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| + | #REDIRECT[[Wallachia]] |
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| − | : ''This article is about the region in what is now Southern Romania. There are other regions called Wallachia, such as the [[Moravian Wallachia]] and the [[Great Wallachia|Thessaly Wallachia]]; See: [[Vlachs#Wallachia]].''
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| − | [[Image:Walachia.png|frame|right|Map of Romania with Wallachia in yellow.]]
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| − | '''Wallachia''' (also spelled '''Walachia'''; {{lang-ro|Ţara Românească}} or "The Romanian Land") is a [[Historical regions of Romania|historical]] and geographical region of [[Romania]]. It is situated north of the [[Danube]] and south of the [[Southern Carpathians]]. Wallachia is sometimes referred to as ''[[Muntenia]]'', through identification with the larger of its two traditional sections; the smaller being [[Oltenia]].
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| − | Wallachia was founded as a [[principality]] in the early 14th century by [[Basarab I]], after a rebellion against [[Charles I of Hungary]]. In 1415, Wallachia accepted the [[suzerainty]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]; this lasted until the 19th century, albeit with brief periods of [[Russia]]n occupation between 1768 and 1854. In 1862, Wallachia united with [[Moldavia]] (the other [[Danubian Principalities|Danubian Principality]]), to form the state of Romania.
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| − | ==Name==
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| − | The name ''Wallachia'', generally not used by [[Romanians]] themselves (but present in some contexts as ''Valahia'' or ''Vlahia''), is derived from the [[Vlachs|Valachs]] - a word of [[German language|German]] origin also present as the [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] ''Vlachs'' - used by foreigners in reference to Romanians ''(see also: [[History of the term Vlach]])''.
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| − | For long periods before the 14th century, Wallachia was referred to as ''Vlaško'' by [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] sources (and ''Vlaška'' by [[Serbian language|Serbian]] sources). The traditional [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] name for Wallachia is ''Havasalföld'', or literally "Snowy Lowlands" (the older form is ''Havaselve'', which means "Land beyond the snowy mountains"). The name ''Ungrovlahia'' ("Hungarian Wallachia"), mostly used in an [[Romanian Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] context to refer to the [[Metropolitan of Hungro-Wallachia|Metropolitan seat]], denotes the neighborhood position in regard to the [[Hungarian Kingdom]], meaning "Wallachia near the Hungarian Crown".<ref>[[Dinu C. Giurescu]], ''Istoria ilustrată a românilor'', Editura Sport-Turism, Bucharest, 1981, p.236</ref> In [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]], ''Eflak'', a word derived from "Vlach," is used.
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| − | == Geography ==
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| − | Wallachia is situated north of the [[Danube]] (and of present-day [[Serbia]] and [[Bulgaria]]) and south of the [[Southern Carpathians]], and is traditionally divided between [[Muntenia]] in the east (as the political center, Muntenia is often understood as being synonymous with Wallachia), and [[Oltenia]] (a former [[Ban (title)|banat]]) in the west. The division line between the two is the [[Olt River]].
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| − | Wallachia's traditional border with [[Moldavia]] coincided with the [[Milcov River (Siret)|Milcov River]] for most of its length. To the east, over the Danube north-south bend, Wallachia neighbours [[Dobruja]] ([[Northern Dobruja]]). Over the Carpathians, Wallachia shared a border with [[Transylvania]]; [[List of rulers of Wallachia|Wallachian princes]] have for long held possession of areas north of the this line ([[Amlaş]], [[Ciceu]], [[Făgăraş]], and [[Haţeg]]), which are generally not considered part of Wallachia-proper.
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| − | The capital city changed over time, from [[Câmpulung]] to [[Curtea de Argeş]], then to [[Târgovişte]] and, after the late 1500s, to [[Bucharest]].
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| − | == History ==
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| − | ===From Roman rule to the state's establishment===
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| − | {{main|Origin of the Romanians|Romania in the Early Middle Ages}}
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| − | In the [[Dacian Wars|Second Dacian War]] (105 C.E.) western Oltenia became part of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[Roman province|province]] of [[Roman Dacia|Dacia]], with parts of Wallachia included in the [[Moesia Inferior]] province. The Roman ''[[limes]]'' was initially built along the Olt River (119), before being moved slightly to the east in the [[2nd century]] — during which time it stretched from the [[Danube]] up to [[Rucăr]] in the Carpathians. The Roman line fell back to the Olt in 245, and, in 271, the Romans pulled out of the region.
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| − | The area was subject to [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]] sometime during the [[Migration Period]], when most of present-day Romania was also subject to the presence of [[Goths]] and [[Sarmatian]] peoples know as the [[Chernyakhov culture|Mureş-Cerneahov]] culture, followed by waves of other [[Nomadism|nomadic]] peoples. In 328, the Romans built a bridge between [[List of ancient towns in Scythia Minor|Sucidava]] ([[Celei]]) and [[Oescus]] (near [[Gigen]]) which indicates that there was a significant trade with the peoples north of the Danube (a short period of Roman rule in the area is attested under [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]] [[Constantine I]]).<ref>Giurescu, p.37; Ştefănescu, p.155</ref> The Goths attacked the Roman Empire south of the Danube in 332, settling north of the Danube then later to the south. The period of Goth rule ended when the [[Huns]] arrived in the [[Pannonian Plain]], and, under [[Attila]], attacked and destroyed some 170 settlements on both sides of the Danube.
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| − | [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] influence is evident during the 5th to 6th century, such as the site at [[Ipoteşti-Cândeşti]], but from the second half of the [[6th century]] and in the [[7th century]] [[Slavic peoples]] crossed the territory of Wallachia and settled in it, on their way to Byzantium, occupying the southern bank of the Danube.<ref>Giurescu, p.38</ref> In 593, the Byzantine commander-in-chief Priscus defeated Slavs, [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] and [[Gepid]]s on future Wallachian territory, and, in 602, Slavs suffered a crucial defeat in the area; [[Maurice (emperor)|Flavius Mauricius Tiberius]], who ordered his army to be deployed north of the Danube, encountered his troops' strong opposition.<ref>Warren Treadgold, ''A Concise History of Byzantium'', New York, St Martin's Press, 2001</ref>
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| − | Wallachia was under the control of the [[First Bulgarian Empire]] from its establishment in 681, until approximately the [[Magyars|Magyar]] conquest of [[Transylvania]] at the end of the 10th century. With the decline and subsequent fall of the Bulgarian state to Byzantium (in the second half of the 10th century up to 1018), Wallachia came under the control of the [[Pechenegs]] (a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] people) who extended their rule west through the 10th and 11th century, until defeated around 1091, when the [[Cumans]] of southern [[Russia]] took control of the lands of Moldavia and Wallachia.<ref>Giurescu, p.39-40</ref> Beginning with the [[10th century]], Byzantine, Bulgarian, Hungarian, and later Western sources mention the existence of small polities, possibly peopled by, among others, [[Vlachs]]/[[Romanians]] led by ''[[knyaz]]es'' and ''[[voivode]]s'' - at first in Transylvania, then in the [[12th century|12th]]-[[13th century|13th centuries]] in the territories east and south of the Carpathians.
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| − | In 1241, during the [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] [[Mongol invasion of Europe|invasion of Europe]], Cuman domination was ended - a direct Mongol rule over Wallachia was not attested, but it remains probable.<ref>Giurescu, p.39</ref> Part of Wallachia was probably briefly disputed by the [[Hungarian Kingdom]] and [[Bulgarians]] in the following period,<ref>Giurescu, p.39</ref> but it appears that the severe weakening of Hungarian authority during the Mongol attacks contributed to the establishment of the new and stronger polities attested in Wallachia for the following decades.<ref>Ştefănescu, p.111</ref>
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| − | ===Creation===
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| − | [[Image:Viennese Illuminated Chronicle Posada.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Posada]] in the ''[[Chronicon Pictum]]'']]
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| − | One of the first written evidence of local voivodes is in connection with [[Litovoi]] (1272), who ruled over land each side of the Carpathians (including [[Făgăraş]] in Transylvania), and refused to pay [[tribute]] to the [[List of Hungarian rulers|Hungarian King]] [[Ladislaus IV]]. His successor was his brother [[Bărbat]] (1285-1288). The continuing weakening of the Hungarian state by further Mongol invasions (1285-1319) and the fall of the [[Árpád dynasty]] opened the way for the unification of Wallachian polities, and to independence from Hungarian rule.
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| − | Wallachia's creation, held by local traditions to have been the work of one ''[[Radu Negru]]'', is historically connected with [[Basarab I]] (1310-1352), who rebelled against [[Charles I of Hungary]] and took up rule on either side of the [[Olt River]], establishing his residence in [[Câmpulung]] as the first ruler in the [[House of Basarab]]. Basarab refused to grant Hungary the lands of [[Făgăraş]], [[Amlaş]] and the [[Drobeta-Turnu Severin|Banat of Severin]], defeated Charles in the [[Battle of Posada]] (1330), and extended his lands to the east, to comprise lands as far as [[Kilia]] (in the [[Bujak]], as the origin of ''[[Bessarabia]]'');<ref>Ştefănescu, p.114</ref> rule over the latter was not preserved by following princes, as Kilia fell to the [[Nogais]] ca.1334.<ref>Ştefănescu, p.119</ref>
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| − | Basarab was succeeded by [[Nicolae Alexandru]], followed by [[Vladislav I of Wallachia|Vladislav I]]. Vladislav attacked Transylvania after [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis I]] occupied lands south of the [[Danube]], conceded to recognize him as [[overlord]] in 1368, but rebelled again in the same year; his rule also witnessed the first confrontation between Wallachia and the [[Ottoman Turks]] (a battle in which Vladislav was allied with [[Ivan Shishman of Bulgaria]]).<ref>Ştefănescu, p.93-94</ref> Under [[Radu I of Wallachia|Radu I]] and his successor [[Dan I of Wallachia|Dan I]], the realms in Transylvania and Severin continued to be disputed with Hungary.<ref>Ştefănescu, p.94</ref>
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| − | ===1400-1600===
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| − | {{main|Romania in the Middle Ages}}
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| − | ====Mircea the Elder to Radu the Great====
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| − | [[Image:Tara Rumaneasca map.png|thumb|350px|Wallachia and possessions, ca. 1390<ref>Petre Dan, ''Hotarele românismului în date'', Litera International, 2005, ISBN 973-675-278-X, pp. 32, 34</ref>]]
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| − | As the entire [[Balkan Peninsula]] become an integral part of the emerging [[Ottoman Empire]] (a process which concluded with the [[fall of Constantinople]] to [[Ottoman Dynasty|Sultan]] [[Mehmed II]] in 1453), Wallachia became engaged in frequent confrontations and, in the final years of [[Mircea the Elder]]'s reign, became an Ottoman subject. Mircea (reigned 1386-1418), initially defeated the Ottomans in several battles (including [[Battle of Rovine|that of Rovine]] in 1394), driving them away from [[Dobruja]] and briefly extending his rule to the [[Danube Delta]], Dobruja and [[Silistra]] (ca.1400-1404).<ref>Ştefănescu, p.139{{Verify credibility|date=July 2007}}</ref> He oscillated between alliances with [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund of Hungary]] and [[History of Poland (1385–1569)|Jagiellon Poland]] (taking part in the [[Battle of Nicopolis]]),<ref>Ştefănescu, p.97</ref> and accepted Ottoman [[suzerainty]] in 1415, after [[Mehmed I]] took control of [[Turnu Măgurele|Turnu]] and [[Giurgiu]] — the two ports remained part of the Ottoman state, with brief interruptions, until 1829. In 1418-1420, [[Michael I of Wallachia|Mihail I]] defeated the Ottomans in Severin, only to be killed in battle by the counter-offensive; in 1422, the danger was averted for a short while when [[Dan II of Wallachia|Dan II]] inflicted a defeat on [[Murad II]] with the help of [[Pipo of Ozora|Pippo Spano]].<ref>Ştefănescu, p.105</ref>
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| − | [[Image:Cronica nurenburg.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Wallachia as pictured in the 1493 ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'']]
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| − | The peace signed in 1428 inaugurated a period of internal crisis, as Dan had to defend himself against [[Radu II of Wallachia|Radu Prasnaglava]], who led the first in a series of [[boyar]] coalitions against established princes (in time, these became overtly pro-Ottoman in answer to repression).<ref>Ştefănescu, p.105-106</ref> Victorious in 1431 (the year when the boyar-backed [[Alexandru I Aldea]] took the throne), boyars were dealt successive blows by [[Vlad II Dracul]] (1436-1442; 1443-1447), who nevertheless attempted to compromise between the [[Porte]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref>Ştefănescu, p.106</ref>
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| − | The following decade was marked by the conflict between the rival houses of [[Dăneşti]] and [[Drăculeşti]], the influence of [[John Hunyadi]], [[Regent]] of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]], and, after the neutral reign of [[Vladislav II of Wallachia|Vladislav II]],<ref>Ştefănescu, p.110</ref> by the rise of [[Vlad III Dracula]]. Vlad, during whose rule [[Bucharest]] was first mentioned as a princely residence, exercised terror on rebellious boyars, cut off all links with the Ottomans, and, in 1462, defeated [[Mehmed II]]'s offensive during [[The Night Attack]] before being forced to retreat to [[Târgovişte]] and accepting to pay an increased tribute.<ref>Ştefănescu, p.115-118</ref> His parallel conflicts with the pretenders [[Radu cel Frumos]] and [[Laiotă Basarab]] brought occupations of Wallachia by the troops of [[Matthias Corvinus of Hungary]] and the [[List of rulers of Moldavia|Moldavian prince]] [[Stephen III of Moldavia|Stephen III]] (1473; 1476-1477).<ref>Ştefănescu, p.117-118; 125</ref> [[Radu cel Mare|Radu the Great]] (1495-1508) reached several compromises with the boyars, ensuring a period of internal stability that contrasted his clash with [[Bogdan III cel Orb|Bogdan the Blind]] of Moldavia.<ref>Ştefănescu, p.146</ref>
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| − | ====Mihnea cel Rău to Petru Cercel====
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| − | The late 1400s saw the ascension of the powerful [[Craioveşti]] family, virtually independent rulers of the [[Oltenia]]n [[Ban (title)|banat]], who sought Ottoman support in their rivalry with [[Mihnea cel Rău]] (1508-1510) and replaced him with [[Vlad cel Tânăr|Vlăduţ]]; after the latter proved to be hostile to the bans, the House of Basarab formally ended with the rise of [[Neagoe Basarab]], a Craioveşti.<ref>Ştefănescu, p.140-141</ref> Neagoe's peaceful rule (1512-1521), noted for its cultural aspects (the building of the [[Curtea de Argeş Cathedral]] and [[Renaissance]] influences), also saw an increase in influence for the [[Transylvanian Saxons|Saxon]] merchands in [[Braşov]] and [[Sibiu]], and Wallachia's alliance with [[Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia|Louis II of Hungary]].<ref>Ştefănescu, p.141-144</ref> Under [[Teodosie]], the country was again under a four-month-long Ottoman occupation, a military administration which seemed to be an attempt to create a Wallachian ''[[Subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire|Pashaluk]]''.<ref>Ştefănescu, p.144-145</ref> This danger rallied all boyars in support of [[Radu de la Afumaţi]] (four rules between 1522 and 1529), who lost the battle after an agreement between the Craioveşti and Sultan [[Süleyman I|Süleyman the Magnificent]]; Prince Radu eventually confirmed Süleyman's position as suzerain, and agreed to pay an even higher tribute.<ref>Ştefănescu, p.144-145</ref>
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| − | [[Image:Mihai 1600.png|thumb|250px|Wallachia (highlighted in green) towards the end of the 16th century]]
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| − | Ottoman suzerainty remained virtually unchallenged throughout the following 90 years. [[Radu Paisie]], who was deposed by Süleyman in 1545, ceded the port of [[Brăila]] to Ottoman administration in the same year; his successor [[Mircea Ciobanul]] (1545-1554; 1558-1559), a prince without any claim to noble heritage, was imposed on the throne and consequently agreed to a decrease in autonomy (increasing [[tax]]es and carrying out an armed intervention in Transylvania — supporting the pro-Turkish [[John Zápolya]]).<ref>Ştefănescu, p.162</ref> Conflicts between boyar families became stringent after the rule of [[Pătraşcu cel Bun]], and boyar ascendancy over rulers was obvious under [[Petru cel Tânăr|Petru the Younger]] (1559-1568; a reign dominated by [[Doamna Chiajna]] and marked by huge increases in taxes), [[Mihnea Turcitul]], and [[Petru Cercel]].<ref>Ştefănescu, p.163-164</ref>
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| − | The Ottoman Empire increasingly relied on Wallachia and Moldavia for the supply and matainance of its [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|military forces]]; the [[Wallachian Army|local army]], however, soon disappeared due to the increased costs and the much more obvious efficiency of [[mercenary]] troops.<ref>Berza; Djuvara, p.24-26</ref>
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| − | ===1600s===
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| − | {{main|Early Modern Romania}}
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| − | [[Image:Mihai Viteazul fighting the Turks, Giurgiu, October 1595.jpg|thumb|270px|Fighting between Michael the Brave and the Ottomans in [[Giurgiu]], 1595]]
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| − | Initially profiting from Ottoman support, [[Michael the Brave]] ascended to the throne in 1593, and attacked the troops of [[Murad III]] north and south of the Danube in an alliance with Transylvania's [[Sigismund Báthory]] and Moldavia's [[Aron Vodă]] ''(see [[Battle of Călugăreni]])''. He soon placed himself under the suzerainty of [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolf II]], the [[Holy Roman Emperor]], and, in 1599-1600, intervened in Transylvania against [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]]'s [[List of Polish monarchs|king]] [[Sigismund III Vasa]], placing the region under his authority; his brief rule also extended to Moldavia later in the following year.<ref>Ştefănescu, p.169-180</ref> Following Michael's downfall, Wallachia was occupied by the Polish-Moldavian army of [[Simion Movilă]] ''(see [[Moldavian Magnate Wars]])'', who held the region until 1602, and was subject to [[Nogais|Nogai]] attacks in the same year.<ref>Giurescu, p.65, 68</ref>
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| − | The last stage in the [[Growth of the Ottoman Empire]] brought increased pressures on Wallachia: political control was accompanied by Ottoman economical hegemony, the discarding of the capital in [[Târgovişte]] in favour of [[Bucharest]] (closer to the Ottoman border, and a rapidly-growing trade center), the establishment of [[serfdom]] under Michael the Brave as a measure to increase [[Manorialism|manorial]] revenues, and the decrease in importance of low-ranking boyars (threatened with extinction, they took part in the ''[[seimeni]]'' rebellion of 1655).<ref>Giurescu, p.68-69, 73-75</ref> Furthermore, the growing importance of appointment to high office in front of land ownership brought about an influx of [[Greeks in Romania|Greek]] and [[Levant]]ine families, a process already resented by locals during the rules of [[Radu Mihnea]] in the early 1600s.<ref>Giurescu, p.68-69, 78, 268</ref> [[Matei Basarab]], a boyar appointee, brought a long period of relative peace (1632-1654), with the noted exception of the 1653 [[Battle of Finta]], fought between Wallachians and the troops of Moldavian prince [[Vasile Lupu]] — ending in disaster for the latter, who was replaced with Prince Matei's favourite, [[Gheorghe Ştefan]], on the throne in [[Iaşi]]. A close alliance between Gheorghe Ştefan and Matei's successor [[Constantin Şerban]] was maintained by Transylvania's [[George II Rákóczi]], but their designs for independence from Ottoman rule were crushed by the troops of [[Mehmed IV]] in 1658-1659.<ref>Giurescu, p.74</ref> The reigns of [[Gheorghe Ghica]] and [[Grigore I Ghica]], the sultan's favourites, signified attempts to prevent such incidents; however, they were also the onset of a violent clash between the [[Băleanu family|Băleanu]] and [[Cantacuzino family|Cantacuzino]] boyar families, which was to mark Wallachia's history until the 1680s.<ref>Giurescu, p.78</ref> The Cantacuzinos, threatened by the alliance between the Băleanus and the [[Ghica family|Ghicas]], backed their own choice of princes ([[Antonie Vodă din Popeşti]] and [[George Ducas]])<ref>Giurescu, p.78-79</ref> before promoting themselves — with the ascension of [[Şerban Cantacuzino]] (1678-1688).
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| − | ===Russo-Turkish Wars and the Phanariotes===
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| − | {{main|History of the Russo-Turkish Wars|Phanariotes}}
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| − | [[Image:Türkei und Schutzstaaten Größte Ausdehnung bis zum Karlowitzer Frieden 1699.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Balkans]] in 1699]]
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| − | Wallachia became a target for [[Habsburg Monarchy|Habsburg]] incursions during the last stages of the [[Great Turkish War]] ca.1690, when the ruler [[Constantin Brâncoveanu]] secretly and unsuccessfully negotatied an anti-Ottoman coalition. Brâncoveanu's reign (1688-1714), noted for its late [[Renaissance]] cultural achievements ''(see [[Brâncovenesc style]])'', also coincided with the rise of [[Imperial Russia]] under [[List of Russian rulers|Emperor]] [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] — he was approached by the latter during the [[Russo-Turkish War, 1710-1711|Russo-Turkish War of 1710-1711]], and lost his throne and life sometime after sultan [[Ahmed III]] caught news of the negotiations.<ref>Djuvara, p.31, 157, 336</ref> Despite his denounciation of Brâncoveanu's policies, [[Ştefan Cantacuzino]] attached himself to Habsburg projects and opened the country to the armies of [[Prince Eugene of Savoy]]; he was himself deposed and executed in 1716.<ref>Djuvara, p.31, 336</ref>
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| − | Immediately following the depostion of Prince Ştefan, the Ottomans renounced the purely nominal [[Elective monarchy|elective]] system (which had by then already witnessed the decrease in importance of the [[Sfatul boieresc|Boyar Divan]] over the sultan's decision), and princes of the two [[Danubian Principalities]] were appointed from the [[Phanariotes]] of [[Istanbul]]. Inaugurated by [[Nicholas Mavrocordatos]] in Moldavia after [[Dimitrie Cantemir]], Phanariote rule was brought to Wallachia in 1715 by the very same ruler.<ref>Djuvara, p.31-32</ref> The tense relations between boyars and princes brought a decrease in the number of taxed people (as a [[privilege]] gained by the former), a subsequent increase in total taxes,<ref>Djuvara, p.67-70</ref> and the enlarged powers of a boyar circle in the Divan.<ref>Djuvara, p.124</ref>
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| − | In parallel, Wallachia became the battleground in a succession of wars between the Ottomans on one side and Russia or the Habsburg Monarchy on the other. Mavrocordatos himself was deposed by a boyar rebellion, and arrested by Habsburg troops during the [[Austro-Turkish War of 1716-18]], as the Ottomans had to concede [[Oltenia]] to [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI of Austria]] (the [[Treaty of Passarowitz]]).<ref>Djuvara, p.48, 92; Giurescu, p.94-96</ref> The region, subject to an [[Enlightened absolutism|enlightened absolutist]] rule that soon disenchanted local boyars, was returned to Wallachia in 1739 (the [[Treaty of Belgrade]], upon the close of the [[Austro-Turkish War of 1737-39]]). Prince [[Constantine Mavrocordatos]], who oversaw the new change in borders, was also responsible for the effective abolition of [[serfdom]] in 1746 (which put a stop to the exodus of peasants into [[Transylvania]]);<ref>Djuvara, p.48, 68, 91-92, 227-228, 254-256; Giurescu, p.93</ref> during this period, the [[Ban (title)|ban]] of Oltenia moved his residence from [[Craiova]] to [[Bucharest]], signalling, alongside Mavrocordatos' order to merge his personal [[treasury]] with that of the country, a move towards [[Centralized government|centralism]].<ref>Djuvara, p.59, 71; Giurescu, p.93</ref>
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| − | [[Image:Welcoming the prince of Saxa-Coburg, 1789.jpg|thumb|left|270px|The troops of [[Prince Josias of Coburg]] in [[Bucharest]], 1789]]
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| − | In 1768, during the [[Russo-Turkish War, 1768-1774|Fifth Russo-Turkish War]], Wallachia was placed under its first Russian occupation (helped along by the rebellion of [[Pârvu Cantacuzino]]).<ref>Djuvara, p.285; Giurescu, p.98-99</ref> The [[Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca]] (1774) allowed Russia to intervene in favour of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] Ottoman subjects, curtailing Ottoman pressures — including the decrease in sums owed as [[tribute]]<ref>Berza</ref> — and, in time, relatively increasing internal stability while opening Wallachia to more Russian interventions.<ref>Djuvara, p.76</ref>
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| − | Habsburg troops, under [[Prince Josias of Coburg]], again entered the country during the [[Russo-Turkish War, 1787-1792|Russo-Turkish-Austrian War]], deposing [[Nicolae Mavrogheni|Nicholas Mavrogenis]] in 1789.<ref>Giurescu, p.105-106</ref> A period of crisis followed the Ottoman recovery: Oltenia was devastated by the expeditions of [[Osman Pazvantoğlu]], a powerful rebellious [[pasha]] whose raids even caused prince [[Constantine Hangerli]] to lose his life on suspicion of treason (1799), and [[Alexander Mourousis]] to renounce his throne (1801).<ref>Djuvara, p.17-19, 282; Giurescu, p.107</ref> In 1806, the [[Russo-Turkish War, 1806-1812|Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812]] was partly instigated by the [[Porte]]'s deposition of [[Constantine Ypsilantis]] in Bucharest — in tune with the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it was instigated by the [[First French Empire|French Empire]], and also showed the impact of the Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca (with its permissive attitude towards Russian political influence in the [[Danubian Principalities]]); the war brought the invasion of [[Mikhail Andreyevich Miloradovich]].<ref>Djuvara, p.284-286; Giurescu, p.107-109</ref>
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| − | [[Image:Rom1793-1812.png|thumb|250px|right|Principality of Wallachia, 1793-1812, highlighted in green]]
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| − | After the [[Treaty of Bucharest, 1812|Peace of Bucharest]], the rule of [[Ioan Gheorghe Caragea]], although remembered for a major [[Caragea's plague|plague epidemic]], was notable for its cultural and industrial ventures.<ref>Djuvara, p.165, 168-169; Giurescu, p.252</ref> During the period, Wallachia increased its strategic importance for most European states interested in supervising Russian expansion; [[Consul (representative)|consulates]] were opened in Bucharest, having an indirect but major impact on Wallachian economy through the protection they extended to ''[[sudiţi]]'' traders (who soon competed successfully against local [[guild]]s).<ref>Djuvara, p.184-187; Giurescu, p.114, 115, 288</ref>
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| − | ===From Wallachia to Romania===
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| − | {{main|National awakening of Romania}}
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| − | ====Early 1800s====
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| − | The death of prince [[Alexandru Suţu|Alexander Soutzos]] in 1821, coinciding with the outbreak of the [[Greek War of Independence]], established a boyar [[Regent|regency]] which attempted to block the arrival of [[Scarlat Callimachi]] to his throne in Bucharest. The parallel [[Wallachian uprising of 1821|uprising in Oltenia]], carried out by the [[Pandurs|Pandur]] leader [[Tudor Vladimirescu]], although aimed at overthrowing the ascendancy of [[Greeks in Romania|Greeks]],<ref>Djuvara, p.89, 299</ref> compromised with the Greek revolutionaries in the [[Filiki Eteria]] and allied itself with the regents,<ref>Djuvara, p.297</ref> while seeking Russian support<ref>Giurescu, p.115</ref> ''(see also: [[Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire]])''.
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| − | On March 21, 1821, Vladimirescu entered Bucharest. For the following weeks, relations between him and his allies worsened, especially after he sought an agreement with the Ottomans;<ref>Djuvara, p.298</ref> Eteria's leader [[Alexander Ypsilantis (1792-1828)|Alexander Ypsilantis]], who had established himself in Moldavia and, after May, in northern Wallachia, viewed the alliance as broken — he had Vladimirescu executed, and faced the Ottoman intervention without Pandur or Russian backing, suffering major defeats in Bucharest and [[Drăgăşani]] (before retreating to [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]] custody in [[Transylvania]]).<ref>Djuvara, p.301; Giurescu, p.116-117</ref> These violent events, which had seen the majority of Phanariotes siding with Ypsilantis, made [[Ottoman Dynasty|Sultan]] [[Mahmud II]] place the Principalities under its occupation (evicted by a request of several European powers),<ref>Djuvara, p.307</ref> and sanction the end of Phanariote rules: in Wallachia, the first prince to be considered a local one after 1715 was [[Grigore IV Ghica]]. Although the new system was confirmed for the rest of Wallachia's existence as a state, Ghica's rule was abruptly ended by the devastating [[Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829|Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829]].<ref>Djuvara, p.321</ref>
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| − | [[Image:Obşteasca Adunare, 1837.jpg|thumb|340px|The [[Sfatul boieresc|Legislative Assembly]] of Wallachia in 1837]]
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| − | The 1829 [[Treaty of Adrianople]], without overturning Ottoman [[suzerainty]], placed Wallachia and Moldavia under Russian military rule, awarding them the first common institutions and the semblance of a [[constitution]] ''(see [[Regulamentul Organic]])''. Wallachia was returned ownership of [[Brăila]], [[Giurgiu]] (both of which soon developed into major trading cities on the [[Danube]]), and [[Turnu Măgurele]].<ref>Giurescu, p.122, 127</ref> The treaty also allowed Moldavia and Wallachia to freely trade with countries other than the Ottoman Empire, which signalled substantial economic and urban growth, as well as improving the peasant situation.<ref>Djuvara, p.262, 324; Giurescu, p.127, 266</ref> Many of the provisions had been specified by the 1826 [[Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi|Akkerman Convention]] between Russia and the Ottomans (it had never been fully implemented in the three-year interval).<ref>Djuvara, p.323</ref> The duty of overseeing of the Principalities was left to Russian general [[Pavel Kiselyov]]; this interval was marked by a series of major changes, including the reestablishment of a [[Wallachian Army]] (1831), a [[tax reform]] (which nonetheless confirmed [[tax exemption]]s for the [[privilege]]d), as well as major urban works in Bucharest and other cities.<ref>Djuvara, p.323-324; Giurescu, p.122-127</ref> In 1834, Wallachia's throne was occupied by [[Alexandru II Ghica]] — a move in contradiction with the Adrianople treaty, as he had not been elected by the new [[Sfatul boieresc|Legislative Assembly]]; removed by the suzerains in 1842, he was replaced with an elected prince, [[Gheorghe Bibescu]].<ref>Djuvara, p.325</ref>
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| − | ====1840s-1850s====
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| − | {{main|1848 Wallachian revolution}}
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| − | [[Image:1848-revolutia-Romania.jpg|thumb|left|200px|1848 Revolutionaries carrying an early version of the [[Flag of Romania|Romanian flag]]]]
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| − | Opposition to Ghica's arbitrary and highly [[Conservatism|conservative]] rule, together with the rise of [[Liberalism in Romania|liberal]] and [[Radicalism (historical)|radical]] currents, was first felt with the protests voiced by [[Ion Câmpineanu]] (quickly repressed);<ref>Djuvara, p.329; Giurescu, p.134</ref> subsequently, it became increasingly [[Conspiracy (political)|conspiratorial]], and centered on those [[Secret society|secret societies]] created by young officers such as [[Nicolae Bălcescu]] and [[Mitică Filipescu]].<ref>Djuvara, p.330; Giurescu, p.132-133</ref>
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| − | ''Frăţia'', a clandestine movement created in 1843, began planning a revolution to overthrow Bibescu and repeal ''Regulamentul Organic'' in 1848 (inspired by the [[Revolutions of 1848|European rebellions of the same year]]). Their pan-Wallachian ''[[coup d'état]]'' was initially successful only near [[Turnu Măgurele]], where crowds cheered the ''[[Islaz Proclamation]]'' (June 21); among others, the document called for [[Freedom (political)|political freedoms]], independence, [[land reform]], and the creation of a national guard.<ref>Djuvara, p.331; Giurescu, p.133-134</ref> On June 11-12, the movement was successful in deposing Bibescu and establishing a Provisional Government. Although sympathetic to the anti-Russian goals of the revolution, the Ottomans were pressured by Russia into repressing it: Ottoman troops entered Bucharest on September 13.<ref>Djuvara, p.331; Giurescu, p.136-137</ref> Russian and Turkish troops, present until 1851, brought [[Barbu Dimitrie Ştirbei]] to the throne, during which interval most participants in the revolution were sent into exile.
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| − | Briefly under renewed Russian occupation during the [[Crimean War]], Wallachia and Moldavia were given a new status with a neutral [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]] administration (1854-1856) and the [[Treaty of Paris (1856)|Treaty of Paris]]: a tutelage shared by Ottomans and a Congress of [[Great Power]]s (the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]], the [[Second French Empire]], the [[Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia]], the Austrian Empire, [[Prussia]], and, albeit never again fully, Russia), with a ''[[kaymakam]]''-led internal administration. The emerging movement for a union of the [[Danubian Principalities]] (a demand first voiced in 1848, and a cause cemented by the return of revolutionary exiles) was advocated by the French and their Sardinian allies, supported by Russia and Prussia, but was rejected or suspicioned by all other overseers.<ref>Giurescu, p.139-141</ref>
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| − | [[Image:Divanul Ad-Hoc, 1857.jpg|thumb|320px|Wallachia's ''[[ad-hoc divan]]'' in 1857]]
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| − | After an intense campaign, a formal union was ultimately granted: nevertheless, elections for the ''[[ad-hoc divan]]s'' of 1859 profited from a legal ambiguity (the text of the final agreement specified two thrones, but did not prevent any single person from simultaneously taking part in and winning elections in both Bucharest and [[Iaşi]]). [[Alexander John Cuza]], who ran for the unionist ''[[Partida Naţională]]'', won the elections in Moldavia on January 5; Wallachia, which was expected by the unionists to carry the same vote, returned a majority of anti-unionists to its ''divan''.<ref>Giurescu, p.142</ref>
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| − | Those elected changed their allegiance after a mass protest of Bucharest crowds,<ref>Giurescu, p.142</ref> and Cuza was voted prince of Wallachia on February 5 (January 24 [[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style]]), consequently confirmed as ''[[Domnitor]]'' of the ''United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia'' (''of Romania'' from 1861). Internationally recognized only for the duration of his reign, the union was irreversible after the ascension of [[Carol I of Romania|Carol I]] in 1866 (coinciding with the [[Austro-Prussian War]], it came at a time when Austria, the main opponent of the decision, was not in a position to intervene).
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| − | ==See also==
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| − | *[[Flag and coat of arms of Wallachia]]
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| − | *[[History of Bucharest]]
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| − | *[[List of Wallachian rulers]]
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| − | == Notes ==
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| − | <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
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| − | <references/>
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| − | </div>
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| − | ==References==
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| − | *Mihai Berza, "Haraciul Moldovei şi al Ţării Româneşti în sec. XV–XIX," in ''Studii şi Materiale de Istorie Medie'', II, 1957, p.7–47
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| − | *[[Neagu Djuvara]], ''Între Orient şi Occident. Ţările române la începutul epocii moderne'', Humanitas, Bucharest, 1995
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| − | *[[Constantin C. Giurescu]], ''Istoria Bucureştilor. Din cele mai vechi timpuri pînă în zilele noastre'', Ed. Pentru Literatură, Bucharest, 1966
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| − | *Ştefan Ştefănescu, ''Istoria medie a României'', Vol. I, Bucharest, 1991
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| − | ==External links==
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| − | *[http://www.patzinakia.ro/ The Romanian Group for an Alternative History Website] - provides monument information, original documents, books, studies and other info concerning the Romanian Middle Ages
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| − | {{Romanian_historical_regions}}
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| − | [[Category:history]]
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| − | {{Credit|163926375}}
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