in a protocol exchange. His is also appointed as a research professor at SIU and is awarded an honorary Doctor of Arts degree.
 +
 
 +
By 1961 over 2,000 geodesic domes had been produced by over 100 industrial corporations, delivered prmarily by air and installed in 40 countries and in the north and south pole zones. He also finds a platfrom to propose initiating phase 1 of a Design Science Decade at [...].
 +
 
 +
In a strange twist of irony Fuller recieves a one-year ('62) appointment as the Charles Eliot Norton Professor of Poetry at Harvard. This begins the rehabilitation of Fuller's Harvard years.
 +
 
 +
1962 also began the Houston Astrodome debacal. [...]
 +
 
 +
In 1963 Fuller's formula of frequency [...] is leads to the finding of virus protein shells. He publishes four book; and begins involvement with Doxiadis' Delos Symposium as a member and speaker on the Design Science Decade. [...]
 +
 
 +
In 1965 Fuller inaugurated the World Design Science Decade (1965 to 1975) at the meeting of the International Union of Architects in Paris.
 +
 
 +
In 1966 he initiates the World Game at SIU; and lectures on spinoffs from space technology. [...]
 +
 
 +
In 1967, in the ultimate step toward rehabilitation, the Harvard Class of 1917 inducts Fuller into Phi Beta Kappa during their 50th reunion. Meanwhile, HUD commissions Fuller to research a tetrahedronal floating city project, as he fulfills an appointment as the Harvey Cushing Orator at the congress of the American Association of Neuro-Surgeons' annual meeting in Chicago. He explained the difference between the human brain and the mind to the 2,000 members of the organization.
 +
 
 +
In 1968, those who read Playboy magazine for the articles, read Fuller's article on The City of the Future.
 +
 
 +
The following year, Fuller led the first public World Game workshop in New York state; and testifies on the World Game before the US Senate Subcommittee on Intergovernmental Relations at the invitation of the Chairman, Sen. Edmund Muskie of Maine. Then Fuller went to India to lecture on planetary planning [...].
 +
 
 +
After being cited as Humanist of the Year, Fuller becomes the Hoyt Fellow at Yale, and recieves a Citation of Merit from HUD. And received a Sc.D. from Bates College.
 +
 
 +
Among all his other projects, Fuller was an amature historian who produced an interesting view of the past. In 1970 his view of pre-history was supported by archeological discoveries, and he was awarded a stone axe in recognition of this work. In the meantime, his book I Seem to be a Verb is published by Bantam, and is installed as Master Architect for Life by the national chapter of the Alpha Rho Chi fraternity.
 +
 
 +
In an unprecidented move, the New York Times prints Fuller's telegram to Senator Edmund Muskie; it fills the entire OpEd page, in 1971.
 +
 
 +
In 1972 the special 40th anniversary issue of Architectrual Forum, and England's Architectural Design magazines devote issues to Fuller's work; and Playboy interviews him.
 +
 
 +
Fuller continues to recieve an ever-increasing number of awards and honors.
 +
 +
During his 37th complete circuit of Earth, (in fulfillment of invitations and academic responsibilities), Fuller gives 150 major addresses during 1974. Meanwhile, the Club of Rome reintroduces the ideas of Thomas Malthus with their Limits to Growth report.
 +
 
 +
The following year Fuller publishes Synergetics. It is the result of his 50 years of work on nature's coordinate system. The book contains an introduction and article by Harvard mathematician Arthur Loeb.
 +
 
 +
While Synergetics is hitting the bookstores, Fuller is named Professor Emeritus at SIU and the University of Pennsylvania, makes his 39th circuit of Earth, and testifies before the US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations.
 +
 
 +
In 1976 Fuller creates the Jitterbug sculpure —representing fourth dimensional space [...]; testifies at the US House hearing on the recovery of the city, and speaks at Habitat: the UN conference on Human Settlements in Vancouver BC Canada.
 +
 
 +
In '77 Fuller was the first witness at the US Senate Select Committee on Small Business hearings on alternate energy, then leaves on a lecture tour sponsored by the State Department and the US Information Agency; and writes an article, 50 Years Ahead of My Time for the Saturday Evening Post.
 +
 
 +
In '78 he testifies before the US Senate Foreign Relations Committe and describes using satellites to take daily inventories of everything from world resources to world-wide public opinion polls. Then appears on Will Durant's NBC television series, Lessons of History.
 +
 
 +
The last year of the 70s found Fuller in NYC with EST founder Werner Erhart. They presented their views of the world at the Radio City Music Hall before 6,000 people. Erhart made the startling statement that he never considered principles to be important until he met Fuller.
 +
 
 +
Fuller made an equally startling statement, which reflected his live-long concern about the continued existence of the human race. He said: 'To be positive about the future you have to know a lot. To be negative about the future you don't have to know nothing.'
 +
 
 +
When asked by a reporter how could one learn what he knows, he simply answered: 'Read my books'.
 +
 
 +
Synergetics 2, containing collateral materials and an aplification of Synergetics, was published in 1979.
 +
 
 +
The last few years of his life demonstrated his dedication to the fate of mankind. In 1980 he traveled to Brazil to view the implementaiton of the industrialization strategies he first described in 1942 [...]; was appointed to a Presidential Commission to follow up the Carter-commissioned Global 2000 Report (which was based on the Limits to Growth report); and was appointed to a congressional committee on the future.
 +
 
 +
1980 also saw the issue of the Robert Grip-Christopher Kitrick edition of Fuller's Dymaxion sky-ocean world map; acknowledged as the largest, most accurate whole Earth map in history.
 +
 
 +
 
 +
The final 1,000 days of his life saw the publication of Critical Path (1981) and Grunch of Giants (1983); his wife [...] in a coma, dying of cancer; his death on July 1, 1983 and [his wife's] a day and a half later. He is buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery near Boston, Massachusetts
 +
 
 +
2095 words
 +
 
 +
================
 +
PHILOSOPHY/WORLD VIEW
 +
 
 +
 
 +
---
 +
Bucky's philosophy and world view are pretty simple. In order to avoid the obliteration of the human race each individual needs to know they have direct access to the generalized mind of God.
 +
 
 +
He begins with the entire universe and works his way to solutions to specific problems. This is how he approached every problem, including his struggle with suicide.
 +
 
 +
He didn't arrive at this strategy on his own, but it's not clear what was the result of his near-sightedness, his family's Unitarian Universalist religious influences, or his stint in the Navy. But it's clear that he didn't learn it at Harvard. But there is evidence of eastern influence (I-not I) and 'acceptance'. By the same token, there is evidence of 'doing one's own thinking' and individual initiative.
 +
 
 +
The essential part of his philosophy was finding the role of humans in the Universe. But first he had to define 'Universe'.
 +
 
 +
Simply stated, 'Universe' is everything a person can be aware of, which includes the expanding set of Generalized Principles which makes it possible for the Universe to be eternally regenerate itself. The next step is to disregard what is not relevant until only the pertinate elements remain. Then experiment with those until a precise solution presents itself.
 +
 
 +
In order to pursue this philosophy, an accurate definition of 'Universe' has to be developed; and then an accurate definition of 'man' had to be developed. Technically speaking, according to Fuller, the Universe is [...] and human beings are [...].
 +
 
 +
In informal terms, human beings are the children of God.
 +
 
 +
With these two definitions in mind, Fuller looked at history and the Phoenicians/Vikings/merchants of Venice popped-out. And from there a Grunch of Giants appeared. What also appeared was a long-term divide-and-conquer, us-against-them struggle which caused no end of trouble and which pushes mankind toward oblivion. He circumvents the issue of 'good and evil' in the same way St. Paul did when he asserted that all things are good, but not all things are expedient. [book/verse]
 +
 
 +
Without the irrelevancy of 'good and bad' a solution to the world's problems becomes apparent. Simply dissolve the sovereign nation-states of the planet. And through Design Science usher in an age of success for all mankind.
 +
 
 +
An important part of Fuller's world view is time. For example, he notes that there is a 50 year gestation rate between new technology (used by the military) and the time the technology comes into wide-spread usage.  He found that different [industries] had different gestation rates.
 +
 
 +
Although he didn't 'predict' the exact time of the establishment of the 'one world family' he believed it was not only inevitable, but essential to the sucess of mankind as a species. He laid the framework for the 'family' by clarifying the nature of America, and human beings on the planet.
 +
 
 +
He first describes human beings as being the same, except for cultural differences and skin color brought about by local climate differences. And notes that in America the different ethnic groups freely intermingle, obliterating differences long-thought to be unique racial characteristics. Such a process eliminates the 'need' for an us-or-them mindset.
 +
 
 +
At the same time this is occuring, humanity as a whole is producing new technologies at an ever-increasing rate based on the 'syntropic' nature of accumulated and widely-disseminated experience-based know-how. The anti-entropy nature of knowledge is 'synergetic' —producing unexpected beneficial results which were unpredictable based on what came before them. [the internet is a prime example of this synergetic process.]  
 +
 
 +
Unfortunately a majority of this knowlege is monopolized by the Grunch for personal enrichment at the expense of all people everywhere. But, unbeknownst to the Grunch, as it goes about it's business, it is unwittingly serving mankind. [...] It will 'soon' realize that it is in its best interests to increase and improve its services to mankind.
 +
 
 +
And that occurs as more and more people begin to understand how the Universe works, and master [precession —riding the wave of change as a surfer rides an ocean wave; staying just ahead of change by anticipating the coming changes ].
 +
 
 +
One of the best ways of apprehending precession is to become familiar with 'ephemeralization' —the process of not only doing more and more with less and less, but the process of something basic and physical becoming more and more infused with the 'metaphysical'. This results in using fewer and fewer resources to produce a better and better product.
 +
 
 +
The 'metaphysical' element is intellect —accumulated know-how passed from person to person, being improved at each stop along the way. Fuller seems to suggest that this process of metaphysical ephemeralization will eventually lead to everybody knowing everything all the time; perhaps even doing everything with nothing.
 +
 
 +
Fortunately, Fuller documented everything he did, and made note of the increasing rate of ephemeralization in society. Afterall, in 1895 not many people had traveled around the globe, but here was someone who had made numerous trips in order to discuss ideas —his life was an example of ephemeralization. How did he achive this?
 +
 
 +
He learned to read patterns, came to his own conclusions about what he was seeing, and took it upon himself to do what he, starting by himself, could do in service to mankind.
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
As a result of his near-sightedness, during his first few years he only saw large patterns. And after he got glasses and some schooling, he realized that nature's way of doing things was different than man's way of doing things. His first direct experience with looking at nature, comparing what he saw with what he had been told, and thinking about the difference came while watching bubbles and thinking about spheres. He realized that nature doesn't use Pi to create spheres. And he sought an understanding of how nature produces shapes.
 +
 
 +
But, first-things-first. Before he could begin re-organizing Spaceship Earth's administrative system he had to know what came before his birth.
 +
He began by documenting his life, paralleling [...'s] dictum about the unexamined life not being worth living. His chronofile contained the events of his life along side significant events in his time. He also documented scientific discoveries beginning with the first conscious isolation of something used in an industrial process: arsenic in 750C.E. This continuous inventory of discoveries, combined with an inventory of his personal experiences provided insights into what was possible for someone with similar experiences.
 +
 
 +
This began his [evolution] into the metaphysical realm. With that step came an understanding that the most rational activity for a person was to commit himself to the cosmic success of all humanity. But he also realized that it is much easier to change the environment than to change people; and that an improved environment would bring about spontaneous changes in people.
 +
 
 +
From this perspective, the most pressing need of mankind is housing. And given the then-current level of social development, housing could be mass-produced and quickly distributed. Hence low-cost air-deliverable Dymaxion dwelling machines produced through Anticipatory Design Science.
 +
 
 +
Given the right circumstances, mankind's industrial focus could shift from the production of weaponry to the production of 'livingry'. But people would have to give up the historical us-against-them struggle and work together.
 +
 
 +
To demonstrate what would happen when universal brotherhood and love for all mankind became the norm, Fuller created the World Game. Using current technologies synergetically, participants get to figure out how to solve the life problems of mankind.
 +
 
 +
One of the most pressing needs [employment] how to earn a living. Obviously Fuller didn't have a clue to finding employment. So he employed himself, testing out his theories of how the Universe works. He figured that if the Universe has any integrity at all, it would support his efforts as he moved in the direction of making mankind a success.
 +
 
 +
Taking into account all the life-support the Universe provides, which enables mankind to be successful, people shouldn't have to 'work' to earn a living. Instead, everyone could become scientist-artists, and enjoy a high standard of living based on their metaphysical activities.
 +
 
 +
Of course he realized that most people would just go fishing, but even some of those would generate enough breakthroughs to improve the lives of everyone on the planet.
 +
 
 +
Fuller defined 'wealth' as the "technological ability to protect, nurture, support, and accommodate all growth needs of life", and he realized that in the 1970s mankind had become unbelievably wealthy.
 +
 
 +
At the turn of the century (2000) it is still difficult to believe his statement, but that's because the vast majority of that wealth is invisible to the naked eye, and is only apprehendable by the mind.
 +
 
 +
But this new era for mankind requires a global electrical grid to effectively channel the surplus electricity to places which need it. Of course this requires producing electricity by every means possible and feeding it into the grid. Among other means of production, the Sun showers the planet, 24 hours a day, with more than enough energy to satisfy the grid. But that requires unprecidented international cooperation, or the dissolution of the nation-state.
 +
 
 +
In any case, Fuller has fulfilled the role of grand architect for life by dividing the universe into physical and metaphysical; apprehending the relationship between the two; and applied the generalized universal principles to daily life for the benefit of all mankind.
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
====================
 +
LEGACY
 +
FROM GRUNCH
 +
 
 +
"I was convinced that within the twentieth century, all of humanity on our planet would enter a period of total crisis. I could see that there was an alternative to politics and its ever more wasteful, warring, and inherently vain attempts to solve one-sidedly all humanity's basic economic and social problems.
 +
 
 +
That alternative was through invention, development, and reduction to the physically working stages of massproduction prototypes of each member of a complete family of intercomplementary artifacts, structurally, mechanically, chemically, metallurgically, electromagnetically, and cybernetically designed to provide so much performance per each erg of energy, pound of material, and second of time invested as to make it eminently feasible and practicable to
 +
provide a sustainable standard of living for all humanity — more advanced, pleasing, and increasingly productive than any ever experienced or dreamed of by anyone in all history. It was clear that this advanced level could be entirely sustained by the many derivatives of our daily income of Sun energy. It was clear that it could be attained and maintained by artifacts that would emancipate humans from piped, wired, and metered exploitation of the many by the
 +
few.
 +
 
 +
This family of artifacts leading to such comprehensive human success I identified as livingry in contradistinction to politics' weaponry. I called it technologically reforming the environment instead of trying politically to reform the people. (I explain that concept in great detail in the latter part of this book. I also elucidated it in my book Critical Path, published in 1981 by St. Martin's Press.)
 +
 
 +
Equally important, I set about fifty-five years ago (1927) to see what a
 +
penniless, unknown human individual with a dependent wife and newborn child might be able to do effectively on behalf of all humanity in realistically developing such an alternative program. Being human, I made all the mistakes there were to be made, but I learned to learn by realistic recognition of the constituent facts of the mistake-making and attempted to understand what the uncovered truths were trying to teach me.
 +
 
 +
In my (Philadelphia) archives there are approximately forty thousand articles published during the last sixty years which successively document my progressive completions of the whole intercomplementary family of scheduled artifacts."
 +
 
 +
It's impossible to do justice to Fuller in a short article, (Everything I Know is 42 hours of videotape available online). For a much more detailed view of Fuller's contribution to humanity visit the Buckminster Fuller Institute in New York.
 +
-----------
 +
 
 +
UNIFICATION ASPECTS
 +
 
 +
[tentative areas include:
 +
merit of the age
 +
original ideal
 +
God's point of view
  
−
Fuller also coined the phrase [[Spaceship Earth]], and coined the term (but did not invent) ''[[tensegrity]].''
 
  
−
It has also been claimed that Fuller coined the phrase [[debunk]] in 1927, however many credit [[William Woodward]] for the term in 1923.
 
  
 
==Concepts and buildings==
 
==Concepts and buildings==
Line 146: Line 273:
 
* ''Humans in Universe'' (1983, Mouton; ISBN 0-89925-001-7); with Anwar Dil
 
* ''Humans in Universe'' (1983, Mouton; ISBN 0-89925-001-7); with Anwar Dil
 
* ''Cosmography'' (1992, ISBN 0-02-541850-5)
 
* ''Cosmography'' (1992, ISBN 0-02-541850-5)
−
 
−
==Secondary literature==
 
−
* Sidney Rosen ''Wizard of the Dome: R. Buckminster Fuller, Designer for the Future''. 1969 (ISBN 0-316-75707-1)
 
−
* Hugh Kenner ''Bucky: A guided tour of Buckminster Fuller''. 1973 (ISBN 0-688-00141-6)
 
−
* Donald Robertson ''Mind's Eye Of Buckminster Fuller''. 1974 (ISBN 0-533-01017-9) Vantage Press, Inc., New York.
 
−
* Alden Hatch ''Buckminster Fuller At Home In The Universe''. 1974 (ISBN 0-440-04408-1) Crown Publishers, New York.
 
−
* E. J. Applewhite ''Cosmic Fishing: An account of writing Synergetics with Buckminster Fuller''. 1977 (ISBN 0-02-502710-7)
 
−
* [http://www.angelfire.com/mt/marksomers/40.html ''A Fuller Explanation''] by Amy C. Edmondson offers a discussion of his work in geometry and systems.
 
−
* Buckminster Fuller also appears as a character in [[Paul Wühr]]'s book "Das falsche Buch".
 
−
* Lloyd Sieden ''Buckminster Fuller's Universe, His Life and Work''. 1989 (ISBN 0-7382-0379-3), explores Fuller's personal life, his beliefs and drives.
 
−
* Martin Pawley ''Buckminster Fuller''. 1991 (ISBN 0-8008-1116-X), offers an architectural critic's assessment of Fuller's ideas and projects.
 
−
* His former student [[J. Baldwin]] wrote ''BuckyWorks: Buckminster Fuller's Ideas for Today'' 1997 (ISBN 0-471-19812-9).
 
−
* {{cite book | author=Erle, Schuyler; Gibson, Rich; & Walsh, Jo | title=Mapping Hacks | location=Sebastopol, CA | publisher=O'Reilly Media | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0-596-00703-5}} Preface dedicates book to Bucky and relates the potential of networked [[virtual globe]]s to Bucky's Geoscope.
 
−
* McHale, John. ''R. Buckminster Fuller''. George Brazillier, Inc., New York. hardback. 1962.
 
−
* {{cite journal|author=[[Gregory J Morgan|Morgan, G.J.]] |year=2003 |title= Historical Review: Viruses, Crystals and Geodesic Domes| journal=[[Trends in Biochemical Sciences (journal)|Trends in Biochemical Sciences]] |volume=28| pages=86-90}}
 
−
* Lord, V. Athena. ''Pilot For Spaceship Earth''. Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., New York. hardback. 1978 (ISBN 0-02-761420-4)
 
−
* Snyder, Robert. ''Buckminster Fuller: An Autobiographical Monologue/Scenario''. St. Martin's Press, New York. hardback. 1980 (ISBN 0-312-24547-5)
 
−
* ''Synergetic Stew: Explorations In Dymaxion Dining''. The Buckminster Fuller Institute, Philadelphia. paperback. 1982 (ISBN 0-911573-00-3)
 
−
* Ward, James. Ed. ''The Artifacts Of R. Buckminster Fuller, A Comprehensive Collection of His Designs and Drawings in Four Volumes: Volume One. The Dymaxion Experiment, 1926-1943; Volume Two. Dymaxion Deployment, 1927-1946; Volume Three. The Geodesic Revolution, Part 1, 1947-1959; Volume Four. The Geodesic Revolution, Part 2, 1960-1983'': Edited with descriptions by James Ward. Garland Publishing, New York. 1984 (ISBN 0-8240-5082-7 [vol. 1], ISBN 0-8240-5083-5 [vol. 2], ISBN 0-8240-5084-3 [vol. 3], ISBN 0-8240-5085-1 [vol. 4])
 
−
* Brenneman, Richard. ''Fuller's Earth, A Day With Bucky And The Kids'' St. Martin's Press, New York, c. 1984. hardcover (ISBN 0-312-30981-3)
 
−
* E. J. Applewhite, ed. ''Synergetics Dictionary, The Mind Of Buckminster Fuller; in four volumes''. Garland Publishing, Inc. New York and London. 1986 (ISBN 0-8240-8729-1)
 
−
* Potter, R. Robert. ''Buckminster Fuller (Pioneers in Change Series)''. Silver Burdett Publishers. 1990 (ISBN 0-382-09972-9)
 
−
* Pawley, Martin. ''Buckminster Fuller''. Taplinger Publishing Company, New York. 1991. hardcover (ISBN 0-8008-1116-X)
 
−
* Krausse, Joachim and Lichtenstein, Claude. ed. ''Your Private Sky, R. Buckminster Fuller: The Art Of Design Science''. Lars Mueller Publishers. 1999 (ISBN 3-907044-88-6)
 
−
* Zung, T.K. Thomas. ''Buckminster Fuller: Anthology for a New Millennium''. St. Martin’s Press. 2001 (ISBN 0-312-26639-1)
 
−
* Disney's Dome, Ray Charles
 
−
 
−
==Former students==
 
−
* [[J. Baldwin]]
 
−
* [[Pierre Cabrol]]
 
−
* [[Joseph Clinton]]
 
−
* [[David Johnston (builder)|David Johnston]]
 
−
* [[Peter Pearce]]
 
−
* [[Shoji Sadao]]
 
−
* [[Kenneth Snelson]]
 
−
* [[Ruth Asawa]]
 
−
 
 
== See also ==
 
== See also ==
 
* ''[[Whole Earth Catalog]]''
 
* ''[[Whole Earth Catalog]]''
Line 210: Line 300:
 
* http://collections.stanford.edu/bucky/bin/page?forward=home includes 1700 hrs. of audio-visual material
 
* http://collections.stanford.edu/bucky/bin/page?forward=home includes 1700 hrs. of audio-visual material
 
* [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-69-100-532/life_society/expo_67/clip7 CBC Archives - clip about United States Pavilion at Expo 67]
 
* [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-69-100-532/life_society/expo_67/clip7 CBC Archives - clip about United States Pavilion at Expo 67]
−
 
−
{{Persondata
 
−
|NAME=Fuller, Buckminster
 
−
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Fuller, Bucky
 
−
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American inventor and author
 
−
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[July 12]], [[1895]]
 
−
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Milton, Massachusetts|Milton]], [[Massachusetts]]
 
−
|DATE OF DEATH=[[July 1]], [[1983]]
 
−
|PLACE OF DEATH=
 
−
}}
 
  
 
[[Category:Buckminster Fuller| ]]
 
[[Category:Buckminster Fuller| ]]

Revision as of 13:27, 6 October 2006

Richard Buckminster ("Bucky") Fuller (July 12, 1895 – July 1, 1983) was an American visionary, designer, architect, poet, author, and inventor.


RICHARD BUCKMINSTER FULLER


INTRODUCTION

richard buckminster (bucky) fuller's early childhood was filled with patterns, until his family realized he was near-sighted and fitted him with glasses. his pursuit of patterns continued throughout his life. one day while watching bubbles he realized that nature doesn't use Pi to create spheres. this began his search for nature's coordinate system, and mankind's role in the universe. his broad brush-stroke view of history revealed the increasing significance of mind-power over muscle-power. often thought of as an eccentric utopian, fuller's stream of writings and inventions documented his belief that every human being could comprehend the workings of the universe and continue the creative work begun by God. he claimed to be a verb, and predicted a one world family.

He was primarily an architect. But was also a critic of the way society has been organized since the time of the Phoencians. And worked tirelessly to change global society through design science. the invitations, awards, and appointments which followed him through all the days of his adult life were not the result of self-promotion, but came as the result of his work.


=

BIOGRAPHY

It is impossible to isolate a person from the times they lived, as particularly demonstrated by the life of bucky fuller. He saw unprecidented developments as he traveled through time and space for 88 years.

Born July 12, 1895 naked and helpless (and very near-sighted); totally dependent on his family, (R B Fuller and Caroline Wolcott Andrews; and relatives), which depended on what the world had to offer at that time in Milton, Massachusetts, with no expection that his lifetime would see mankind go from horse and buggy to walking on the Moon.

Entering kindergarten in 1899 his most vivid memory was welcoming in the new century with his first pair of corrective lens (which later became his trademark).

The first decade of the 1900s was similar to the life of any child growing up on the family farm on Bear Island, off the coast of Maine; elementary school, family influences —especially his uncle Waldo, living on Bear Island, Maine; attending Milton Academy upper school. Fuller began keeping a journal when he was 12, which he later renamed the 'chronofile'. His father [RBF...] had a stroke and died in 1910.

During the second decade he continues his education, graduating from Milton Academy in 1913 and entered Harvard (Class of 1917). But is expelled in 1914, and decides to get a cotton mill job in Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada; then re-enter Harvard —but in 1915 he is expelled again. This time he goes to New York city and gets a grueling 12 hour a day job at the Armour meat packing company.

1916 began fuller's military career; entering a US military training camp in Plattsburg, NY as a corporal. A year later he joins the US Naval Reserve and marries [...] on his birthday. [Alexandra—first daughter born?] In 1918 he is assigned to a short special course at Annapolis, and a year later is temporarily assigned to the USS George Washington, then to another special course at Annapolis. Promoted to Lt. USN, he his assigned to the Atlantic war zone on troop transport duty as a personal aide for secret information to Admiral Albert Gleaves. He also saw service on the USS Great Northern and USS Seattle.

Fuller had direct experience with Naval prognostication — [...]— which shaped his thinking about the Universe. But on November 1, 1919 he resigns from the Navy when his Admiral is assigned to commander in chief of the [Asiatic fleet] and his daughter, Alexandra, gets sick.

The beginning of the 1920s saw Fuller again working for Armour and Company, but this time as an assistant export manager in their NYC headquarters. But in 1921 he resigns from Armour to become a national account sales manager with the Kelly-Springfield truck company in NYC.

The following year he resigns from Kelly-Springfield to start a career as an 'independent enterpriser' and joins his father-in-law [...] in developing stockade blocks (the Stockade Building System) and built light-weight, weatherproof, and fireproof houses. That year saw Alexandra die of complications from polio and spinal meningitis

Four years later, in 1926, after not making any money building houses, Fuller resigns as presidnet of Stockade.

1927 was a pivotal year for Fuller. His second daughter [...] had been born. But he was jobless, broke, and had no prospects for the future. At [32] he determined that his life was a failure, and contemplated suicide.

On the pier [which ny river] he nearly threw himself into the icy waters. But decided to embark on an unpresidented 'experiment' to see what one person could do to benefit mankind. And got serious about air-deliverable 'dwelling machines'.

He publishes his first book, 4-D, and founds a research and development company also called 4-D. He develops his energetic/synergetic geometry; invents a 'dymaxion' dwelling machine as part of his concept of air-deliverable, mass-producable houses based on anticipatory design science.

In 1929 Fuller spent time at Romany Marie's Tavern in Greenwich Village, eating dinner and discussing his ideas.

In 1930 Fuller goes to Philadelphia, sells his navy life insurance policy to finance the purchase of T-Square magazine and changes the name to Shelter. But two years later the magazine folds. The closing may have been a strategic move on Fuller's part, because Fortune magazine publishes on article on the housing industry, citing the Dymaxion dwelling machine as the prototype of a new mass production housing industry. But the expected increase in orders doesn't come.

Two years later [his mother] dies.

In 1936 Fuller moves back to NYC and is involved with experimental television broadcasts by CBS. Two years later he joins the staff of Fortune magazine as its science and technology consultant.

The 1940s saw Fuller come into his element as the 'invisible world' begins to emerge. [...] And he begins an informal relationship with the US government.

In 1940 Fuller leaves Fortune magazine and starts the deployment unit of the Butler Manufacturing Company in Kansas City. [Butler manufactured metal buildings used as radar shacks and dorms for US flyers and mechanics.]

Two years later Fuller joins the US Board of Economic Warfare as its head mechanical engineer in Wahington, DC. And in 1944 he becomes a special assistant to the Deputy Director of the US Foreign Economic Administration.

Until 1946 Fuller lived in Wichita, Kansas, where he, as chief design engineer, produced a prototype of the Dymaxion house under the auspices of a coalition of labor, private, and government organizations. Also in '46 Fuller is awarded the first catographic projection patent ever granted by the US Patent Office for his Dymaxion map of the world. [...]

The following year Fuller invents the geodesic dome (patented in 1954), the first building that could sustain its own weight with no practical limits; and becomes a professor at Black Mountain College in North Carolina. And in 1948 he returns to Massachusetts in a position at MIT, while teaching summer sessions at Black Mountain where he becomes a dean ('49). He also gets involved with the Chicago Institute of Design and a visiting lecturer at MIT.

The 1950s saw Fuller's teaching schedule begin to increase, his geometry begins to be recognized by the scientific community, and he recieves his first major award.

In 1950 his invited university appointments and lectures included MIT, North Carolina State University, and the University of Michigan. In 1951 Fuller points out the similarities between the DNA helix and his tetrahelix model.

After the geodesic dome is patented (in '54), the US Marines begin using the domes for airlifted housing. Meanwhile, the work of Thomas Malthus is discredited as [governments] acknowledge that Malthus was wrong ('55).

In 1956 Fuller begins a long-term relationship with Southern Illinois University -Carbondale, with his first visiting lecturer appointment. [...] Two years later, as he is making his first complete circuit of the Earth in the fulfillment of regular university appointments around the globe, Fuller's geometry is discovered to explain nature's fundamental structuring at the atomic and virus levels by nuclear physicists and molecular biologists. And he his awarded the Gold Medal, Scarab by the National Architectural Society.

And in 1959 he is appointed by the State Department to visit Russia (USSR) as a representative of engineering in a protocol exchange. His is also appointed as a research professor at SIU and is awarded an honorary Doctor of Arts degree.

By 1961 over 2,000 geodesic domes had been produced by over 100 industrial corporations, delivered prmarily by air and installed in 40 countries and in the north and south pole zones. He also finds a platfrom to propose initiating phase 1 of a Design Science Decade at [...].

In a strange twist of irony Fuller recieves a one-year ('62) appointment as the Charles Eliot Norton Professor of Poetry at Harvard. This begins the rehabilitation of Fuller's Harvard years.

1962 also began the Houston Astrodome debacal. [...]

In 1963 Fuller's formula of frequency [...] is leads to the finding of virus protein shells. He publishes four book; and begins involvement with Doxiadis' Delos Symposium as a member and speaker on the Design Science Decade. [...]

In 1965 Fuller inaugurated the World Design Science Decade (1965 to 1975) at the meeting of the International Union of Architects in Paris.

In 1966 he initiates the World Game at SIU; and lectures on spinoffs from space technology. [...]

In 1967, in the ultimate step toward rehabilitation, the Harvard Class of 1917 inducts Fuller into Phi Beta Kappa during their 50th reunion. Meanwhile, HUD commissions Fuller to research a tetrahedronal floating city project, as he fulfills an appointment as the Harvey Cushing Orator at the congress of the American Association of Neuro-Surgeons' annual meeting in Chicago. He explained the difference between the human brain and the mind to the 2,000 members of the organization.

In 1968, those who read Playboy magazine for the articles, read Fuller's article on The City of the Future.

The following year, Fuller led the first public World Game workshop in New York state; and testifies on the World Game before the US Senate Subcommittee on Intergovernmental Relations at the invitation of the Chairman, Sen. Edmund Muskie of Maine. Then Fuller went to India to lecture on planetary planning [...].

After being cited as Humanist of the Year, Fuller becomes the Hoyt Fellow at Yale, and recieves a Citation of Merit from HUD. And received a Sc.D. from Bates College.

Among all his other projects, Fuller was an amature historian who produced an interesting view of the past. In 1970 his view of pre-history was supported by archeological discoveries, and he was awarded a stone axe in recognition of this work. In the meantime, his book I Seem to be a Verb is published by Bantam, and is installed as Master Architect for Life by the national chapter of the Alpha Rho Chi fraternity.

In an unprecidented move, the New York Times prints Fuller's telegram to Senator Edmund Muskie; it fills the entire OpEd page, in 1971.

In 1972 the special 40th anniversary issue of Architectrual Forum, and England's Architectural Design magazines devote issues to Fuller's work; and Playboy interviews him.

Fuller continues to recieve an ever-increasing number of awards and honors.

During his 37th complete circuit of Earth, (in fulfillment of invitations and academic responsibilities), Fuller gives 150 major addresses during 1974. Meanwhile, the Club of Rome reintroduces the ideas of Thomas Malthus with their Limits to Growth report.

The following year Fuller publishes Synergetics. It is the result of his 50 years of work on nature's coordinate system. The book contains an introduction and article by Harvard mathematician Arthur Loeb.

While Synergetics is hitting the bookstores, Fuller is named Professor Emeritus at SIU and the University of Pennsylvania, makes his 39th circuit of Earth, and testifies before the US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations.

In 1976 Fuller creates the Jitterbug sculpure —representing fourth dimensional space [...]; testifies at the US House hearing on the recovery of the city, and speaks at Habitat: the UN conference on Human Settlements in Vancouver BC Canada.

In '77 Fuller was the first witness at the US Senate Select Committee on Small Business hearings on alternate energy, then leaves on a lecture tour sponsored by the State Department and the US Information Agency; and writes an article, 50 Years Ahead of My Time for the Saturday Evening Post.

In '78 he testifies before the US Senate Foreign Relations Committe and describes using satellites to take daily inventories of everything from world resources to world-wide public opinion polls. Then appears on Will Durant's NBC television series, Lessons of History.

The last year of the 70s found Fuller in NYC with EST founder Werner Erhart. They presented their views of the world at the Radio City Music Hall before 6,000 people. Erhart made the startling statement that he never considered principles to be important until he met Fuller.

Fuller made an equally startling statement, which reflected his live-long concern about the continued existence of the human race. He said: 'To be positive about the future you have to know a lot. To be negative about the future you don't have to know nothing.'

When asked by a reporter how could one learn what he knows, he simply answered: 'Read my books'.

Synergetics 2, containing collateral materials and an aplification of Synergetics, was published in 1979.

The last few years of his life demonstrated his dedication to the fate of mankind. In 1980 he traveled to Brazil to view the implementaiton of the industrialization strategies he first described in 1942 [...]; was appointed to a Presidential Commission to follow up the Carter-commissioned Global 2000 Report (which was based on the Limits to Growth report); and was appointed to a congressional committee on the future.

1980 also saw the issue of the Robert Grip-Christopher Kitrick edition of Fuller's Dymaxion sky-ocean world map; acknowledged as the largest, most accurate whole Earth map in history.


The final 1,000 days of his life saw the publication of Critical Path (1981) and Grunch of Giants (1983); his wife [...] in a coma, dying of cancer; his death on July 1, 1983 and [his wife's] a day and a half later. He is buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery near Boston, Massachusetts

2095 words

====

PHILOSOPHY/WORLD VIEW


--- Bucky's philosophy and world view are pretty simple. In order to avoid the obliteration of the human race each individual needs to know they have direct access to the generalized mind of God.

He begins with the entire universe and works his way to solutions to specific problems. This is how he approached every problem, including his struggle with suicide.

He didn't arrive at this strategy on his own, but it's not clear what was the result of his near-sightedness, his family's Unitarian Universalist religious influences, or his stint in the Navy. But it's clear that he didn't learn it at Harvard. But there is evidence of eastern influence (I-not I) and 'acceptance'. By the same token, there is evidence of 'doing one's own thinking' and individual initiative.

The essential part of his philosophy was finding the role of humans in the Universe. But first he had to define 'Universe'.

Simply stated, 'Universe' is everything a person can be aware of, which includes the expanding set of Generalized Principles which makes it possible for the Universe to be eternally regenerate itself. The next step is to disregard what is not relevant until only the pertinate elements remain. Then experiment with those until a precise solution presents itself.

In order to pursue this philosophy, an accurate definition of 'Universe' has to be developed; and then an accurate definition of 'man' had to be developed. Technically speaking, according to Fuller, the Universe is [...] and human beings are [...].

In informal terms, human beings are the children of God.

With these two definitions in mind, Fuller looked at history and the Phoenicians/Vikings/merchants of Venice popped-out. And from there a Grunch of Giants appeared. What also appeared was a long-term divide-and-conquer, us-against-them struggle which caused no end of trouble and which pushes mankind toward oblivion. He circumvents the issue of 'good and evil' in the same way St. Paul did when he asserted that all things are good, but not all things are expedient. [book/verse]

Without the irrelevancy of 'good and bad' a solution to the world's problems becomes apparent. Simply dissolve the sovereign nation-states of the planet. And through Design Science usher in an age of success for all mankind.

An important part of Fuller's world view is time. For example, he notes that there is a 50 year gestation rate between new technology (used by the military) and the time the technology comes into wide-spread usage. He found that different [industries] had different gestation rates.

Although he didn't 'predict' the exact time of the establishment of the 'one world family' he believed it was not only inevitable, but essential to the sucess of mankind as a species. He laid the framework for the 'family' by clarifying the nature of America, and human beings on the planet.

He first describes human beings as being the same, except for cultural differences and skin color brought about by local climate differences. And notes that in America the different ethnic groups freely intermingle, obliterating differences long-thought to be unique racial characteristics. Such a process eliminates the 'need' for an us-or-them mindset.

At the same time this is occuring, humanity as a whole is producing new technologies at an ever-increasing rate based on the 'syntropic' nature of accumulated and widely-disseminated experience-based know-how. The anti-entropy nature of knowledge is 'synergetic' —producing unexpected beneficial results which were unpredictable based on what came before them. [the internet is a prime example of this synergetic process.]

Unfortunately a majority of this knowlege is monopolized by the Grunch for personal enrichment at the expense of all people everywhere. But, unbeknownst to the Grunch, as it goes about it's business, it is unwittingly serving mankind. [...] It will 'soon' realize that it is in its best interests to increase and improve its services to mankind.

And that occurs as more and more people begin to understand how the Universe works, and master [precession —riding the wave of change as a surfer rides an ocean wave; staying just ahead of change by anticipating the coming changes ].

One of the best ways of apprehending precession is to become familiar with 'ephemeralization' —the process of not only doing more and more with less and less, but the process of something basic and physical becoming more and more infused with the 'metaphysical'. This results in using fewer and fewer resources to produce a better and better product.

The 'metaphysical' element is intellect —accumulated know-how passed from person to person, being improved at each stop along the way. Fuller seems to suggest that this process of metaphysical ephemeralization will eventually lead to everybody knowing everything all the time; perhaps even doing everything with nothing.

Fortunately, Fuller documented everything he did, and made note of the increasing rate of ephemeralization in society. Afterall, in 1895 not many people had traveled around the globe, but here was someone who had made numerous trips in order to discuss ideas —his life was an example of ephemeralization. How did he achive this?

He learned to read patterns, came to his own conclusions about what he was seeing, and took it upon himself to do what he, starting by himself, could do in service to mankind.


As a result of his near-sightedness, during his first few years he only saw large patterns. And after he got glasses and some schooling, he realized that nature's way of doing things was different than man's way of doing things. His first direct experience with looking at nature, comparing what he saw with what he had been told, and thinking about the difference came while watching bubbles and thinking about spheres. He realized that nature doesn't use Pi to create spheres. And he sought an understanding of how nature produces shapes.

But, first-things-first. Before he could begin re-organizing Spaceship Earth's administrative system he had to know what came before his birth. He began by documenting his life, paralleling [...'s] dictum about the unexamined life not being worth living. His chronofile contained the events of his life along side significant events in his time. He also documented scientific discoveries beginning with the first conscious isolation of something used in an industrial process: arsenic in 750C.E. This continuous inventory of discoveries, combined with an inventory of his personal experiences provided insights into what was possible for someone with similar experiences.

This began his [evolution] into the metaphysical realm. With that step came an understanding that the most rational activity for a person was to commit himself to the cosmic success of all humanity. But he also realized that it is much easier to change the environment than to change people; and that an improved environment would bring about spontaneous changes in people.

From this perspective, the most pressing need of mankind is housing. And given the then-current level of social development, housing could be mass-produced and quickly distributed. Hence low-cost air-deliverable Dymaxion dwelling machines produced through Anticipatory Design Science.

Given the right circumstances, mankind's industrial focus could shift from the production of weaponry to the production of 'livingry'. But people would have to give up the historical us-against-them struggle and work together.

To demonstrate what would happen when universal brotherhood and love for all mankind became the norm, Fuller created the World Game. Using current technologies synergetically, participants get to figure out how to solve the life problems of mankind.

One of the most pressing needs [employment] how to earn a living. Obviously Fuller didn't have a clue to finding employment. So he employed himself, testing out his theories of how the Universe works. He figured that if the Universe has any integrity at all, it would support his efforts as he moved in the direction of making mankind a success.

Taking into account all the life-support the Universe provides, which enables mankind to be successful, people shouldn't have to 'work' to earn a living. Instead, everyone could become scientist-artists, and enjoy a high standard of living based on their metaphysical activities.

Of course he realized that most people would just go fishing, but even some of those would generate enough breakthroughs to improve the lives of everyone on the planet.

Fuller defined 'wealth' as the "technological ability to protect, nurture, support, and accommodate all growth needs of life", and he realized that in the 1970s mankind had become unbelievably wealthy.

At the turn of the century (2000) it is still difficult to believe his statement, but that's because the vast majority of that wealth is invisible to the naked eye, and is only apprehendable by the mind.

But this new era for mankind requires a global electrical grid to effectively channel the surplus electricity to places which need it. Of course this requires producing electricity by every means possible and feeding it into the grid. Among other means of production, the Sun showers the planet, 24 hours a day, with more than enough energy to satisfy the grid. But that requires unprecidented international cooperation, or the dissolution of the nation-state.

In any case, Fuller has fulfilled the role of grand architect for life by dividing the universe into physical and metaphysical; apprehending the relationship between the two; and applied the generalized universal principles to daily life for the benefit of all mankind.


========

LEGACY FROM GRUNCH

"I was convinced that within the twentieth century, all of humanity on our planet would enter a period of total crisis. I could see that there was an alternative to politics and its ever more wasteful, warring, and inherently vain attempts to solve one-sidedly all humanity's basic economic and social problems.

That alternative was through invention, development, and reduction to the physically working stages of massproduction prototypes of each member of a complete family of intercomplementary artifacts, structurally, mechanically, chemically, metallurgically, electromagnetically, and cybernetically designed to provide so much performance per each erg of energy, pound of material, and second of time invested as to make it eminently feasible and practicable to provide a sustainable standard of living for all humanity — more advanced, pleasing, and increasingly productive than any ever experienced or dreamed of by anyone in all history. It was clear that this advanced level could be entirely sustained by the many derivatives of our daily income of Sun energy. It was clear that it could be attained and maintained by artifacts that would emancipate humans from piped, wired, and metered exploitation of the many by the few.

This family of artifacts leading to such comprehensive human success I identified as livingry in contradistinction to politics' weaponry. I called it technologically reforming the environment instead of trying politically to reform the people. (I explain that concept in great detail in the latter part of this book. I also elucidated it in my book Critical Path, published in 1981 by St. Martin's Press.)

Equally important, I set about fifty-five years ago (1927) to see what a penniless, unknown human individual with a dependent wife and newborn child might be able to do effectively on behalf of all humanity in realistically developing such an alternative program. Being human, I made all the mistakes there were to be made, but I learned to learn by realistic recognition of the constituent facts of the mistake-making and attempted to understand what the uncovered truths were trying to teach me.

In my (Philadelphia) archives there are approximately forty thousand articles published during the last sixty years which successively document my progressive completions of the whole intercomplementary family of scheduled artifacts."

It's impossible to do justice to Fuller in a short article, (Everything I Know is 42 hours of videotape available online). For a much more detailed view of Fuller's contribution to humanity visit the Buckminster Fuller Institute in New York.

UNIFICATION ASPECTS

[tentative areas include: merit of the age original ideal God's point of view


Concepts and buildings

His concepts and buildings include:

  • Dymaxion house (1928) See autonomous building
  • Aerodynamic Dymaxion car (1933)
  • Prefabricated compact bathroom cell (1937)
  • Dymaxion Map of the world (1946)
  • Buildings (1943)
  • Tensegrity structures (1949)
  • Geodesic dome for Ford Motor Company (1953)
  • Patent on geodesic domes (1954)
  • The World Game (1961) and the World Game Institute (1972)
  • Patent on octet truss (1961)

Literature

His publications include:

See also

  • Whole Earth Catalog
  • Margaret Fuller: Noted transcendentalist and Buckminster Fuller's great aunt.

External links

Wikiquote-logo-en.png
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:

Audio and video

bs:Buckminster Fuller ca:Buckminster Fuller cs:Buckminster Fuller da:Buckminster Fuller de:Buckminster Fuller es:Richard Buckminster Fuller eo:Buckminster Fuller fr:Richard Buckminster Fuller he:בקמינסטר פולר id:Buckminster Fuller it:Buckminster Fuller nl:Richard Buckminster Fuller ja:バックミンスター・フラー nds:Buckminster Fuller pl:Buckminster Fuller pt:Buckminster Fuller ru:Фуллер, Ричард Бакминстер sco:Buckminster Fuller simple:Buckminster Fuller fi:Buckminster Fuller sv:Buckminster Fuller vi:Buckminster Fuller uk:Фуллер Річард Бакмінстер zh:巴克敏斯特·富勒

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Buckminster_Fuller&oldid=117710

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki