Suleiman the Magnificent
Suleiman I, in Turkish language Süleyman and in the Arabic alphabet سليمان (nicknamed 'the Magnificent' in Europe and 'the Lawgiver' in the Islamic World, in Turkish el-Kanuni), (November 6, 1494 – September 5/6,1566) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire and Caliph of Islam from 1520 to 1566 and successor to Selim I. He was born at Trabzon in modern Turkey.
Known as Suleiman the Magnificent but also, especially among Muslims, as Suleiman the Just, Ottoman power reach its zenith and became a world power under his rule. His rule represented one of the most just and orderly periods of Ottoman history. Like most rulers of the time, he was on the one hand ruthless in dealing with those he regarded as a threat to his own plans for the succession but on the other hand, unlike many, he had a profound concern for justice. He codified the law to guard against corruption, which he was determined to root out. Many Muslims regard him as an example of the ideal or model ruler. Although the empire continued to expand for a century after his death, this period was followed by a very long decline in the main due to his successors' indifference toward good governance. On the borders of his empire, territorial expansion and hostility with competing powers meant that life was unstable but for many within the empire, including minorities, the reality was a pax ottomanica. Suleiman can properly be regarded as one of history's more humane rulers who had a dual sense of obligation and responsibility, to God and to society.
Achievements
At the age of seven he was sent to study science, history, literature, theology, and military techniques in the schools of the Istanbul palace. His early experience of government was as governor of several provinces, most notably Bolu in northern Anatolia, and his mother's homeland of Theodosia in Crimea at the age of 15. After succeeding his father on his death, Suleiman began a series of military conquests, starting with the capture of Belgrade in 1521. In 1522 he captured Rhodes after a siege, allowing the Knights Hospitaller (Knights of St. John) (originally formed during the Crusades) to evacuate to Malta.
On August 29, 1526 Suleiman defeated Louis II of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács, occupying most of Hungary before giving it to John Zapolya, the prince of Transylvania, to govern. Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and his brother Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria retook Hungary, in response to which Süleyman twice tried to re-invade, twice being beaten by the weather after reaching Vienna in 1529 and 1532. In 1533 a treaty was signed with Ferdinand, splitting Hungary between the Habsburgs and Zapolya. On Zapolya's death, Ferdinand was left the Hungarian territories, prompting Süleyman to annex Hungary, resulting in several struggles and peace treaties restoring the status-quo. Martin Luther wrote his tract, On War Against the Turks (1529) as a direct response to Suleiman's siege of Vienna. He responded to the political moreso than to the religious threat, as he perceived this, of Islam but regarded the Turks and the Pope as 'Anti-Christs'. 'Just as the Pope', he wrote, 'is the Antichrist, so the Turk is the very devil incarnate' (1967: 181). The Turk was the 'body', the latter the 'spirit' of the Antichrist. The Turks were also, however, 'people of the wrath of God', since Luther cautioned that unless Europeans repented of their sins, the Turks would triumph. Through the Turks, who were both 'God's rod and the devil's servants' God was punishing Christians for their unbelief (170). As Bernard Lewis (1993) points out, Suleiman's withdrawal was more of an orderly retreat than a defeat and 'initiate d a century and a half of stalemate during which the two empires - the Hapsburgs and the Ottomans - battled for the control of Hungary and ultimately of central Europe' (19).
In the following two decades, huge territories of North Africa west to Morocco and all Middle East north to Persia were annexed. This quick expansion was associated with naval dominance for a short period in the Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea and Persian Gulf. In 1562 he conquered Transylvania. He was not so successful in 1565 when the Knights of Malta succeeded in lifting the siege of Malta (1565), which began on May 18 and lasted until September 8. Süleyman beleived that God wanted Islam to control the whole world and sincerely believed that the world was God's gift to the Caliph of Islam. Writing to the Sherif of Mecca, he stated that God has 'brought him to the throne ... and to the position of the Caliphate'. The Sherif replied that 'By conquering the countries of the Franks and their likes, you are senior to us and to all the sultans of Islam' (Inalcik: 321).
While he may have been seen as dangerous to the outside world, he was known as a fair ruler within the empire, fought corruption, and was a great patron of artists and philosophers. Many Muslims regards his rule as one of the best examples of good governance. He was also noted as one of the greatest Islamic poets, and an accomplished goldsmith. He earned his nickname the Lawmaker from his complete reconstruction of the Ottoman law system. The laws that he gathered covered almost every aspect of life at the time. He acted against corrupt officials, especially those who overtaxed the population on one occassion returning an overpayment of taxes to Egypt. He liked to sit in secret on court hearings to ensure that justice was done. Famously, he reversed a death sentence in the case of the Christian, Molla Kabiz who had asserted the superiority of Jesus over Muhammad, saying that his arguments had not been disproven although in a later trial, they were judged to have been refuted. He appears to have had a genuine concern for the welfare of his subjects.
Süleyman died in 1566, the night before victory at the Battle of Szigetvar, in Hungary. He is buried in a mausoleum with his wife Roxelana (Khourrem) at the Süleymaniye Mosque, which was built for him by the famous architect,Sinan.
At the time of his death, the major Muslim cities (Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, and Baghdad), many Balkan provinces up to today's Austria, and most of North Africa were under the control of the empire.
Rebuilds walls of Jerusalem
By 1517 the Islamic Ottoman Empire under Selim I took Palestine from the Egyptian Mamelukes (1250–1517). The Ottomans had a benevolent attitude towards the Jews, having welcomed thousands of Jewish refugees who had recently been massacred and expelled from Spain by Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1492. The Sultan was so taken with Jerusalem and its plight that he ordered that a magnificent surrounding fortress-wall built around the entire city (which was not that large at that time). This wall still stands and can be seen today.
The succession struggle
Suleiman broke with convention by raising two slaves to positions of power. One, Damat Ibrahim Pasha] was to rise to become Grand Vizier for 13 years. The other, a captured Ukrainian and daughter of a Eastern Orthodox Church priest, Anastasiya Lisovska (also known by several other names, including Roxelana and Khourrem (Hürrem)), was to rise through the ranks of the Harem to become his favorite wife, to the surprise of the empire and the international community. By her he had one daughter, Mihrimar(Mihrumâh), and the sons Mehmed (who died young), Selim II, Bayezid and Cihangir (born physically disabled).
In power struggles apparently instigated by Anastasiya Lisovska, Süleyman had İbrahim (a supporter of Süleyman's firstborn son Mustafa) murdered and replaced with her son-in-law Rustem Pasha (Rustem Paşa). Later, apparently believing that his popularity with the army threatened his own position, he had Mustafa strangulation|strangled too, leaving the way clear for one of Khourrem's (Hürrem) sons.
In anticipation of Suleiman's death which, under the ruling practice of fratricide would also bring death to either Selim or Bayezid, in 1559 the brothers engaged in a series of succession battles, resulting in Süleyman ordering the death of Bayezid, who was killed on September 25 1561, after he was returned to the empire by the Shah after fleeing to Iran. Therefore it was Selim who eventually succeeded Suleiman, though he was to take little interest in government. In as much as many Muslims regard Suleiman as an example of a Muslim leader approximating the ideal, his reign can be regarded as a period of revitalization within Islam such as those that occur from time to time within religious and cultural tradiations, similar to the Muslim belief that God raises up a reviver for each century. Certainly, his rule seems closer to the ideals of the rightly guided Caliphs than to the more despotic and godless rule of some of his own successors.
Reference
- Lewis, Bernard Islam and the West, NY, Oxford University Press, 1993 ISBN 0195090611
- Halil Inalchik 'Rise of the Ottomans' 295-232 in P. M Holt, Ann K. S Lambton and Bernard Lewis (eds) The Cambridge History of Islam, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1970.
- Luther, Martin 'On War Against the Turks', 155- 205 in Luther's Works, Volume 46 (American Edition) edited and translated by Schultz, Robert C, Philadephia, Fortress Press, 1967.
Credits
New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:
The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:
Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.
