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| − | {{Infobox Military Conflict
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| − | |conflict=Battle of Marathon
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| − | |partof=the [[Greco-Persian Wars]]
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| − | |image=[[Image:ac.marathon.jpg|300px]]|caption=The plain of Marathon today.
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| − | |date=September, 490 B.C.E.
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| − | |place=[[Marathon, Greece]]
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| − | |result=[[History of Athens#Classical Athens|Athenian]] victory
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| − | |combatant1=[[History of Athens#Classical Athens|Athens]],<br/> [[Plataea]]
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| − | |combatant2=[[Persian Empire|Persia]]
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| − | |commander1=[[Miltiades]],<br/>[[Callimachus (polemarch)|Callimachus]]{{KIA}},<br/>[[Arimnestus]]
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| − | |commander2=[[Datis]]{{KIA}}?,<br/> [[Artaphernes]]
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| − | |strength1=10,000 Athenians,<br/>1,000 Plataeans
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| − | |strength2=20,000 - 100,000 <sup>a</sup>
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| − | |casualties1=192 Athenians killed,<br/>11 Plataeans killed (Herodotus)
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| − | |casualties2=6,400 killed,<br/>7 ships captured (Herodotus)
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| − | |notes=<sup>a</sup> These are modern consensus estimates. Ancient sources give numbers ranging from 200,000 to 600,000, though these numbers cannot be taken as accurate due to ancient historians often exaggerating Persian numbers.
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| − | }}
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| − | {{Campaignbox Greco-Persian Wars}}
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| − | The '''Battle of [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]]''', [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Μάχη {{Unicode|τοῡ}} {{Unicode|Μαραθῶνος}}'' (Mache tou Marathonos), took place in 490 B.C.E. and was the culmination of King [[Darius I of Persia]]'s first full scale attempt to conquer the remainder of [[Greece]] and incorporate it into the [[Persian Empire]], to secure the weakest portion of his western border. Most of what is known of this battle comes from [[Herodotus]].
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| − | Darius first sent [[Mardonius]], in 492 B.C.E., via a land route to Europe to strengthen Persia's hold of [[Thrace]] and [[Macedon]], which had been weakened by the [[Ionian Revolt]]. Although successful, most of this force perished in a storm off [[Mount Athos]], and the remainder was forced to return to Asia, losing men along the way.<ref>Herodotus VI.43.</ref> In 490 B.C.E., [[Datis]] and [[Artaphernes]] were sent in a maritime operation to subjugate the [[Cyclades]] islands in the central [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] and punish [[Eretria]] and [[Athens]] for their assistance in the Ionian revolt. Eretria was besieged and fell; then the fleet landed in Marathon bay. There they were defeated by a small force of Athenian and [[Plataea]]n [[hoplite]]s, despite their numerical advantage. The long run of the messenger who conveyed news of the victory to Athens became the inspiration for the [[marathon race]], which was first staged at the [[1896 Olympic Games]].
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| − | ==Historical sources==
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| − | The main historical source of the battle comes from [[Herodotus]], who describes the events in Book VI, paragraphs 102–117. However, he was born a few years after the battle, and it is believed he wrote his book after the [[Peace of Callias]] (449 B.C.E./448 B.C.E.). All other extant important historical sources come from later times. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] gives important information about the final phase of the battle (the chase); the [[10th century AD]] [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[Suda]] dictionary preserves information from sources now lost, such as [[Ephorus]], whose surviving fragments provide an important account.
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| − | ==Background==
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| − | In 511 B.C.E., with the aid of [[Cleomenes I]], King of Sparta, the Athenian people expelled Hippias, the [[tyrant]] ruler of [[Athens]].<ref>Herodotus V.65.</ref> With Hippias' father [[Peisistratos (Athens)|Peisistratus]], the family had ruled for 36<ref>Herodotus V.65.</ref> out of the previous 50 years and intended to continue Hippias' rule. Hippias fled to [[Sardis]] to the court of the nearest Persian [[satrap]], [[Artaphernes]], and promised control of Athens to the Persians if they were to restore him. When the Athenians demanded he be expelled, the satrap suggested that they ought to restore him to power. This answer moved Athens to consider herself at war with the Persians, and they gave assistance, in the form of 20 boats, to the Ionian cities embroiled in the [[Ionian Revolt]] (499 B.C.E.–494 B.C.E.).<ref>Herodotus V.96.</ref> Hippias had probably fled to the court of king [[Darius]] during the revolt.
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| − | The city of Eretria had also given assistance to the Ionians. Though the assistance sent by the two cities was not very effective, it alarmed Darius and he wished to punish the two cities. In 492 B.C.E., he dispatched an army under the command of his son-in-law, [[Mardonius]], to Greece. Mardonius conquered [[Thrace]] and thus compelled [[Alexander I of Macedon]] to relinquish his kingdom again to Persia. However, while en route south to the Greek city-states, the Persian fleet was wrecked in a storm in [[Mount Athos|Cape Athos]], losing 300 ships and 20,000 men. Mardonius was forced to retreat to Asia. Attacks by Thracian tribes inflicted losses on the retreating army.<ref>Herodotus V.43-45.</ref>
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| − | Darius learned, perhaps through Hippias, the [[Alcmaeonidae]], a powerful Athenian family, were opposed to [[Miltiades the Younger|Miltiades]], who at the time was the most prominent politician of Athens. While they were not ready to help reinstate Hippias (they had helped overthrow him),<ref>Herodotus VI.121.</ref> they probably believed a Persian victory was inevitable and wanted to secure a better position in the new political regime that was to follow the Persian conquest of Athens.<ref>Herodotus, ''Book VI'', trans. by Gabriel Syntomoro (Athens: Zitros, 2005), introduction.</ref> Darius wished to take advantage of this situation to conquer Athens, which would isolate Sparta and, by handing him the remainder of the Greeks in the Aegean, would consolidate his control over Ionia. In order for the Athenians to revolt, two things would need to happen: the populace would need to be encouraged to revolt, and the Athenian army would have to leave Athens so that they could not crush it.
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| − | Darius decided to send a purely maritime expedition led by [[Artaphernes]], son of the satrap to whom Hippias had fled and [[Datis]], a [[Medes|Median]] admiral—Mardonius had been injured in the prior campaign and had fallen out of favor—with the intention to punish [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]] (whose resistance to Persian attack in 499 B.C.E. led to the Ionian revolt) and force Eretria and Athens to submit to the Great King or be destroyed.<ref>Herodotus VI.94.</ref>
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| − | ==Size of opposing forces==
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| − | [[Image:Greek_Phalanx.jpg|right|thumb|330px|Modern drawing of a [[Phalanx formation|phalanx]]. The [[hoplite]]s, except for the Spartans, were not actually as uniformly equipped as depicted because each [[soldier]] would buy his own [[weapon|arms]] and decorate them at his discretion.]]
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| − | According to Herodotus, the fleet sent by Darius consisted of 600 [[triremes]],<ref>Herodotus VI.95.</ref> whereas, according to Cornelius Nepos, there were only 500.<ref>Cornelius Nepos, ''Miltiades'' IV.</ref>
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| − | The historical sources do not reveal how many transport ships accompanied them, if any. According to Herodotus, 3,000 transport ships accompanied 1,207 ships during Xerxes' invasion in 480 B.C.E.<ref>Herodotus VII.97.</ref> [[Stecchini]] estimates the whole fleet comprised 600 ships altogether: 300 triremes and 300 transports;<ref name=Iranchamber>Livio C. Stecchini, ''Iran Chamber Society: History of Iran'', [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/persian_wars4.php The Persian Wars] Retrieved October 15, 2007.</ref> while Peter Green<ref name=Green>Peter Green, ''The Greco-Persian Wars''(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California, 1996), 90.</ref> says there were 200 triremes and 400 transports. Ten years earlier, 200 triremes failed to subdue Naxos,<ref>Herodotus V.31.</ref> so a 200 or 300 trireme fleet is perhaps inadequate for all three objectives.
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| − | Herodotus does not estimate the size of either army. Of the Persian army, he says they were a ''large infantry that was well packed''.<ref>Herodotus, VI.par.94.</ref> Among ancient sources, the poet [[Simonides of Ceos|Simonides]], another near-contemporary, says the campaign force numbered 200,000; while a later writer, the Roman [[Cornelius Nepos]] estimates 200,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, of which only 100,000 fought in the battle, while the rest were loaded into the fleet that was rounding Cape Sounion;<ref>Nero, ''Miltiades'' IV.</ref> [[Plutarch]]<ref>Plutarch, ''Ethics'' 305b.</ref> and [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]]<ref>Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' 4.22.5.</ref> both independently give 300,000, as does the [[Suda]] dictionary;<ref>s.v. Hippias</ref> [[Plato]]<ref>Plato, ''Menexenus'' 240A.</ref> and [[Lysias]] assert 500,000;<ref>Funeral Oration, 21.</ref> and [[Justinus]] 600,000.<ref>Marcus Junianus Justinus, ''Historiarum Philippicarum'' II.9.</ref>
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| − | Modern historians have also made various estimates. As Kampouris has noted,<ref name="K">Dr. Manousos Kampouris, "Η Μάχη του Μαραθώνα, το λυκαυγές της κλασσικής Ελλ (άδος The battle of Marathon, the dawn of classical Greece)," ''Πόλεμος και ιστορίαand (War History magazine)'', January 2000, Communications editions.</ref> if the 600 ships were warships and not transport ships, with 30 '' epibates '' soldiers in each ship—the ships' foot soldiers that formed and defended from boarding parties during the sea battles—(typical for Persian ships after the [[Battle of Lade]]; this was how many they had during [[Xerxes]]' invasion), the number 18,000 is attained for the troops. But since the fleet did have transport ships, it must have at least carried the Persian cavalry. Whereas Herodotus claims the cavalry was carried in the triremes, the Persian fleet had dedicated ships for this undertaking, and according to [[Ephorus]], 800 transports accompanied Xerxes' invasion fleet 10 years later. Estimates for the cavalry are usually in the 1,000–3,000 range,<ref name="IEE">Damascius, vol. Β, ''Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους (History of the Greek nation)'', Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon Publications, 1971.</ref> though as noted earlier Cornelius Nepos gives 10,000.
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| − | [[Image:BeachedShipsMarathon.jpg|thumb|330px|A reconstruction of beached Persian ships at Marathon prior to the battle.]]
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| − | Other modern historians have proposed other numbers for the infantry. Bengtson<ref>Hermann Bengtson, ''Griechische Geschichte (Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft III, 4)'', (Münich: C.H. Beck, 1960).</ref> estimates there were no more than 20,000 Persians; Paul K. Davis<ref>Paul K. Davis, ''100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present'', (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 1999).</ref> estimates there were 20,000 Persians; Martijn Moerbeek<ref>Martijn Moerbeek, ''Hellas:Net - Warfare'', [http://monolith.dnsalias.org/~marsares/warfare/battle/issus.html The battle of Issus, 333 B.C.E.] Retrieved October 15, 2007.</ref> estimates there were 25,000 Persians; How & Wells estimate 40,000 Persians landed in Marathon; Busolt<ref>Griechichse, Busolt D. ''Bis zur Begründung des Peloponnesischen Bundes'', vol. 1, ''Geschichte bis zur Schlacht bei Chaeroneia'' (Gotha: Friedrich Andreas Perthes, 1893).</ref> and [[Gustave Glotz|Glotz]]<ref> [[Gustave Glotz]],Pierre Roussel, and Richard Cohen, ''Alexandre et l'Hellénisation du Monde Antique'', vol. 4, ''Histoire Grecque'' (Paris:Presses Universitaires de France, 1938).</ref> talk of 50,000 battle troops; Stecchini estimates there to have been 60,000 Persian soldiers in Marathon;<ref name=Iranchamber/> Kleanthis Sandayiosis talks of 60,000 to 100,000 Persian soldiers;<ref>"Η Μάχη του Μαραθώνα (The battle of Marathon)," ''Istorikes selides magazine'' October 2006.</ref> while Peter Green<ref name=Green/> talks of 80,000 including the rowers; and Christian Meier<ref>Dr. Christian Meier, ''Athen. Ein Neubeginn der Weltgeschichte'' (Berlin: Siedler-Verlag, 1993), 242.</ref> talks of 90,000 battle troops. Scholars estimating relatively small numbers for Persian troops argue that the army could not be very big in order to fit in the ships. The counterargument of scholars who claim large numbers is that if the Persian army was small, then the Eretrians combined with the Athenians and Plateans could match it, and possibly have sought battle outside Eretria. Naxos alone could field "8,000 shields" in 500 B.C.E.<ref>Herodotus IV.30.</ref> and with this force successfully defended against the 200-ship Persian invasion 10 years earlier.
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| − | The size of the Athenian army is another subject of debate. Some recent historians have given around 7,000–8,000,<ref>Lex. Hist. Staetten s.v. Marathon 48</ref> while others favor 10,000. Pausanias asserts it did not surpass 9,000,<ref>Pausanias 10.20.2.</ref> while Justinus<ref>Justinus II.9.</ref> and Cornelius Nepos<ref>Nepos, ''Miltiades'' V.</ref> both give 10,000 as the number of the Athenians. Herodotus tells us that at the [[battle of Plataea]] eleven years later the Athenians sent 8,000 hoplites while others were at the same time engaged as ''epibates'' in the fleet that later fought at the [[battle of Mycale]]. Pausanias noticed in the trophy of the battle the names of former [[slavery|slaves]] who were freed in exchange for military services.<ref>Pausanias 1.32.3</ref> Also, it is possible that [[metics]], non-Athenian Greeks residing in Athens, were drafted since they had military obligations to Athens in times of great emergency (for example in 460 B.C.E.). However, for Marathon, this is not mentioned by any surviving source, and their number in Athens was not as significant in 490 B.C.E. as it became later in the century when Athens became head of the [[Delian League]].
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| − | Athens at that time could have fielded at least four times the force it did had it also chosen to send light troops consisting of the lower classes, for ten years later at the [[Battle of Salamis]] it had a 180 trireme fleet<ref>Herodotus VIII.42.</ref> that was manned by 32,000 rowers, and had lost some 60 ships earlier in the [[Battle of Artemisium]].<ref>Herodotus VIII.18.</ref> Why this did not happen has been subject to speculation. Kampouris,<ref name="K"/> among others, notes that the political leanings of the lower classes were unreliable. After the Ionic revolt had shown the general unreliability of tyrants to the Persian empire, Artaphernes, in 494 B.C.E., had changed the regime of the Ionian city-states from tyranny to democracy, thus setting an example that was later copied, among others, by the [[Second Athenian Alliance]] and [[Alexander the Great]]. There the power rested on the poor with the Persian army in place to rein in any move that threatened Persia's position. Some of the poor who remembered [[Peisistratos (Athens)|Peisistratus]] well, since he had given them jobs, probably hoped for a victory of the Persians and a change in regime to give them more power, which is one of the reasons Hippias ordered the landing in Marathon where the vast majority of local inhabitants were from these social classes. On the other hand, the Persian army hoped for an internal revolution in Athens so as to have an easy victory as in Eretria.
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| − | ==Datis and Artaphernes' campaign before Marathon==
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| − | After one year of preparations, the expeditionary force first gathered on [[Cilicia]] in the spring of 490 B.C.E. The army boarded the Persian transports, escorted by the fleet, sailed to [[Samos Island|Samos]] and from there to the [[island]] of [[Naxos Island|Naxos]]. After a fruitless campaign there (the Naxians fled to the mountains of their island and the Persians became masters of a deserted city),<ref>Herodotus VI,96</ref> it sailed at first across the [[Cyclades]] islands and then for [[Carystus]] on the south coast of [[Euboea]], which quickly surrendered.<ref>Herodotus VI.99.</ref> From there, they sailed up the Euboean channel to Eretria where their aims became clear to the Greeks.
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| − | The Eretrians sent an urgent message to Athens for help. The Athenians agreed, but realized they needed more help.<ref>Herodotus VI,100</ref> They sent the courier [[Pheidippides]] to the Spartans and probably messengers to other cities. Pheidippides arrived in Sparta on the next day, the ninth of the month. According to Herodotus, the Spartans agreed to help, but being superstitious, said that they could not march to war until the Carneian festival ended on the full moon (September 9). Some modern historians hold that the Spartans set out late because of a [[helots|helot]] revolution, and claim this was the time of a revolution mentioned by Plato.<ref>Plato, ''Laws'' III.6923.D, III.698.E.</ref>
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| − | The only ones to stand by the Athenians in the battle were the [[Plataea]]ns. The small [[Boeotia]]n city of Plataea had allied itself with Athens in the [[sixth century B.C.E.]] against [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and decided to repay the help by coming to assist the Athenians in their time of need, just as the Athenians had come to their need earlier.<ref>Herodotus VI.108.</ref> Their forces numbered, according to Cornelius Nepos, 1,000 hoplites<ref>Miltiades V</ref> and they were led by [[Arimnestus]].<ref>Pausanias 9.4.2</ref> The Athenian-Plataean alliance was to continue until the end of Greek independence to the Romans, in the [[second century B.C.E.]].
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| − | As to what the course of the Persian fleet was after Carystos, there is disagreement among modern historians. Some claim that Artaphernes took part of the Persian army and laid siege to Eretria, while the remainder of the army crossed with Datis and landed in the [[Bay of Marathon]]. Others claim that the events happened consecutively: at first Eretria was besieged and fell, and later the whole army landed at [[Schinias beach]]. According to Herodotus the location was chosen by Hippias because it was the most convenient location for the Persian cavalry.<ref>Herodotus VI.102.</ref> Modern historians agree that this is false since the location is described by a [[scholium]] as being:
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| − | :''rugged, unsuitable for horses, full of mud, swamps and lakes''<ref>Scholium, ''to Plato Menexenus'' 240c.</ref>
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| − | The location was probably chosen because Hippias had many sympathizers there, being a relatively poor region of Athens.
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| − | Herodotus reports that there was a council of the 10 tribal [[strategos|Strategoi]], with five voting for moving to confront the enemy and five voting against it.<ref>Herodotus VI.109.</ref> [[Callimachus (polemarch)|Callimachus]] was the [[polemarch]] in that year, one of the nine [[archons]] or leaders of Athens. Until a few years earlier, power in Athens resided in the nine archons who at the time were elected. There was a constitutional change though a few years earlier and the archons were chosen by lot, thus turning the polemarch's leadership into a symbolic power. Due to the deadlock, it was decided by the elected tribal generals to ask for his opinion. After a very dramatic appeal by [[Miltiades the Younger|Miltiades]], he cast the deciding vote in favor of attack. Thus, an Athenian army made of [[hoplite]]s (numbering probably 10,000) under the polemarch, marched to the north and east from Athens to meet the enemy near the landing site.<ref>Herodotus VI.110.</ref>
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| − | The army encamped near the [[shrine of Heracles]], where they blocked the way to Athens in an easily defensible position.<ref>Herodotus VI.108.</ref> The position also permitted intervention in Athens, had any revolution taken place. The Plataeans joined them there. The army was composed of men from the aristocracy—the upper and upper-middle classes—since armament in ancient Greece was the responsibility of the individual and not of the state (even in Sparta), so men armed themselves for battle with whatever they could afford. Before [[Ephialtes]]' constitutional reforms in 457 B.C.E., most power rested on these social classes since many positions of significant political power in the regime were reserved for those who had significant property.<ref>Aristotle, ''Athenian Constitution'' 26.</ref> Had the Athenian hoplites lost this particular conflict the survivors could expect to live in Athens having significantly lower political power and social status. Thus it is very understandable that they were strongly motivated to win the battle or die in the effort.
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| − | ==Before the battle==
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| − | [[Image:Attica map.jpg|right|thumb|400px|]]
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| − | For five days, the armies peacefully confronted each other, hoping for developments, with the Athenian army slowly narrowing the distance between the two camps, with pikes cut from trees covering their sides against cavalry movements.<ref>Nepos, ''Miltiades'' VI.</ref> Since time worked in favor of the Athenians, it probably was the Persian army that decided to move. On the sixth day, when [[Miltiades the Younger|Miltiades]] was the ''prytanevon'' general, a rather bureaucratic rank consistent with the duty officer of modern armies—either September 12 or possibly August 12, 490 B.C.E. reckoned in the [[proleptic Julian calendar]]—Artaphernes decided to move and attack Athens. The Athenians came to know from two Ionian defectors that the Persian cavalry was gone. Where and why, along with the Persian battle plan, has been a matter of debate.<ref>Michael Lee Lanning, ''The Battle 100: The Stories Behind Historr's Most Influential Battles''(Naperville: Sourcebooks, 2003), 96.</ref> Several historians have supposed that this was either because the cavalry had boarded the ships, that it was inside the camp since it could not stay in the field during the night,<ref name="IEE"/> or because it was moving along with the whole army among the northern route to reach the walls of Athens.<ref name="K"/> It should be noted that Herodotus does not mention that the army was boarding the ships. Some light is given by the "χωρίς ἰππεῖς (without cavalry)" entry of the Suda dictionary. It states: "The cavalry left. When Datis surrendered and was ready for retreat, the Ionians climbed the trees and gave the Athenians the signal that the cavalry had left. And when Miltiades realized that, he attacked and thus won. From there comes the above-mentioned quote, which is used when someone breaks ranks before battle."
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| − | According to Herodotus, by that point the generals had decided to give up their rotating leadership as ''prytanevon'' generals in favor of [[Miltiades the Younger|Miltiades]]. He chose the day his tribe was leading, for the attack, perhaps because he wanted to bear the full responsibility for the battle. He decided to move against the Persians very early in that morning. He ordered two tribes that were forming the center of the Greek formation, the Leontis tribe led by [[Themistocles]] and the Antiochis tribe that was led by [[Aristides]],<ref>Plutarch, ''Aristeides'' 5.</ref> to be arranged in the depth of 4 ranks while the rest of the tribes in the sides were in 8 men ranks. The distance between the two armies had narrowed to ''a distance not less than 8 stadia'' or about 1,500 meters, which they covered running shouting their war cry, "Ελελευ! Ελελευ!" (Eleleu,Eleleu), much to the surprise on the Persians who ''in their minds they charged the Athenians with madness which must be fatal, seeing that they were few and yet were pressing forwards at a run, having neither cavalry nor archers''.<ref>Herodotus VI,110</ref> It is also a matter of debate whether the Greek army ran the whole distance or marched until they reached the limit of the archers' effectiveness, the "beaten zone," or roughly 200 meters, and then ran towards the ranks of their enemy. Proponents of the latter opinion note that it is very hard to run that large a distance carrying the heavy weight of the hoplitic armor, estimated at 32 kilograms.<ref>Nikos Giannopoulos, "Μαραθώνας 490 πΧ (Marathon 490 B.C.E.)," ''Στρατιωτική Ιστορία, Μεγάλες Μάχες, Μαραθώνας 490 π.Χ (Military history, Great Battles, Marathon 490 B.C.E.)'', March 2006, Periskopio editions, 42.</ref> Proponents of the former opinion note the following arguments: the ancient Greeks—as indicated by the surviving statues—were in very good physical condition (the hoplite run had recently become an [[Olympic sport]]), and if they had run the entire distance, it would have been covered in about 5 minutes, whereas if they had marched, it would have probably taken 10, enough time for the Persians to react, which they did not.
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| − | ==Composition and formation of Persian forces==
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| − | [[Image:Archers frieze Darius palace Louvre AOD487.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Immortal lancers, detail from the archers' frieze in Darius' palace, Susa. Silicious glazed bricks, c. 510 B.C.E. [[Louvre]]]]
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| − | The bulk of Persian infantry were probably [[Takabara]] lightly armed [[archery|archer]]s. Several lines of evidence support this. First of all, Herodotus does not mention a shield wall in Marathon, that was typical of the heavier [[Sparabara]] formation, as he specifically mentions in the [[Battle of Plataea]] and the [[Battle of Mycale]]. Also, in the depiction of the Battle of Marathon in the [[Stoa]] that was dedicated a few years later in 460 B.C.E. when most veterans of the war were still alive, that is described by Pausanias, only Takabara infantry are depicted.<ref> Garoufalis N. Demetrios, "Η Μάχη του Μαραθώνα, Η δόξα της οπλιτικής φάλαγγας (The battle of Marathon, the glory of the hoplitic phalanx)." Στρατιωτική Ιστορία (Military History magazine), September 1997, Perisopio editions.</ref> Finally, it seems more likely that the Persians would have sent the more multipurpose Takabara soldiers for a maritime operation than the specialized Sparabara heavy (by Persian standards) infantry.<ref name="K"/> The Takabara troops carried a small woven shield, probably incapable of withstanding heavy blows from the long spears of the hoplites. The usual tactic of the Persian army was for the archers to shoot volleys of [[arrows]] to weaken and disorganize their enemy, then their excellent cavalry moved in to deliver the [[coup de grace]]. On the other hand, the '' Ασπις '' ([[aspis]]), the heavy shield of the hoplites, was capable of protecting the man who was carrying it (or more usually the man on his left) from both the arrows and the spears of its enemies. The Persians were also at a severe disadvantage due to the size of their weapons. Hoplites carried much longer spears than their Persian enemies, extending their reach as well as protecting them.<ref>Thomas R. Martin, ''Ancient Greece from prehistoric to Hellenistic times'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000). </ref> Persian armies would usually have elite Iranian troops in the center and less reliable soldiers from subject peoples on the sides of the formation. It is confirmed by Herodotus that this is how the Persian army was arrayed in the battlefield.<ref>Herodotus VI.113.</ref>
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| − | During the Ionian revolt, the phalanx was seriously weakened by the arrows of the Persian archers before it reached hand to hand combat with them—where it excelled—because it moved slowly in order to maintain formation. This is why Miltiades, who had great experience with the Persian army since he was forced to follow it during its campaign in [[Scythia]] in 513 B.C.E., ordered his army to run.<ref name="K"/> This could have meant that they could end up fighting in disordered ranks. Herodotus, however, mentions in the description of the battle that the retreat of the center happened in order, meaning that the formation was not broken during the initial rush. This is supported by the fact that there were few casualties in that phase of the battle. The Greek center was reduced to four ranks, from the normal eight. The wings maintained their eight ranks. If Miltiades only wanted to extend the line and prevent the Persian line from overlapping the Greeks, he would have weakened, uniformly, the whole army so as not to leave weak points. But Herodotus categorically states that it was a conscious decision to strengthen the sides<ref>Herodotus VI.111.</ref> probably in order to have a strong force to defeat the weaker-in-quality Persian sides.
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| − | [[Image:Battle of Marathon Initial Situation.png|thumb|300px|left|The initial positions of the troops before the clash. The Greeks (blue) have pulled up their wings to bolster the corners of their significantly smaller centre in a <nowiki>]]</nowiki> shape. The Persian fleet (red) waits some way off to the east. This great distance to the ships played a crucial role in the later stages of the battle.]]
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| − | The front of the Greek army numbered 250 × 2 (for the center tribes) plus 125 × 9 (for the side tribes and the Plateans) = 1,625 men. If the Persians had the same density as the Greeks and were 10 ranks strong then the Persian army opposing the Greeks numbered 16,000. men<ref name="K"/> But if the front had a gap of 1.4 meters between soldiers compared to 1 meters for every Greek and had a density of 40 to 50 ranks as seems to be the maximum possible for the plain—the Persian army had even fought in 110 ranks—then the Persian army numbered 44,000 to 55,000.<ref name="IEE"/> If the Persian front numbered 2,000 men and they fought in 30 ranks (as [[Xenophon]] in ''[[Cyropaedia]]'' claims) they numbered 60,000. Kampouris<ref name="K"/> suggests it numbered 60,000 since that was the standard size of a major Persian formation.
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| − |
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| − | == The enemies engage in hand to hand combat ==
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| − | [[Image:Battle of Marathon Greek Double Envelopment.png|thumb|300px|right|The Greek wings (blue) envelop the Persian wings (red) while their strategically-thinned centre filled the gap made between them.]]
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| − | As the Greeks advanced, their strong wings drew ahead of the center, which retreated according to plan.<ref name=lanning7>Lanning, 97.</ref> The retreat must have been significant since Herodotus mentions that the center retreated towards [[Mesogeia]], not several steps.<ref>Herodotus VI.113.1.</ref> However, ranks did not break since the overall casualties were low, and most were sustained during the last phase of the battle.<ref>Herodotus VI.114.</ref> The Greek retreat in the center, besides pulling the Persians in, also brought the Greek wings inwards, shortening the Greek line. The result was a [[pincer movement|double envelopment]], and the battle ended when the whole Persian army, crowded into confusion, broke back in [[panic]] towards their ships and were pursued by the Greeks.<ref>Herodotus VI.113.2.</ref> The sides were left open so that the Persian ranks would break, since even a desperate army that maintained numerical advantage after a battle could still defeat its enemy. Some, unaware of the local terrain, ran towards the swamps where they drowned.
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| − |
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| − | Herodotus records that 6,400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield,<ref>Herodotus VI.117.</ref> and it is unknown how many perished in the swamps. Also, seven Persian ships are mentioned captured though none are mentioned sunk.<ref>Herodotus VI.115.</ref> The Athenians lost 192 men<ref>Herodotus VI.117.</ref> and the Plateans 11,<ref>Janice Siegel, ''Dr. Jay's Illustrated Persian Wars'', [http://lilt.ilstu.edu/drjclassics/lectures/history/PersianWars/persianwars.shtm Dr. Jay's Illustrated Persian Wars] Retrieved October 15, 2007.</ref> most during the final chase when their heavy armor proved a disadvantage. Among the dead was the polemarch Callimachus and the general Stesilaos. A story is given to us about [[Kynaigeirus]], brother of the playwright [[Aeschylus]] who was also among the fighters. He charged into the sea, grabbed one Persian trireme, and started pulling it towards shore. A member of the crew saw him, cut off his hand, and Kynaigeirus died.<ref>Herodotus VI.114.</ref>
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| − | It seems that Aeschylus considered that his participation in Marathon was his greatest achievement in life (rather than his plays) since in his gravestone there was the following epigram:
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| − | :{{polytonic|Αἰσχύλον Εὐφορίωνος Ἀθηναῖον τόδε κεύθει}}
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| − | :{{polytonic|μνῆμα καταφθίμενον πυροφόροιο Γέλας·}}
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| − | :{{polytonic|ἀλκὴν δ’ εὐδόκιμον Μαραθώνιον ἄλσος ἂν εἴποι}}
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| − | :{{polytonic|καὶ βαρυχαιτήεις Μῆδος ἐπιστάμενος}}<ref>''Anthologiae Graecae Appendix'', vol. 3, ''Epigramma sepulcrale'' 17.</ref>
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| − | :This tomb the dust of Aeschylus doth hide,
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| − | :Euphorion's son and fruitful Gela's pride
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| − | :How tried his valor, Marathon may tell
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| − | :And long-haired Medes, who knew it all too well.
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| − |
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| − | According to [[Ctesias]], Datis was slain at Marathon.<ref>Ctesias, ''Persica'' 24.</ref> Herodotus, however, has him alive after the battle returning a statue of [[Apollo]] to [[Delos]] that had earlier been removed by his army,<ref>Herodotus VI.118.</ref> though he does not mention him after the remnant of the army returned to Asia.
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| − |
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| − | ==Aftermath==
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| − | [[Image:Hill_where_the_Athenians_were_buried_after_the_Battle_of_Marathon.JPG.jpg|thumb|Hill where the Athenians were buried after the Battle of Marathon [[Ryan Johnson, Spring 2005]].]]
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| − | [[Image:ROM-CorinthianHelmetAndSkull-BattleOfMarathon.png|thumb|Greek Corinthian Helmet and the skull reportedly found inside it from the Battle of Marathon, now residing in the [[Royal Ontario Museum]], Toronto.]]
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| − | As soon as Datis had put to sea, the two center tribes stayed to guard the battlefield and the rest of the Athenians marched to Athens. A shield had been raised over the mountain near the battle plain, which was either the signal of a successful Alcmaeonid revolution or (according to Herodotus) a signal that the Persian fleet was moving towards Phaliro.<ref>Herodotus VI.115.</ref> They arrived in time to prevent Artaphernes from securing a landing. Seeing his opportunity lost, Artaphernes turned about and returned to Asia.<ref>Herodotus VI.116.</ref> On the next day, the Spartan army arrived, having covered the 220 kilometers in only three days. Some modern historians doubt they traveled so fast. The Spartans toured the battlefield at Marathon, and agreed that the Athenians had won a great victory.<ref>Herodotus VI.120.</ref>
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| − |
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| − | The Greek upset of the Persians, who had not been defeated on land for many decades (except by Samagaetes and Scythes, both nomad tribes), caused great problems for the Persians. The Persians were shown as vulnerable. Many subject peoples revolted following the defeat of their overlords at Marathon. Order was not restored for several years.
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| − |
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| − | The dead of Marathon were awarded by the Athenians the special honor of being the only ones who were buried where they died instead of the main cemetery of Athens in [[Kerameikos]].<ref>Thucydides, ''The Peloponnesian Wars'' II.34.</ref> On the tomb of the Athenians this [[epigram]] composed by Simonides was written:
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| − | :Ελλήνων προμαχούντες Αθηναίοι Μαραθώνι
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| − | :χρυσοφόρων Μήδων εστόρεσαν δύναμιν
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| − |
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| − | which means
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| − |
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| − | :The Athenians, as defenders of the Hellenes, in Marathon
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| − | :destroyed the might of the golden-dressed Medes
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| − | (translation by Major General Dimitris Gedeon, HEAR)
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| − | The tomb was excavated in the 1880s by German archaeologists. The team, however, did not include any anthropologists, and were therefore unable to determine the number of bodies in the tomb. The same team also found a ditch containing large numbers of hastily buried human bones which was identified as the burial place of the Persians.
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| − |
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| − | For the Athenians, the victory gave confidence to the people. Two years later [[ostracism]] was exercised for the first time, its first victim being a friend of Peisistratus.<ref>Aristotle, 22.</ref>
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| − |
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| − | ==Conclusion==
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| − | Marathon was in no sense a decisive victory over the Persians. However, it was the first time the Greeks had bested the Persians on land, and "their victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny that was to endure for three centuries, during which western culture was born."<ref>J.F.C. Fuller, ''A Military History of the Western World''(Cambridge: Da Capo Press, 1987).</ref> The subsequent Persian defeat at [[Salamis]] a decade later would effectively dispel them from the area once and for all.<ref name=lanning7/> The battle did, however, turn the tide away from Easter power and foster the development of Western greatness in the future.<ref name=lanning7/>
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| − | [[John Stuart Mill]]'s famous opinion is that the Battle of Marathon was more important an event for British history than the [[Battle of Hastings]]. Kampouris sees the battle as a failure of purely maritime operations, due to their inherent weaknesses.
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| − |
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| − | The longest-lasting legacy of Marathon was the [[double envelopment]]. Some historians have claimed it was random rather than a conscious decision by Miltiades. As they say, was it really ''[[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]] before Cannae''?<ref>Christodoulou Demetrios, "Η στρατιωτική ιστορία της αρχαίας Ελλάδος, μία άλλη προσέγγιση (The military history of ancient Greece, another point of view)," ''Στρατιωτική Ιστορία (Military history) magazine'', April 1998, Periscopio editions.</ref> In hoplitic battles, the two sides were usually stronger than the center because either they were the weakest point (right side) or the strongest point (left side). However, before Miltiades (and after him until [[Epaminondas]]), this was only a matter of quality, not quantity. Miltiades had personal experience from the Persian army and knew its weaknesses. As his course of action after the battle shows (invasions of the [[Cyclades]] islands), he had an integrated strategy upon defeating the Persians, hence there is no reason he could have not thought of a good tactic. The double envelopment has been used ever since, e.g. the [[German Army]] used a tactic at the [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)|battle of Tannenberg]] during [[World War I]] similar to that used by the Greeks at Marathon. Earlier, it was also successfully employed by British commander [[Duke of Marlborough|John Churchill]] during the [[Battle of Blenheim]] in 1704.<ref>Lanning, 163.</ref>
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| − |
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| − | ==Date of the battle==
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| − | Herodotus mentions for several events a date in the [[lunisolar calendar]], of which each Greek city-state used a variant. Astronomical computation allows us to derive an absolute date in the [[proleptic Julian calendar]] which is much used by historians as the chronological frame. August Böckh in 1855 concluded that the battle took place on 12 September 490 B.C.E. in the Julian calendar, and this is the conventionally accepted date. However, this depends on when the Spartans held their festival and it is possible that the Spartan calendar was one month ahead of that of Athens. In that case the battle took place on 12 August 490 B.C.E. If the battle really occurred in August, temperatures in the area typically reach over 30 degrees [[Celsius]] and thus make the marathon run event less plausible. <ref>See D.W. Olson, "Astronomers Unravel Marathon Mystery," ''Sky & Telescope'', September 2004, 34-41, [http://skytonight.com/about/pressreleases/3309276.html "Astronomers Unravel Marathon Mystery"] Retrieved October 15, 2007.</ref>
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| − |
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| − | ==Legends associated with the battle==
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| − | A victory that important against a superior enemy was bound to have consequences on religious life. Herodotus mentions that Pheidippides was visited by the god Pan on his way to Sparta for help. He asked why the Athenians did not honor him and Pheidippides promised that they would do so from then on. After the battle, a temple was built to him, and a sacrifice was annually offered.<ref>Herodotus VI.105.</ref> The festival of "Agroteras Thusia," (Thusia means sacrifice) was held at [[Agrae]] near [[Athens]], in honor of [[Artemis]] Agrotera, in fulfillment of a vow made by the city, before the battle, to offer in sacrifice a number of goats equal to that of the [[Persia]]ns slain in the conflict. The number being so great, it was decided to offer 500 goats yearly until the number was filled. [[Xenophon]] notes that at his time, 90 years after the battle, goats were still offered yearly.<ref>Plutarch, ''De Malignitate Herodoti'' 26; Xenophon, ''Anabasis'' III.2.12; Claudius Aelianus, ''Varia Historia'' II.25.</ref>
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| − |
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| − | Plutarch mentions that the Athenians saw [[Theseus]], the mythical hero of Athens leading the army in full battle gear in the charge against the Persians<ref>Plutarch, ''Theseus'' 35.</ref> and indeed he was depicted in the mural of the Poikele Stoa along with the gods fighting for the Athenians along with the twelve gods and other heroes,<ref>Pausanias 1.15.3.</ref> Pausanias tells us that those who fought at Marathon:
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| − |
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| − | {{cquote|They say too that there chanced to be present in the battle a man of rustic appearance and dress. Having slaughtered many of the foreigners with a plough he was seen no more after the engagement. When the Athenians made inquiries at the oracle the god merely ordered them to honor Echetlaeus (He of the Plough-tail) as a hero. <ref>Pausanias 1.32.5.</ref>}}
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| − |
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| − | Furthermore Pausanias mentions that at times ghosts were seen and heard to engage in battle in Marathon.<ref>Pausanias 1.32.3.</ref> This phenomenon appears to have also been reported in the modern era: according to newspapers of the time in the year 1930, visitors to the region claimed to have heard a sound of metal clashes and screams coming from the battlefield. This event is usually mentioned in books about [[paranormal]] events in Greece and is usually associated with the [[drosoulites]] phenomenon of Southern [[Crete]], though the scientific explanation given for the latter (a [[mirage]] from [[North Africa]]) can not explain the former event.
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| − |
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| − | Another tale from the conflict is of the dog of Marathon. [[Claudius Aelianus]]<ref>Aelianus 8.40.</ref> relates that one hoplite brought his dog to the Athenian encampment. The dog followed his master to battle and attacked the Persians at his master's side. Indeed a dog is depicted in the mural of the Poikile Stoa.
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| − |
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| − | ==Marathon run==
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| − | According to Herodotus, an Athenian runner named [[Pheidippides]] ran from Athens to [[Sparta]] to ask for assistance before the battle.<ref name=lanning5>Lanning, 95.</ref> This event was later turned into the popular legend that Pheidippides ran from Marathon to Athens. The traditional story relates that Pheidippides, an Athenian herald, ran the distance between the battlefield by the town of [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]] to [[Athens]] to announce the Greek victory over [[Persian Empire|Persia]] in the Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.E.) with the word "Νενικήκαμεν!" (Nenikékamen, We are victorious!) and died on the spot. Most accounts incorrectly attribute this story to the historian Herodotus, who wrote the history of the [[Persian Wars]] in his ''Histories'' (composed about 440 B.C.E.). The story first appears in [[Plutarch]]'s ''On the Glory of Athens'' in the 1st century AD, who quotes from [[Heracleides of Pontus]]' lost work, giving the runner's name as either Thersipus of Erchius or Eucles.<ref>Heracleides of Pontus, ''Moralia'' 347C.</ref> [[Lucian of Samosata]] (2nd century AD) also gives the story but names the runner Philippides (not Pheidippides).<ref>Lucian, ''A slip of the tongue in Salutation'' 3.</ref> It should be noted that in some medieval codices of Herodotus the name of the runner between Athens and Sparta before the battle is given as Philippides and in a few modern editions this name is preferred.<ref>Herodotus 341.</ref>
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| − |
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| − | Another point of debate is the path taken by the runner. There are two exits from the battlefields. One is towards the south that follows modern-day [[Marathonos avenue]] leading through [[Pikermi]] over the pass of Stavros Agias Paraskevis and down modern day [[Messogeion avenue]] to Athens, which is 40.8 kilometers (25.3 miles) long—following the ancient roads, the modern road has been lengthened somewhat to accommodate vehicular traffic to and from Mesogeia. The other is towards the north, over the modern village of Vranas, up the relatively high mountain pass towards modern day Dionyssos and the northern suburbs of Athens, which is 34.5 kilometers (21.4 Miles) long. It is more likely that the runner followed the safer, shorter but more tiring northern route than the longer but unsafe southern route. For the first modern [[marathon (sport)|marathon]] during the [[1896 Olympics]], the southern route was chosen probably because it was the main modern route between Marathon and Athens. That event was won by the Greek [[Spyros Loues]] who, being a local, knew that he had to conserve energy to pass the Stavros Agias Paraskevis pass, unlike his foreign competitors who were unaware of the terrain and abandoned the race there. The race today is run over a distance of 42.195 km (26.2 miles). This length was set during the [[1908 Olympics]] because the [[British royal family]] wanted to see the runners starting from the balcony of Windsor Castle, and to have the end of the race in front of the Royal Box at the Olympic Stadium.
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| − |
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| − | A popular legend about the battle and the run was recorded by [[Andreas Karkavitsas]] in the 19th century and also [[Linos Politis]]<ref>Ioannes Kakrides, ''Οι αρχαίοι Έλληνες στην νεοελληνική λαική παράδοση (The ancient Greeks in modern Greek popular traditions)'' (Athens, 1989).</ref>
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| − |
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| − | {{cquote|On the plain of Marathon there was once a big battle. Many Turks<ref>Turks like Persians came from the east and in large numbers, this is why they are confused in popular Greek culture.</ref> with many ships came to enslave the land and from there pass to Athens...
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| − |
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| − | The blood turned into a river, and reached from the roots of Vranas to Marathon on the other side. It reached the sea and painted the waves red. Lots of lamentation and evil took place. In the end the Greeks won...
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| − | Then two men ran to bring the news to Athens. One of them went on horseback and the other on foot and in full gear. The rider went towards [[Halandri]] and the one on foot towards Stamata. Swift-footed he went up Aforesmos and down towards the village. As women saw him, they ran towards him:
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| − |
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| − | "Stop!" they shouted - ''stamata''! (Greek for ''stop'').
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| − |
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| − | They wanted to ask what happened in the battle. He stopped a moment to catch his breath and then took the road again. Finally he reaches [[Psychiko]]. There he was almost near death '' <i>, his feet were shaking, he felt like falling down. But he composed himself, took a deep breath, continued and finally reached Athens.
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| − |
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| − | "We won," he said, and immediately he fell down and died. The rider had yet to come. But there where the foot runner stopped and took a breath is named after his act. The first village is called Stamata and the second Psychiko.}}
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| − |
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| − | ==In fiction==
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| − | * [[Alice Leader]]'s 2004 children's novel ''[[Shield of Fire]]'' (ISBN 9780141315287) focuses on the Persian invasion and the Battle of Marathon as seen by a young Greek girl.
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| − | * The film ''[[The 300 Spartans]]'' refers to Marathon through spoken recollections by the character of [[Xerxes]].
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| − |
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| − | ==Notes==
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| − | <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
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| − | <references/>
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| − | </div>
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| − |
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| − | ==References==
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| − | ===Ancient Texts===
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| − | *[[Claudius Aelianus]] (c. 175–c. 235 C.E.), ''Ποικιλη Ιστορια (Various history)'' (English translation Aelian. ''An English Translation of Claudius Aelianus' Varia Historia''. Studies in classics, v. 2. Lewiston, N.Y.: E. Mellen Press, 1997 ISBN 9780773486720)
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| − |
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| − | *[[Aristotle]] (384 B.C.E.-322 B.C.E.), ''ΑΘηναιων Πολιτεια (The Athenian Constitution)'' [full text at Interner Classics Archive, MIT Media Lab [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/athenian_const.html The Athenian Constitution] Retrieved October 17, 2007.)
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| − |
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| − | *[[Heracleides of Pontus]], ''Moralia'' (lost - referred to in secondary sources)
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| − |
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| − | *[[Herodotus]] (484 B.C.E.-425 B.C.E.?), ''Ιστορίης Απόδειξης (The histories),Book VI'' (full text The Internet Classics Archive, MIT Media Lab [http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.html ''The Histories''] Retrieved October 17, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | *[[Isocrates]] (436 B.C.E.-338 B.C.E.), ''Επιταφειος τοις Κορινθειοις βοηθοις (Funeral Oration)'' (''Isocrates' Orations'' Vol. I, translated by J. H. Freese. London: George Bell & Sons, 1894.}
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| − |
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| − | *[[Junianus Justinus|Marcus Junianus Justinus]] ([[3rd century AD]]), ''Historiarum Philippicarum (Epitome of the Phillipic History of [[Pompeius Trogus]])'' ((full text at Attalus [http://www.attalus.org/translate/justinus.html Pompeius Trogus] Retrieved October 17, 2007.)
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| − |
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| − | *[[Lucian]] (ca. 120 - ca. 180 C.E.), ''Ὑπὲρ τοῦ ἐν τῇ προσαγορεύσει πταίσματος (A slip in the tongue of salutation)'' (text at Sacred Texts [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl2/wl204.htm A Slip of the tongue in salutation] Retrieved October 17, 2007.}
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| − |
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| − | *[[Cornelius Nepos]] (ca. 100 B.C.E.- 24 B.C.E.), ''De Viris Illustribus (Lives of the eminent commanders)''
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| − | (text at Early Christian Writers [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/fathers/nepos.htm Lives of the eminent commanders] Retrieved October 17, 2007.)
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| − |
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| − | * Cornelius Nepos, ''Miltiades'' [text at Early Christian Writings [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/fathers/nepos.htm#Miltiades Miltiades] Retrieved October 17, 2007.)
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| − |
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| − | *[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] ([[2nd century AD]]), ''Ελλαδος Περιήγησις (Description of Greece)'' (text at Ancient History Source Book, Fordham University [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/pausanias-bk1.html Description of Greece] Retrieved October 17, 2007.)
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| − |
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| − | *[[Photius]] (c.820 - 893 C.E.), ''Μυριόβιβλον (Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon)'' (text at Turtullian.org [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/photius_03bibliotheca.htm ''Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon''] Retrieved October 17, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | : Epitome of [[Ctesias]] ([[4th century B.C.E.]]), ''Περσικά (Persica)'' (partially lost. Excerpt at Livius.org [http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/ctesias/photius_persica.html Photius' excerpt of Ctesias' ''Persica'']Retrieved October 17, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | *[[Plato]] (428 B.C.E./427 B.C.E.–ca. 348 B.C.E./347 B.C.E.), ''Μενέξενος (Menexenus) (text at Project Gutenberg [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1682 ''Menexenus''] Retrieved October 17, 2007.)
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| − |
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| − | *[[Plato]] ''Νόμοι (Laws)'' (text at Internet Classics, MIT [http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/laws.html ''Laws'']Retrieved October 17, 2007.
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| − |
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| − | *[[Plutarch]],'' Ethics'' (available at Attalia [http://www.attalus.org/info/moralia.html ''Moralia''] Retrieved October 17, 2007.)
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| − |
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| − | *[[Plutarch]] (46-127 C.E.), ''Βίοι Παραλληλοι (Parallel Lives), Theseus, Aristeides, Themistocles (London, J.M. Dent, 1910-1924)
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| − |
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| − | *[[Plutarch]] ''Περί του Ηροδότου κακοηθείας (On the malice of Herodotus)'' (text at Herodotus Web[http://www.herodotuswebsite.co.uk/plutarch.htm On the malice of Herodotus] Retrieved October 17, 2007.)
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| − |
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| − | * Scholium ''to Plato Menexenus'' (a comment inserted into a manuscript of Plato's ''Dialogue'', or ''Menexenus'', text available at Project Gutenberg [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1682 ''Menexenus''] Retrieved October 17, 2007.)
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| − |
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| − | *[[Suda]] Dictionary ([[10th century CE]])(Suda On Line: Byzantine Lexicography [http://www.stoa.org/sol/ Suda On Line: Byzantine Lexicography] Retrieved October 17, 2007.)
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| − |
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| − | *[[Thucydides]] (ca 460 B.C.E.-ca 400 B.C.E.), ''Ξυγγραφη (The Peloponnesian War)'' {Internet Classics Archive, MIT [http://classics.mit.edu/Thucydides/pelopwar.mb.txt ''The History of the Peloponnesian War''] Retrieved October 17, 2007.)
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| − |
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| − | *[[Xenophon]] (c. 427 B.C.E.–355 B.C.E.), ''Κυρου Ανάβασις (Anabasis)'' (text at Project Gutenberg
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| − | [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1170 ''Anabasis''] Retrieved October 17, 2007.)
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| − |
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| − | ===Other Sources===
| |
| − | * ''Anthologiae Graecae Appendix''. Vol. 3, ''Epigramma sepulcrale''.
| |
| − | * Bengtson, Hermann. ''Griechische Geschichte (Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft III, 4)''. Münich: C.H. Beck, 1960.
| |
| − | * Damascius. Vol. B, ''Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους (History of the Greek nation)''. Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon Publications, 1971.
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| − | * Davis, Paul K. ''100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Presens''. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 1999. ISBN 1-57607-075-1
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| − | * Demetrios, Christodoulou. "Η στρατιωτική ιστορία της αρχαίας Ελλάδος, μία άλλη προσέγγιση (The military history of ancient Greece, another point of view)." ''Στρατιωτική Ιστορία (Military history) magazine'', April 1998, Periscopio editions.
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| − | * Demetrios, Garoufalis N. "Η Μάχη του Μαραθώνα, Η δόξα της οπλιτικής φάλαγγας (The battle of Marathon, the glory of the hoplitic phalanx)." ''Στρατιωτική Ιστορία (Military History magazine)'', September 1997, Perisopio editions.
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| − | * Fuller, J.F.C. ''From the Earliest Times to the Battle of Lepanto''. Vol.1, ''A Military History of the Western World''. Cambridge: Da Capo Press, 1987.
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| − | * Giannopoulos, Nikos. "Μαραθώνας 490 πΧ (Marathon 490 B.C.E.)." ''Στρατιωτική Ιστορία, Μεγάλες Μάχες, Μαραθώνας 490 π.Χ (Military history, Great Battles, Marathon 490 B.C.E.)'', March 2006, Periskopio editions.
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| − | * Glotz, Gustave, and Robert Cohen. ''Des Origines aux Guerres Médiques''. Vol. 1, ''Histoire Grecque''. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1925.
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| − | * Glotz, Gustave, and Robert Cohen. ''La Grèce au ve Siècle''. Vol. 2, ''Histoire Grecque''. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1929-31.
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| − | * Glotz, Gustave, and Robert Cohen. ''La Grece au IV^e siecle: La lutte pour l'hegemonie''. Vol. 3, ''Histoire Grecque''. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1936.
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| − | * Glotz, Gustave, Pierre Roussel, and Robert Cohen. ''Alexandre et l'Hellénisation du Monde Antique''. Vol. 4, ''Histoire Grecque''. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1938.
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| − | * Green, Peter. ''The Greco-Persian Wars''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California, 1996.
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| − | * Griechichse, Busolt D. ''Bis zur Begründung des Peloponnesischen Bundes''. Vol. 1, ''Geschichte bis zur Schlacht bei Chaeroneia''. Gotha: Friedrich Andreas Perthes, 1893.
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| − | * "Η Μάχη του Μαραθώνα (The battle of Marathon)." ''Istorikes selides magazine'' October 2006.
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| − | * Herodotus. ''Book VI''. Translated by Gabriel Syntomoro. Athens: Zitros, 2005.
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| − | * Kakrides, Ioannes. ''Οι αρχαίοι Έλληνες στην νεοελληνική λαική παράδοση (The ancient Greeks in modern Greek popular traditions)''. Athens, 1989.
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| − | * Kampouris, Dr. Manousos. "Η Μάχη του Μαραθώνα, το λυκαυγές της κλασσικής Ελλ (άδος The battle of Marathon, the dawn of classical Greece)." ''Πόλεμος και ιστορίαand (War History magazine)'', January 2000, Communications editions.
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| − | * Lanning, Michael Lee. ''The Battle 100: The Stories Behind History's Most Influential Battles''. Naperville: Sourcebooks, Inc., 2003. ISBN 1-57071-799-0
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| − | * Lex. Hist. Staetten s.v. Marathon 48
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| − | * Martin, Thomas R. ''Ancient Greece from prehistoric to Hellinistic times''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000.
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| − | * Meier, Dr. Christian. ''Athen. Ein Neubeginn der Weltgeschichte''. Berlin: Siedler-Verlag, 1993.
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| − | * Moerbeek, Martijn. ''Hellas:Net - Warfare''. [http://monolith.dnsalias.org/~marsares/warfare/battle/issus.html The battle of Issus, 333 B.C.E.] Retrieved October 15, 2007.
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| − | * Olson, D.W. "Astronomers Unravel Marathon Mystery."" ''Sky & Telescope'', September 2004, 34—41. [http://skytonight.com/about/pressreleases/3309276.html "Astronomers Unravel Marathon Mystery"] Retrieved October 15, 2007.
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| − | * Siegel, Janice. ''Dr. Jay's Illustrated Persian Wars''. [http://lilt.ilstu.edu/drjclassics/lectures/history/PersianWars/persianwars.shtm Dr. Jay's Illustrated Persian Wars] Retrieved October 15, 2007.
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| − | * Stecchini, Livio C. ''Iran Chamber Society: History of Iran''. [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/persian_wars4.php The Persian Wars] Retrieved October 15, 2007.
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| − | ==External links==
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| − | *[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/man-md/marathon/marathon.html Battle of Marathon by Jona Lendering] Retrieved September 8, 2007.
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| − | *[http://www.losttrails.com/pages/Hproject/Marathon/Marathon.html black and white photo-essay of Marathon] Retrieved September 8, 2007.
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| − | [[Category:History]]
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| − | {{Credits|153776919}}
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| − | [[Category:History]]
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