Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism or Mazdaism is known as one of the world's oldest monotheistic religions. It was once the "official" religion of Sassanid Persia, and played an important role in Achaemenid times. Zoroastrianism is highly eclectic, having synthesized many aspects of the Indo-Iranian and Near Eastern religious elements out of which it grew and around which it developed. Zoroastrianism probably originated in the eastern and south-central region of the Iranian world, although a precise location is difficult to decipher. Zoroastrianism is distinct from the Indo-Arian traditions which it developed out of and around, advocating an inward seeking form of religion with an intellectual priestly tradition at its foundation, rather than upholding the sacrificial rituals and militaristic values which surrounded it. The foundation of the religion is ascribed to the prophet Zarathushtra, who is commonly known in the West as Zoroaster, the Greek version of his name. The modern Persian form of the prophet's name is Zartosht (زرتشت). Zoroaster came to reform ancient Aryan/Indo-Iranian religious practices (some of which were parallel to the Vedic religion of ancient northern India and to some extent the ceremonies conducted by priests in Hinduism today). According to internal and external histories, Zoroaster lived in Persia. His dates are contested, but were clearly somewhere between the 18th and the 6th centuries B.C.E. (although Plato put Zoroaster in the 64th century B.C.E.). Zoroaster is thought to have written the Gathas, poems which have been assidiously preserved by his followers through centuries of oral transmission, before the whole of the Avesta (in which the Gathas are a central portion) were commited to writing in the Parthian or Sassanian periods. The Gathic dialect is similar to the Vedic Rig Veda and thus Zoroaster has sometimes been dated as roughly contemporary to the Rig Veda, normally ascribed to c.1500-1250 B.C.E. However other sources suggest a later date – in the 6th century B.C.E. The faith is ostensibly monotheistic, although Zoroastrianism has a dualistic nature, with a series of six entities (similar in function and status to angels) accompanying Ahura Mazda and forming a heptad that is good and constructive, and another group of seven who are evil and destructive. It is this persistent conflict between good and evil that distinguishes Zoroastrianism from monotheistic frameworks that have only one power as supreme. By requiring its adherents to have faith and belief in equally opposing powers Zoroastrianism characterizes itself as dualistic. Zoroastrianism teaches many of the concepts found in the major Abrahamic faiths, such as Heaven, Hell, Day of judgement, the concept of Satan, the prophecy and the coming of the Messiah and the extensive teaching of Angels and Evil spirits. Zoroastrianism is called Mazdayasna "Worship of Wisdom" by its followers after the ancient name for God, Ahura Mazda, "The ahura (divinity) Wisdom". A modern Persian form is Behdin "Good Religion/Law" (see below for the role of daena Law). Zoroastrians may call themselves Zartoshti "Zoroastrians", Mazdayasni "Wisdom-Worshippers" and Behdini "Followers of the Good Religion".

Faravahar (or Ferohar), the Assyrian-derived depiction of the human soul before birth and after death.

Zoroaster

Relatively little is known about the Prophet Zoroaster and even the period he lived in is disputed. Usually he is placed roughly near 1000 B.C.E., though others give earlier estimates, while still others place him in the 6th century B.C.E., which would make him contemporary to the rise of the first Achaemenides. The timing of Zoroaster's life is significant for understanding the development of Judeo-Christian beliefs. Should it be before 1300 B.C.E. (prior to Akhenaten) then Zoroaster would be the earliest monotheist known in any religion, discounting the older oral tradition written down in the Torah and Old Testament. According to tradition, Zoroaster was the son of Pourushaspa' and Dugdhova, and was special since birth. Pliny the Elder relates that the prophet was born smiling. His head shook uncontrollably to the point where he would slip out of the hands of his parents, a sign of future wisdom. Before he was six years old he was appointed a wise teacher who would take care of him; little is known about the relation between teacher and student. Many attempts were supposed to have been made to kill the child by enemies who recognised his significance. According to these narrations, when Zoroaster became seven years old, he was the target of an assassination plot in which men tried to poison him with black magic. As Zoroaster turned fifteen, he gained understanding and determination, and it was then when he chose the Kusti, meaning he voluntarily submitted himself to religion. When Zoroaster turned twenty years of age he left his guardians' house and, according to Dio Chrysostom, spent seven years on a mountain in a cave. During these seven years Zoroaster devoted himself to meditation and religious understanding. Zoroaster attempted to craft a set of religious precepts which differed from the prevalent polytheism and ritualism which persisted during his lifetime. In the Gathas, Zoroaster expresses discontent with rituals such as the soma ceremony typical within the Vedic tradition, which involves the consumption of an intoxicating beverage in order to fuse one's being with the spirit of the drink. Zoroaster no doubt saw this more as drunkeness than veracious spiritual endeavour. It was at this time he struggled with the problems concerning the relations of man and cosmos and came to the conclusion that the following Gathas state:

This I ask Thee, tell me truly, Ahura - whether at the beginning of the Best Existence the recompenses shall bring blessedness to him that meets with them. Surely he, O Right, the holy one, who watches in his spirit the transgression of all, if himself the benefactor of all that lives, O Mazda. (44.2)

This I ask Thee, tell me truly, Ahura. Who upholds the earth beneath and the firmament from falling? Who the waters and the plants? Who yoked swiftness to winds and clouds? Who is, O Mazda, creator of Good Thought? (44.4)

This I ask Thee, tell me truly, Ahura. What artist made light and darkness? What artist made sleep and waking? Who made morning, noon, and night, that call the understanding man to his duty? (44.5)

After his seven year meditation and devotion to worship he had accomplished complete devotion to Ahura Mazda and was enlightened with spiritual knowledge and felt the time was ripe to teach the masses about the righteousness and guidance of Ahura Mazda, at this point the teaching of Zoroaster as a Prophet began. Zoroaster lived in a period of warfare and a society which is corrupt and repressive and where the pre-Zoroastrian powers rule with an iron fist. There was a great need for a more intellectual and less ritual-based religious culture:

Which savior will free us from the old (understanding of) scripture, Who with the wisdom, simplicity (of teaching), who with the enlightenment?

Zoroaster proceeded by preaching:

I will speak of that which (He), the Holiest declared to me as the word that is best for mortals to obey; while he said: "they who for my sake render him obedience, shall all attain unto Welfare and Immortality by the actions of the Good Spirit [Spenta Mainyu -JHP]" - (He) Mazda Ahura. (45.5) His first attempt at reaching the masses was no success, those who heard him ridiculed him by saying: "How can this worthless being save us?". Eventually his family and servants distanced themselves from him, evil powers plotted to silence him, His open revelation brought many enemies who were eager to see his downfall. Nothing however stopped Zoroaster and his determination. The first and favorite convert to Zoroastrianism became his nephew. He was then imprisoned and mysteriously escaped. After escaping from prison he cured the horse of King Vishtaspa. It was then when the very same King that put him in prison converted to the faith along with his wife. After the conversion of the king many in the kingdom followed. Due to repression in the early stages the first group of converts were a defiant military group in order to defend themselves but Zoroastrianism spread at such an incredibly fast pace that soon this was no longer needed. When the Vizier of the King converted, he gave his daughter Hvogvi to be the wife of Zoroaster and they were married. Jamaspa, brother of king Frashaoshtra, was a devout follower of Zoroaster. This wise adviser and cherisher of the kings riches gave Zoroaster his daughter. Upon the demise of Zoroaster, Jamaspa was appointed successor.

Principal Concepts and Beliefs

Ahura Mazda and Other Deities

The Prophet Zoroaster set his teachings apart from the other polytheistic Iranian traditions by advocating strict monotheism, insisting that worship be dedicated solely to Ahura Mazda (or the Wise Lord). Ahura Mazda is the beginning and the end, the creator of everything which can and cannot be seen, Eternal and Pure. Ahura Mazda serves as the keeper of the keeper of truth, or asha (see below), maintaining a position similar to that of the Vedic god Varuna who kept the rta, or moral order. Nonetheless, Zoroastrianism is somewhat polytheistic, which is evident in its identification of several other deities which exist beneath Ahura Mazda, such as the two Mainyus and the demonic creatures called daivas. The Spenta Mainyu ("Holy Spirit") and the Angra Mainyu ("Evil Spirit") are the progeny of the supreme Ahura Mazda which explain respectively the existence of good and evil in the physical world. Spenta Mainyu is hypostatically indistinguishable from Ahura Mazda, seen as an augmenting force for the latter's power through divine self-realization and aiding in the continual creative process which leads toward frashokereti. Angra Mainyu, meanwhile, is the antithesis of Spenta Mainyu, representing the absence of truth which attempts to undermine ashavans. The Mainyus are engaged in a constant battle at the end of which the Holy Spirit will prevail by the power of Ahura Mazda. The daivas, meanwhile, are demonic beings whose sole purpose is to corrupt the moral law. These entities are said to be born out of bad thoughts and prideful existence and become evil because of their choice of evil. It is written that "The daiva did not get to choose between the two (good and evil) because the deceiver approached them as they were making their decision. So they chose the Worst Thought, and then ran to join Wrath, and together with it they have afflicted the world and humanity." (Yasna 30.5-6).

Also, there are several emanations of Ahura Mazda called Amesha Spentas, which are still considered divine even though they are considered emanations of Ahura Mazda and are ultimately subordinate to the god. In later Avestan literature, these emanations are personified as an archangel retinue of The Wise Lord. Some historians believe that these archangels were reabsorbtions of pre-Zoroastrian deities, or daevas. There are six personified attributes of Ahura Mazda or Amesha Spentas that are mentioned more often than the rest. These are: Vohu Manah (Good Mind), Asha Vahistah (Truth), Khshatra Vairya (Good Dominion), Spenta Armaiti (Devotion), Haurvatat (Wholeness and Health), and Ameretat (Immortality). These represent the qualities one must cultivate if they wish to most fully enjoy the fruits of frashokereti (see below). These seven are mentioned repeatedly in the Gathas, sometimes in regard to the Wise Lord, and other times in regards to Zarathrushtra or other human beings, and alternately as entities or else as abstract concepts embodied by ashvanas and Ahura Mazda. The dually human and divine nature of the Amesha Spentas is best comprehended in the Zoroastrian tradition through mysticism, where entering a state called maga allows one to identify their spirit with the Spentas and in doing so assumes their powers. Ahura Mazda dwells within each of these deities since they are part of his creation, though he cannot be said to be any of the members simultaneously, as each Amesha Spenta retains their own individual nature and life. Additionally, there exists a lord of prayer, Sraosha, who is introduced in the Gathas. In later Zoroastrian tradition, he is seen as the protector of humanity against malevolent forces related to death, and judges the souls of the departed. Later Zoroastrianism would introduce numerous other divine or superhuman beings, usually old deities from the Indo-Aryan pantheon, which became yazatas or "ones worthy of worship." Ahura Mazda was always viewed as having supremacy over these gods, thus, post-Gathic Zoroastrianism can be labelled as henotheistic. Typically, Zoroastrianism only admitted the gods that did not contrast with its religious tenets, which actually lead to the exclusion of Zarathushtra's daivas from the pantheon. The Yashts, a collection of hymns dedicated to the worship of various beings, delineate the process by which ancient deities became assimilated into the Zoroastrian tradition. These deities introduced to Zoroastrianism include Arevadi Sure Anahita, (a goddess corresponding to the Hindu Sarasvati), Hvare Khshaeta (god of the sun); Mah (god of the moon), Mithra (who works with Sraosha to judge souls after their deaths) and numerous fravashis, spirits of the dead souls which were also considered worthy of worship. Fravashis of note include Daena, a deity whose name derives from the terms approxiamating "image" and "conscience", and seems to represent asha personified, as well as Haoma, the personified object of sacrifice which is worshipped as a priest. Anahita and Mithra were the most important deities, forming a divine triad with Ahura Mazda.

Ethical Dualism

A consequence of Zoroastrian monotheism is the dualism in proposes to explain the existence of evil within the world created by the supremely good Ahura Mazda. Unlike other faiths, Zoroastrianism is not theologically content with accepting that the evil forces in the world are simply another of the supreme being's creations. Mardanfarrokh, a Zoroastrian theologian in the 9th century CE, posited, "If God is perfect in goodness and wisdom, then ignorance and evil cannot come from Him. If they could come from Him, He would not be perfect; and if He were not perfect, He should not be praised as God and perfectly good..." According to him, only human choice can determine the intensity of evil within the world, a teaching which removes Ahura Mazda of responsibility of evil and renders the system truly dualistic. for opposing forces that spring from different sources may be equal, while a conflict between a Good Creator and a Created Evil can only end in one way, metaphysically speaking—the victory of the maker over the made. Good and evil, rather than deriving from the same source in Ahura Mazda (and thereby rendering the Wise Lord responsible for evil), are separated on the grounds of moral choice, an idea which has lead scholars to refer to Zoroastrianism as "ethical dualism", in that all decisions made by human beings follow either the path of the Wise Lord or that of Angra Mainyu. The nature of the two opposing spirits of good and evil, Spenta Mainyu and Angra Mainyu respectively, results from the choice they made between asha and druj ("lie"). Spenta Mainyu chose asha, and Angra Mainyu chose druj, and now each human must choose one of these paths for themselves. The two principles are in no way capable of equale worship, since it is imperative that humans choose good. Thus, Zoroastrianism affirms the freedom and importance of human choice in the metaphysic structure of the universe. Nothing in the Heavens and Earth has the power to force a being to do evil, and the rewards, punishments, happiness and grief and individual receive depends on how he or she lives his or her life. As the aggregate of human decisions steers humanity away from evil, the Ahuric creation is enhanced and the world as we know it, replete with evil, will dissolve away.

Moral Choice

Zoroastrian morality is summed up in the simple phrase, "Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds". By following this phrase, one can become an ashavan, or a follower of asha. Asha is an idea put forth by Zoroaster which is understood as "truth", "order" or "righteousness", a notion comparable to the Vedic concept of rta (which would develop into the prevalent notion of dharma). However, asha carries far more ethical and less metaphysical weight than rta and has not diminished in importance in the Zoroastrian tradition. Ahura Mazda emanates asha, and loving devotion to this deity cultivates asha within the devotee, a process comparable to the bhakti tradition which would later develop in Hinduism. With such an immense value placed upon freedom to choose right from wrong, five tools are said to have been provided to humans by Ahura Mazda in order to assist the decision-making process, which Zoroastrians refer to as the Five Faculties. These are: Good Mind, Desire, Conscience, Insight, and Wisdom. Good Mind refers to the idea that application of our mind's abilities which have been cultivated the teachings of Zoroaster provide us with motivation for choosing what is good and right over evil. This suggests that Zoroaster wanted followers to make decisions for themselves rather than being coerced, and the second faculty, Desire, refers to the fact that every person must consciously yearn to receive truth of Zoroaster's message and become an ashavan. Cultivation of this faculty begins the process of discerning good from evil. Conscience, also known as the daena, enables human beings to accept or reject the revelation of Ahura Mazda, and also to work with the Wise Lord in order to initiate frashokereti. Closely related is Insight, the fourth faculty, the divinely inspired inspiration granted by Ahura Mazda to all those who chosen to follow the truth as ashavans. It involves a variation of understanding which runs deeper than that gained by typicaly intellectual endeavour. Wisdom is the highest faculty, and involves the most valuable form of understanding in the cosmos, parallel with that of Ahura Mazda and completely perfect in nature. These five faculties follow a chronology corresponding to that of creation, beginning with intellectual activity of the physical mind, parallel with menog, and culminating in post-apocalyptic menog, fully united with getig.

Cosmology, Eschatology and Soteriology

The Zoroastrian cosmology is also dualistic. Everything in existence has a dual nature, comprised of a mental or spiritual aspect, called menog, and the material aspect, called getig. The spiritual state provides an embryonic precursor to the material aspect. Pahlavi literature suggests that only the evil spirits are capable of transforming creation from menog from getig. Material existence, while not being viewed by Zoroastrians as inherently evil, is considered to be contaminated due to its origination by way of the evil spirits. Pahlavi literature notes three key moments in the history of the cosmos, a concept original to Zoroastrianism: Bundahishn (seperation of the two states in the menog), Gumezishn (the comingling of Angra Mainyu and Spenta Mainyu in the getig), and finally Wizarishn (the seperation of these deities in a state of perfect purity in which a human being assumes their perfected body).

In the final stage, getig has been fully purified by menog. However, this eschatological endpoint can only come about through a process of evoluation: as the balance between good and evil evolves on an individual scale within humans, it also progresses on a cosmic scale. This choice of good urges creation on to it's renewal where humanity will be fully perfected by menog, an event referred to as frashokereti. As humans choose good over evil, they bring the cosmos closer to this event. Eschaton itself will be marked by fire, which is considered a paramount instrument of asha and a son of Ahura Mazda. The energy of the creator is represented in Zoroastrianism by fire and the sun which are both enduring, radiant, pure and life sustaining. Zoroastrians usually pray in front of some form of fire (or any source of light). A river of molten lava will seperate good people from the evil. In the Gathas Zoroaster claims that the order of creation will be refurbished at the end of time when the Saoshyant, a messianic saviour or "bringer of benefit" returns to the physical world. Later texts claim that this saviour will be born of a virgin who receives Zoroaster's seed while bathing in the Hamuni-Hilman Basin in Iran where it was deposited. The Palahva further explains that the Saoshyant will perform a ceremony using the fat of a miraculous cow mixed with white haoma and all the dead will be resurrected. All who follow the path of asha will benefitted by this the Saoshyant's return, significantly broadening the consequence of such cosmic actions to all people rather than limiting it to a priestly class as in the closely related Vedic tradition. This lays the foundation for later Zoroastrian eschatology, as well as the foundation for saviour archetypes in other messianic traditions such as Judaism and Christianity. It should be noted that alternate legends of the endtimes exist in the Zoroastrian tradition, such as one which states that there will actually be three saviours, Ukhshyatereta, Ukhshyatnemah, and Astvatereta, sons of Zoroaster who will appear at different times through history.

Zoroastrian cosmology is also highly original when it comes to judgement after death. It is written in the Avesta that the soul can ascend to heaven by proceeding through a three-step succession of celestial bodies which are linked to certain actions. Through good thoughts, they can attain the stars, through good words, they can attain the moon, and through good deeds, they can attain the sun. In order to undergo this journey, the soul must first cross the Chinvat bridge, or "the bridge of seperation". Souls judged to be just by Mithra or Sraosha are allowed to cross and meet their daena, an image of their own self, who is in this case disguised as a nubile teenage girl. Evil souls, meanwhile, meet with their daena in the form of a haggardly old woman, and are forced to fall into hell due to a sudden narrowing of the bridge. The old or young nature of the daena will be based upon one's acceptance or rejection of Ahura Mazda's invitation to hear his revelation. An intermediate, limbo-like area called Hamistagan also exists for those whose benevolent and malevolent acts in life are equally weighted.

Holy Books

The Holy Book of Zoroastrianism is called the Zend Avesta. The Zend is the commentary on the teaching and the Avesta is the original teaching in the Holy book. The Avesta was composed orally, and learned from memory for centuries until it was finally written down in Sassanian Times. The Avesta is divided into numerous sections. The Yasna concerns acts of worship and contains the Gathas (The Hymns), the only texts which are attributed to the Prophet Zoroaster himself. These hymns are deeply personal outlining not only the revelation, but also expressing the ambivalent emotions of the prophet, which oscillate between anguish and joy. Also, discontent with the devolution of ritualism in Iran to unseemly lechery is expressed by Zoroaster, and proceeds to introduce numerous original religious concepts. Regardless, Zoroaster still subsumes many elements of the preexisting religious system into his new faith rather than calling for their complete supplantation. While the Gathas are largely regarded as one individual's encounter with God, there is clearly a desire to extend this encounters to all other human beings. The Gathas were also passed down orally, though later were committed to writing by priests who recited them in ritual action. These hymns still represent the focal point of the liturgical yasna ritual for a small order of Zoroastrian priests.

Also contained in the Avesta are the Yashts, which are hymns of praise to numerous deities dating over a wide range of time. Similarly, the Vendidad provides a code of purity in order to deal with malevolent deities. The Vispered provides a collecton of hymns aiding the liturgical ceremonies when used in concert with the Yasna, including invocations which are used for exorcism and religious law. The Visperad also includes cosmological, historical and eschatological material. Other books included are the Afringan, Nyayish, Gah and Sirozah which partially contain some scriptures of the lost 14th and 21st Nasks or "lost books". A total of 21 of these books were followed by Zoroastrians Before the invasion of Alexander and the Islamic conquest of Iran there were a total of 21 Books called Nasks. Only one of these Nasks remains complete, called the Vendidad. The traditional explanation for the loss of most of the Nasks is persecution of the faith by Alexander, though this is questioned by some historians. The 21 Nasks did not only contain religious literature but also included works on Medicine, Astronomy, Botany and Philosophy.

Prayer

Prayer has always been fundamental to the Zoroastrian faith. The Ahuna Vairya, a prayer which venerates the oneness and supremacy of Vairya as well as the importance of moral choice, is one of the most important in the tradition. It has actually been described as having talismanic powers, as it is able to render surroundings as sanctimonious, and ward off evil spirits. Many consider this prayer to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, and is the first prayer that young or initiate Zoroastrians learn. Ashem Vohu, another hymn considered to be authored by Zoroaster, is also of great importance, providing a short meditation upon the concept of asha. The hymn asserts that "Truth is best (of all that is) good" and harmonizes effectively with the Ahuna Vairya. Closely related to these two prayers is the Yenhe Hatam, which, while not attributed to Zoroaster still has immense prescriptive value for the Zoroastrian ritual, positing the suggestion that all beings of pure menog are worthy of worship, along with those who reach getig as true ashavans. In addition to these prayers, incantations taking the form of mantra are also frequently used to address Ahura Mazda, as they are considered to endow their reciter with magical powers. In modern times, dedicated Zoroastrians divide their days into five prayer periods.

While Zoroaster may have developed his new religion as an alternative to excessive ritualism, many rituals were adopted into the system as the years progressed. Old rituals were modified and restructured in order to fit the Zoroastrian purview, most likely before the emergence of the monolithic Achaemenid empire. Animal sacrifice rituals were brought back into acceptance, modified slightly so that they would adhere to the new moral standards of the Zoroastrian tradition. The Haoma cult was also reestablished, leading to the aforementioned veneration of Haoma to god status and inclusion within the Zoroastrian pantheon. This is clearly the strongest evidence of Vedic influence upon the Zoroastrian tradition. Like the Indian soma, Iranian haoma allowed one temporary immortality through intoxication. This was related to other benefits such as virility, victory, and material wealth, among other things. Traditionally, Zoroastrians have used various species of Ephedra for purposes of this ritual, extracting juice from the plant then drinking it during the performance of intricate rituals. The sacrifice is commonly interpreted as a form of preparation for frashokereti, where white haoma will play an important part in Saoshyant's ceremony for the purposes of raising the dead.

Zoroastrianism have remained aniconic, rejecting anthropomorphic images of god, particularly in its more recent forms. Generally, archaelogical findings suggest that ancient Zoroastrians did not create elborate temples, statues, or altars for the purposes of religious worship. Anthropomorphic images of god have also not been found, save for those made of goddess Anahita placed in the main centres of Artaxerxes II's empire. Later on, during the Sassanid period, similar representations were made of Anahita as well as such gods as Ahura Mazda, Mithra. In the time of Achaemenid period, Zoroastrian statues have been found, depicitng a figure emerging from a disk or winged ring with paws and a bird tail. Scholars have identified the stature as Ahura Mazda, though some Zoroastrians concerned with the idolatrous nature of these depictions have denied such claims. Zoroastrians have also held in high esteem symbols of fire altars as well as brasoms, bundles of consecrated herbs or twigs.

Rituals

Naojot

Numerous Zoroastrian rituals celebrate important moments in the life of followers. The initiation rite, Naojot, involves a child between seven and at the latest fifteen years who has presumably gained the ability to accept the responsiblities of a Zoroastrian. After a Nahn, a purifying ritual bath, the child is given a thin, white shirt called a sadre and girded with a wool cord of 72 threads representing chapters of the Yasna called kusti. The white shirt is worn under the clothing and its whiteness represents innocence and sanctity. The Kushti is wrapped around the body three times to remind the child of the three most important moral injunctions: good thoughts, good deeds, and good words. Both garmets are not to be removed, except for purposes of bathing. During the ceremony, the child is asked to recite prayers from the Avesta, which they must study in preparation, and only after they have professed their faith will they be given their new clothing and have rice sprinkled on their head. The importance of this ceremony is reverberated throughout the rest of the Zoroastrian's life; five times a day they will untie and retie the Kusti in order to remind them of their faith. The main purpose of this ceremony is to affirm the child's belief in the teachings of Zoroaster.

Bareshnum i-no Shab

Bareshnum i-no Shab is a fastidious purification rite of the highest order which must be undertaken before any ordinand can be admitted to the Zoroastrian priestly order or as a corpse-bearer, and must undertaken again at numerous intervals throughout an ordained priest's life. The ritual is extremely elaborate, consisting of three ceremonial baths over a nine-night retreat. After a preliminary bath at the fire-temple, various purficatory rituals are carried out. Candidates undergo eighteen applications of consecrated bull's urine (nirang), sand and water. Furthermore, they are presented thirteen times with a dog. All the while, the candidate spends time in meditation and recitation of prayer. The ritual must be performed in circular or rectangular confines depending on whether the ceremony occurs in Iran or India, respectively. The performance of the ritual is considered to be highly efficacious in aiding one's ascent to heaven. Any candidate underoges this ritual twice before his first ordination which allows him to perform lesser ceremonies (Navar) and once before the second which allows him to perform higher, inner ceremonies (Martah). If the candidate vitiates the ritual more than three times throughout the process of the ceremony for reasons of insufficient spritual, moral or physical purity, they are considered to be ineligible for the priestly order. These include impurity within the purificatory liquids, rain during the performance of the ceremony or nocturnal emmission of semen during the period of retreat. At one point, Bareshnum i-no Shab was necessary of all Zoroastrians, and even now, most devout Zoroastrians undergo the rite at least once in their lifetime. Secondary purification rituals include Padyab (several daily ablutions), Nahn (a purifying ritual bath) and Riman (an elaborate ritual to cleanse those who have come in contact with corpses).

Zohr i atash

Zohr i atash refers to the Zoroastrian funerary rites. Religious rituals related to death are all concerned with the person's soul and not the body. Upon death, a person's soul leaves the body after three days and the body becomes just an empty shell. Here, a corpse is washed and dressed, then covered with a cloth by two attendents as they recite a prayer. The corpse is then placed in the front room of the house with three circular lines drawn around it as a safeguard against impurity. A dog is then placed in the room for purposes of gazing at the corpse in order to determine whether life is truly gone. Fire is then brought into the room with an urn and tended by a priest. Corpse bearers return to the house and, before taking the body, they recite a declaration in order to obtain permission from Ahura Mazda and other deities to perform the ceremony. Corpse-bearers then take the body to the dahkma (or "Tower of Silence"), a massive, circular funerary tower on elevated ground. Here, dead bodies are exposed to the sun and flesh-eating birds, which strip them of their flesh. It is here that the Zohr i atash ritual, in which animal fat is pured onto fire, representative of the ancient animal sacrifices. This ritual is carried is carried out to free the soul of the deceased from Druj i Nasu, the corpse demon, and assist the soul on its heavenly journey which begins four days after death. After this ceremony, they are thrown into a well and covered with lime and phosphorus. As could be expected, these observances are particularly difficult for Zoroastrians who live outside the India and Iran, as they are forced to conform to local conditions. Incidentally, cremation has become an increasingly popular alternative.

Yasna

Yasna, the paramount Zoroastrian liturgy, involves the sacrifice of haoma in front of a fire. The ceremony can only be performed in the morning while the sun rises, which is representative of the asha's power to dispell darkness and evil within the world. The fire is built within a sanctuary, or pawi, which only purified priests may enter, then the ritual is performed in a different room than where the fire is. The ceremony is prefaced by the Paraga, a prepatory rite, where a number of ritual movements leads to the preparation of the haoma beverage. One priest called the zot recites from memory the 72 chapters that make up the Yasna while an assistant priest, the raspt, fuels the ceremonial fire. Consecrated bread and purified butter are consumed, then consecrated water is mixed with pomegranites goat's milk and barsom twigs. This mixture is poured into a special well outside the pawi so that it may render its strengthening abilities upon all of creation. The ceremony is carried out in twelve stages, based upon particular recitations of the Yasna. Fire becomes the object of the priest's address during the Yasna ceremony. Yasna typically honours a specified deity, though praise is directed to all menog beings during the course of the ceremony. The Yasna serves the purpose of purifying the world by bridging the gap between menog and getig worlds so that they might come into union, therefore keeping alive the possibility for frashokereti to occur.

Festivals

The Zoroastrian calender is solar, consisting of 12 thirty day months. Each of the 30 days in a month enable the acknowledgement of a particular deity each day in addition, twelve of which are also celebrated with their own month. The 365 day year is rounded out with an additional five days, called Gatha Days. Zoroastrians undergo six Ghambars, special days of obligation celebrated in honour of the seasons. The days of Zoroaster's birth and death are also of importance. Another important event is the feast of "all souls" called Hamaspathmaedaya, where offerings of sandalwood and flowers are made to deceased family members. The New Year's celebration, or Navroze, is of particular importance to Zoroastrians. The ten days preceding involve observances in which the entirety of the Gathas is recited, and the departed are commemorated. This is celebrated at three different times of the year by three different groups of Zoroatrians based on historical disagreement over the calender.

Zoroastrianism through History

Due to the fact that scholars have few and conflicting sources concerning ancient Persia, it is difficult to describe ancient Zoroastrianism in detail. The original teachings of Zoroaster were modified significantly by the first generations of the prophet's disciples, which eventually lead to the acceptance of forms polytheism and ritualism that Zarasthushra originally opposed. The younger Avesta illustrates the fact that Zoroastrianism incorporated older beliefs and traditions from Iranian religious traditions, all the while maintaining Zoroaster's new ideas presented in the Gathas. This included such elements as animal sacrifice and the ritual of haoma, which was closely related to the Vedic tradition of soma. This was brought about by Avestan priests and the western priestly tribe known as the Magi. It was at this point in history that the pantheon was etched out more definitively concerning both good and evil deities. The Yashts, a collection of hymns dedicated to the worship of various beings, delineate this process by which ancient deities became assimilated into the Zoroastrian tradition. The deities who came to be accepted were generally those most pertinent to the priest and shepherds, rather than the warriors. For example, Mithra, who was viewed as a warrior god, was venerated more for his place as a guardian of truth as opposed to his militaristic tendencies. Meanwhile, most violent and aggressive elements of Indo-Aryan tradition were done away with or else related to the daivas, such as the classic Indo-Iranian gods who were portrayed as demonic. The Amesha Spentas, which were emanations of the greater divine, became full spirit beings.

The Magi ensured the transmission and survival of the tradition of the Avestan priests during the period of the Achaemenidian empire (date?), providing an oppurtunity for the Zoroastrian beliefs to come into dialouge with other Near Eastern traditions. During this period, the Zoroastrian tendency to synthesize the deities and ceremonies was developed, creating some measure of eclecticism within the tradition. Such an eclecitcism was necessary in order to create a pliable religious undergirding for the Achamedian empire, so it could appeal universally to the many varied cultures of which it was consisted. The Achaemenid kings acknowledge their devotion to Ahura Mazda in inscriptions; however, they also participated in local religious rituals in Babylon and Egypt, and helped the Jews to return to Canaan, so did not seek to enforce orthodoxy. More specifically, the Magi modified the doctrine of dualism. While Ahura Mazda reigned supreme in Zoroaster's original formulation, with the conflict of good and evil traceable to the concepts of Time and Destiny. For the Magi, Ahura Mazda was no longer the transcendent principle, but instead was one of the two supreme spirits who were in opposition as forces of good and evil. Out of this theological cleft was born Zurvanism, which is referred to in documents produced during the Sasanid period, and also referred to later on by numerous sources during the Achaemeidian and Parthian periods. Zurvanism resulted out of the encounter of the Magi and Chaldeans, priests of Babylonia, and attempted to reconcile the original dualism of Zoroastrianism with elements of the Babylonian and Mesopotamian religion. Here, the time-god Zurvan was endowed with supreme authority over the universe, and Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu were accepted to be his two sons.

During the Seleucid period (date?), Hellenistic ideas made their way into the Zoroastrian tradition, which were only partially accepted by the Parthians. The Parthian resistance to the new tradition lead to Alexander the Great's destruction of Persepolis and overthrew the Achaemenids in the 330s B.C.E., and according to later traditions, many of the Zoroastrian sacred texts were lost. However, Zoroastianism survived, and actually began to wield influence outside the Iranian world among Judeo-Christians and Buddhists. The status of Zoroastrianism under the Seleucids and Parthians is unclear; however, it is widely believed that the Three Wise Men (Magoi in early Greek New Testament manuscripts), said to have come from the Parthian empire bearing gifts for Jesus of Nazareth, were Zoroastrian Magi. It was also during the Parthian period that Mithraism, a Zoroastrian-derived faith particularly focused on the Aryan god of the sun, Mitra, began to become popular within the Roman Empire. The Mithras cult reached the peak of its popularity in the second and third centuries CE, and was particularly popular in the Roman army.

The Sasanid period came into power in Persia in 228 C.E. and witnessed the reoganization and reformulation of the Zoroastrian faith, as the priests of the mobad codified and canonized various aspects of the tradition which had survived the breaks caused by the Hellenistic influences. During this period, Zoroastrianism became less universalistic and more localized within Iran, justifying the position of the crown, clergy, and warriors at the top of the state hierarchy nature of the state while also maintaining nationalistic sentiment among the entirety of the Iranian people. Zoroastrians aggressively promoted their religion and in some cases persecuted Christians and Manichaeans. When the Sassanids captured territory from the Romans, they often built fire temples there to promote their religion. The Sassanids were suspicious of Christians not least because of their perceived ties to the Christian Roman Empire; thus, those Persian Christians loyal to the Patriarchate of Babylon, which had broken with Roman Christianity when the latter condemned Nestorianism, were tolerated and even sometimes favored by the Sassanids. Nestorians lived in large numbers in Mesopotamia and Khuzestan during this period. Also in this period, a number of mythological groups and dynasties became implicated in the march toward the endtimes, mostly based in historical figures who were identified with Iranian history itself. By the 6th century, Zoroastrianism had spread to northern China via the Silk Road, gaining official status in a number of Chinese states. Zoroastrian temples still remained in Kaifeng and Zhenjiang as late as the 1130s, but by the 13th century the religion had faded from prominence in China. Even after Arab conquest ended the reign of the Sasanid empire, Zoroastrianism continued to evolve as a nationalistic ideology. Surviving Zoroastrian communites and the priests who compiled the Palahvi texts looked back upon Iran's imperial era with a certain measure of sentimentality. This sentiment of nationalism may have been due to the fact that Zoroastrian was generally overshadowed by universalist faiths in Iran such as Christianity and Islam. Under the latter, Zoroastrians came to be vehemently repressed due to a number of failed revolts. In the 7th century, the Sassanid dynasty was conquered by Muslim Arabs. Zoroastrianism, which was once dominant in a region stretching from Anatolia to Persian Gulf and Central Asia, did not have a powerful foreign champion as Christianity did in the Byzantine Empire, and so steadily lost influence and adherents in Iran under Islamic persecution. Muslims largely viewed the significance of fire within Zoroastrian religion as a form of idolatry. It is important to note that fire is used simply as symbol and a point of focus for religious activity in Zoroastrianism, and is not worshipped as divinity in and of itself.

Faced with such adversity, In the 10th century, Zoroastrians fled to India in large numbers, where they came to be known as Parsis (or "Persians"). Here they were offered refuge by Jadav Rana, a Hindu king of Sanjan (the modern-day state of Gujarat) on condition that they abstain from missionary activities and marry only in their community. Although these strictures are centuries old, Parsis of the 21st century still do not accept converts and are endogamous, a sentiment which has come to characterize to Zoroastrianism as a whole. This was readily accepted by the Parsi people, who were wary of proselytization as it most likely would have lead to a plethora of converts from lower castes. In India, the Parsi have come to be seen as something of a caste themselves, since membership in the group is linked to lineage. As a result, Parsis have gained considerable economic power in India because of this fact. The Parsi Zoroastrians of India speak a dialect of Gujarati and English. This tradition has evolved into a distinct variation of Zoroastrian, independent of the mainstream Iranian tradition. Not only have Parsis been able to survive, but they have also thrived when compared to their Iranian counterparts, wielding much social and political influence in India through history, and even in modern times due to their favoured position under the British imperialists. Also, the tolerant religious climate of India has even syncretized elements of Parsi religion to existing forms of Hinduism. Parsi communities have been in continual dialouge with other religious traditions such as Hinduism, Islam and Christianity as well as other movements such as spiritualism and astrology. Ths, there have been numerous interpretations of Zoroastrian doctrines by the Parsi people, particularly concerning monotheism and its coexistence with dualism. Some Parsis have maintained a conservative view toward the ancient Zoroastrian traditions, whereas others have been more liberal in their interpretations and have stood behind extensive reformations to that traditions. The first contact between Indian and Iranian Zoroastrians occured in the late sixteenth century, through the exchange of texts called rivayat, which speculate upon doctrinal and liturgical questions.

Zoroastrianism in Modernity

The fire temple for Zoroastrians of Iran in the city Yazd

Statistics and Distribution

Until 2002 the worldwide population figures for Zoroastrians had been estimated at anywhere between 180,000 and 250,000. NOTE: diaspora or worldwide population figures include both Parsis and Iranians; there is no way to estimate numbers of Parsis alone except when referring to India and Pakistan. India's 2001 Census found 69,601 Parsi Zoroastrians, in Pakistan they number 5000, mostly living in Karachi. North America is thought to be home to 18,000-25,000 Zoroastrians of both Parsi and Iranian background. Iran's figures of Zoroastrians have ranged widely. Since 2002 estimates have been sharply increased. According to www.adherents.com, which estimates the worldwide population of Zoroastrians at 2.6 million. Most recent publications of many major encyclopedias and world alamanacs include population estimates of 2 to 3.5 million.

Today, small but thriving Zoroastrian communities are found in India, Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan, and throughout a worldwide diaspora. Zoroastrian communities in the diaspora comprise two main groups of people: those of Iranian background and those of Indian Zoroastrian background, who are known as Parsis (or Parsees). Zoroastrians in Iran have, like other religious minorities, survived centuries of persecution at the hands of the Muslim majority. Communities exist in Tehran, as well as in Yazd and Kerman, where many still speak an Iranian language distinct from Persian. They call their language Dari (not to be confused with the Dari of Afghanistan). Their language is also called Gabri (a derogatory term derived from the word for an unbeliever in Islam) or Behdinan (literally "Of the Good Religion"). Sometimes their language is named for the cities in which it is spoken, Yazdi or Kermani. There is a growing interest among Iranians, as well as people in various Central Asian countries such as Tajikistan and Kazakhstan, in their ancient Zoroastrian heritage; many people in these countries now consider themselves Zoroastrian. In fact, UNESCO (at the instigation of the government of Tajikistan) declared 2003 a year to celebrate the "3000th Anniversary of Zoroastrian Culture," with special events throughout the world. Zoroastrians in Iran are still persecuted by that nation's theocratic rulers. Even today, however, one can find Zoroastrian communities living and practicing their faith there, such as in the province of Yazd. Since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 and subsequent U.S.-led intervention in the Middle East, the Parsees of Iran, Iraq and Afghanistan have been receiving less persecution than before, and have been less reticent about identifying themselves, and there seems to be an increased respect for and interest in this classical Persian religion which was once one of the largest in the world. Parsis in India have, in contrast, enjoyed relative tolerance. While the communities there are socioeconomically diverse, Parsis have gained a reputation for their education and widespread influence in all aspects of (especially Indian) society. Also in contrast to Zoroastrianism in the Middle East The Indian Parsees however, are reducing in number because they are having less children and are rejected from the community when Parsees marry a non-Parsi. Small but fast growing Zoroastrian communities exist in major urban areas in the United States, Canada, England, Australia, and other countries.

Contemporary Concepts

Some major concepts which have developed in modern day Zoroastrianism typically promote a strong sense of social justice Respect of everything on Earth and in the world is central to the religion. Zoroastrianism outwardly condemns any oppression toward human beings. Since laziness and sloth are frowned upon, Zoroastrians work hard at promoting charity within their communities. Charity is regarded as a good deed, thus, many Zoroastrians part with a small percentage of their income or possessions in order to help the destitute. This concern for the repressed people has most likely been influenced by the history of persecution Zoroastrianism have survived through at the hands of Alexander the Great and the Muslims crusaders. Further, Zoroastrianism affirms the equality of all humans regardless of race or religion. This includes men and women are considered to be equal in all manners within society. Traditionally, Zoroastrian women were limited to roles of wife, homemaker and mother, and subject to even more stringent purification rites than men as a result of physiological functions such as menstruation and childbirth. However, modern Zoroastrian has hearkened back to the original egalitarian message of Zarashtushtra's revelation. Currently, more and more women are entering the liturgical and scholarly traditions of Zoroastrianism which have typically been limited to men throughout history. Since the arrival of Western educational influences in the nineteenth century, both Parsi and Iranian Zoroastrian communities have seen women assert themselves in the intellectual sphere. The creation of a just society also extends to the ecological sphere, due to the immense importance of nature to the practice of Zoroastrianism. Many important Zoroastrian annual festivals are in celebration of nature: new year on the first day of spring, the water festival in summer, the autumn festival at the end of the season, and the mid-winter fire festival. Care for the planet is necessary of all who wish to become ashavans, and the betterment of the environment is seen as a precursor for the refurbishment of earth that will take place at frashokereti. Enviromental awareness includes a strong condemnation of cruelty against animals, such as sacrifices. Another debate which has been highly contested within contemporary Zoroastrian is that of proseltization agains Inter-religious marriages. Throughout history, Zoroastrians typically have not proselytized. In the Parsi traditions, for example, it is typically thought that the only way to become a Zoroastrian is to be born within a Zoroastrian family. As in many other faiths, Zoroastrians are strongly encouraged to marry others of the same faith. However, in India, as a result of historical needs not to proselytize, there have emerged "rules" that say that women (and their children) who marry followers of other religions are no longer considered Zoroastrians (although men and their children are). These rules are not officially recognised by the clergy as they go against one of the main principles of Zoroastrianism, equality amongst sexes. While some Iranian Zoroastrians agree with this position that one can only become Zoroastrian by way of birth, a significant portion do not. In Iran, because of still-existing discrimination, inter-faith marriage is officially discouraged by the government. With the globalization of modern society and the dwindling number of Zoroastrians, these rules are being enforced increasingly less often, especially in the diaspora. Conversion is also becoming more popular in the western world, where in recent years Zoroastrianism has seen an influx of converts who have based their new beliefs solely upon the Gathas.

Significance

The significance of Zoroastrianism cannot be underestimated, as it has aided the development of numerous concepts which have become foundational in other religions, such as heaven and hell, revelation, apocalypse, and the idea of one and only one god. Some scholars believe the entire eschatology of Judaism, a key influence on Christianity, originated in Zoroastrianism, and was transferred to Judaism during the Babylonian captivity. Further, Zoroastrian may have provided a template for Biblical figures who introduced monotheism over henotheism, since Zoroaster's writings may predate the monotheistic declarations of Abraham and Isiah. Zoroastrianism has been proposed as the source of some of the most important post-Torah aspects of Judaic religious thinking which emerged after the Babylonian captivity, which include the belief in a future state, the importance of of rewards and punishments, the soul's immortality, and a final Judgment were the world is reordered. Moreover, because Zoroastrianism is thought to have emerged from a common Indo-Iranian culture that preceded Vedic Hinduism, scholars also use evidence from Zoroastrian texts to reconstruct the unreformed earlier stage of Indo-Iranian beliefs, and therefore to characterise the original Proto-Indo-European religion and also to identify the culture that evolved into the Vedic religion. Each of these original concepts suggest possible formative links to both Western Abrahamic and Eastern dharmic religious traditions, rendering Zoroastrianism as highly informative when formulating the history of world's religion. This, in concert with the contemporary Zoroastrian maxims which strive for justice in the social and environmental spheres, allows for the conclusion that Zoroastrian has much to aid understanding in both the past and present.

See also

• Book of Arda Viraf
• Mazdakism
• Manichaeism
• Zoroastrian calendar
• Zoroastrian music
• Zurvanism

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Boyce, Mary. Textual sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. ISBN 0226069303
• Boyce, Mary. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge, 1979. ISBN 0710001215
• King, Charles William. The Gnostics and Their Remains. London: David Nutt, 1877.
• "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents." <http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Zoroastrianism> [Accessed 20 July 2006]
• Malandra, William W. An Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion — Readings from the Avesta and Achaemenid Inscripitons. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983. ISBN 0-8166-1114-9
• Zaehner, Robert C. The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism. Great Britain : Phoenix Press, 1961. ISBN 1-84212-165-0.

External links

• Avesta.org contains much on the faith
• The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies at SOAS (CASI at SOAS)
• Images of modern Zoroastrianism in Iran (from the BBC)
• FEZANA is an association of North American Zoroastrians
• Zoroastrianism - was the religion of the Persian Empire the first monotheism? (from the BBC Radio4 show In Our Time)
• A wealth of Parsi / Zoroastrian Resources and Websites
• Page of traditional Zoroastrian group
• Zarathustrian Assembly
• A free directory of Parsis across the world
• A day to day chronicle of Parsi events
• The World Zarathushti Chamber of Commerce

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