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Stephen Jay Gould

Stephen Jay Gould (September 10, 1941 – May 20, 2002) was an American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and historian of science. He was also one of the most influential and widely read writers of popular science of his generation, which led many authors to call him "America's unofficial evolutionist laureate." He spent most of his career teaching at Harvard University and working at the American Museum of Natural History.

Early in his career he developed with Niles Eldredge the theory of punctuated equilibrium, where evolutionary change occurs relatively rapidly to comparatively longer periods of evolutionary stability. According to Gould, punctuated equilibrium revised a key pillar of neo-Darwinism.^[1] Some evolutionary biologists have argued that the theory was an important insight, but merely modified neo-Darwinism in a manner which was fully compatible with what had been known before.^[2]

Gould received many accolades for his scholarly work^[3] and popular expositions of natural history,^[4] but was criticized by some in the biological community who felt his public presentations were, in various respects, out of step with mainstream evolutionary theory. Other critics went further and accused Gould of misrepresenting their work;^[5] likewise Gould's critics were accused of misrepresenting his.^[6] The public debates between those that agreed with Gould and those that criticized him have been so quarrelsome that they have been dubbed "The Darwin Wars" by several commentators.^[7].

Personal life

Gould was born and raised in Queens, New York, NY. His father Leonard was a court stenographer, and his mother Eleanor an artist. When Gould was five years old his father took him to the "Hall of Dinosaurs" in the American Museum of Natural History, where he first met Tyrannosaurus rex. "I had no idea there were such things—I was awestruck," Gould once recalled.^[8] It was in that moment that he decided he would become a paleontologist.

Raised in a nominally Jewish home, Gould did not formally practice organized religion and preferred to be called an agnostic. Politically, though he "had been brought up by a Marxist father," he is quoted as saying that his politics were "very different" from his. Throughout his career and writings he spoke out against cultural oppression in all its forms, especially what he saw as pseudoscience in the service of racism and sexism. In the early 1970s Gould joined a group called "Science for the People," a left-wing organization which emerged from the antiwar movement. He also gave a course titled "Biology as a Social Weapon," which, Gould explained, was intended to foster "a powerful political and moral vision of how science, properly interpreted and used to empower all the people, might truly help us to be free."^{[citation needed]}

Gould was twice married; to Deborah Lee in 1965 which ended in divorce, and to artist Rhonda Roland Shearer in 1995. Gould had two children, Jesse and Ethan, by his first marriage, and two stepchildren, Jade and London.

In July 1982 Gould was diagnosed with abdominal mesothelioma. He later published a column in Discover magazine, titled "The Median Isn't the Message," in which he discusses his discovery that mesothelioma patients had only a median lifespan of eight months after diagnosis. He then describes the research he uncovered behind this number, and his relief upon the realization that statistics are not destiny. After his diagnosis and receiving an experimental treatment, Gould continued to live for nearly twenty years. His column became a source of comfort for many cancer patients.

It was during his bout with abdominal mesothelioma that Gould became a user of marijuana to alleviate the nausea associated with his cancer treatments. According to Gould, his use of the illegal drug had the "most important effect" on his eventual cure.^[9] His personal success with the substance led him to become a medical marijuana advocate later in his life. In 1998 Gould testified in the case of Jim Wakeford, a Canadian medical-marijuana user and activist.

Stephen Jay Gould died May 20, 2002 from a metastatic adenocarcinoma of the lung (a form of lung cancer, which had spread to his brain). This cancer was completely unrelated to his abdominal mesothelioma, from which he had fully recovered almost twenty years earlier. He died in his home "in a bed set up in the library of his Soho loft, surrounded by his wife Rhonda, his mother Eleanor, and the many books he loved."^[10]

Gould as a scientist

Gould began his higher education at Antioch College, a distinguished liberal arts school in Ohio, graduating with a degree in geology in 1963. He spent a brief period of this time studying at the University of Leeds, Englandan experience which may have influenced the development of his nascent political awareness.^[11] After completing his graduate work at Columbia University in 1967 under the guidance of Norman Newell, he was immediately hired by Harvard University where he worked until the end of his life (1967-2002). In 1973 Harvard promoted him to Professor of Geology and Curator of Invertebrate Paleontology at the institution's Museum of Comparative Zoology, and in 1982 was awarded the title of Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology. In 1983 he was awarded fellowship into the American Association for the Advancement of Science, where he later served as president (2000). He also served as president of the Paleontological Society (1985-1986) and the Society for the Study of Evolution (1990-1991). In 1989 Gould was elected into the body of the National Academy of Sciences.

Most of Gould's empirical research was on land snails. His early work was on the Bermudian genus Poecilozonites, while his later work concentrated on the West Indian genus Cerion.

In addition to his work on punctuated equilibrium and evolutionary developmental biology, Gould had championed biological constraints and other non-selectionist forces in evolution. Together with Richard Lewontin they authored an influential 1979 paper critiquing the overuse of adaptation in biology.^[12] Their paper introduced the architectural word "spandrel" in an evolutionary context, using it to mean a feature of an organism that exists as a necessary consequence of other features and not built directly, piece by piece, by natural selection.^[13] The relative frequency of spandrels, so defined, versus adaptive features in nature, remains a controversial topic in evolutionary biology.

Shortly before his death, Gould published a long treatise recapitulating his version of modern evolutionary theory, written primarily for the technical audience of evolutionary biologists: The Structure of Evolutionary Theory.

Gould as a public figure

Gould became widely known through his popular science essays in Natural History magazine and his best-selling books on evolution. Many of his essays were reprinted in collected volumes, such as Ever Since Darwin and The Panda's Thumb, while his popular treatises included books such as The Mismeasure of Man, Wonderful Life and Full House.

Gould was a passionate advocate of evolutionary theory and wrote prolifically on the subject, trying to communicate his understanding of contemporary evolutionary theories to a wide audience. A recurring theme in his writings is the history and development of evolutionary, and pre-evolutionary, thought. He was also an enthusiastic baseball fan and made frequent references to the sport in his essays.^[14]

Although a proud Darwinist, his emphasis was less gradualist and reductionist than most neo-Darwinists. He also opposed many aspects of sociobiology and its intellectual descendant evolutionary psychology. He spent much of his time fighting against creationism (and the related constructs Creation Science and Intelligent Design) and other forms of pseudoscience. Most notably, Gould provided expert testimony against the equal-time creationism law in McLean v. Arkansas. Gould used the term "Non-Overlapping Magisteria" (NOMA) to describe how, in his view, science and religion could not comment on each other's realm.^[15]

Gould had become a noted public face of science, and often appeared on television. He once voiced a cartoon version of himself on an episode of The Simpsons, a widely popular animated television program. The Simpsons also paid tribute to him after his death. In an episode entitled Papa's Got A Brand New Badge, at the beginning of the credits, the message "Dedicated to the memory of Stephen Jay Gould" appears with a picture from the episode he was in.

Controversies

Gould was considered by many people to be one of the pre-eminent theoreticians in his field. However, a good number of evolutionary biologists have disagreed with the way in which Gould publicly presented his views. John Maynard Smith, for example, thought that Gould trivialized the role of adaptation, and overestimated the possible role of mutations of large effect.^[16] In a recent review of Daniel Dennett's book Darwin's Dangerous Idea, Maynard Smith wrote that Gould "is giving non-biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory."^[17] But Maynard Smith has not been consistently negative, writing in a review of The Panda's Thumb that often "he infuriates me, but I hope he will go right on writing essays like these."^[18] Maynard Smith was also among those who welcomed Gould's reinvigoration of evolutionary paleontology.^[19]

One reason for such criticism was that Gould appeared to be presenting his ideas as a revolutionary way of understanding evolution, which relegated natural selection to a much less important position. As such, many non-specialists became convinced (due to his early writings) that Darwinian explanations had been proven to be unscientific (which Gould never wanted to imply). His works were sometimes used out of context as a "proof" that scientists no longer understood how organisms evolved, giving creationists ammunition in their battle against evolutionary theory.^[20]Gould himself corrected some of these misinterpretations and distortions of his teachings in later works.^[21].

Gould also had a long-running feud with E. O. Wilson, Richard Dawkins and other evolutionary biologists over sociobiology and its descendant evolutionary psychology, which Gould strongly opposed but Dawkins, Daniel Dennett, Steven Pinker and others strongly advocated.^[22] Gould and Dawkins also disagreed over the importance of gene selection in evolution: Dawkins argued that all evolution is ultimately caused by gene competition, while Gould advocated the importance of higher-level competition including, but certainly not limited to, species selection. Strong criticism of Gould can be found in Dawkins' The Blind Watchmaker and Dennett's Darwin's Dangerous Idea. Dennett's criticism has tended to be harsher, while Dawkins praises Gould in evolutionary topics other than those of contention. Pinker accuses Gould, Lewontin and other opponents of evolutionary psychology of being "radical scientists," whose stance on human nature is influenced by politics rather than science.^[23] Gould countered that sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists are often heavily influenced, perhaps unconsciously, by their own prejudices and interests.^[24].

Gould's interpretation of the Cambrian Burgess Shale fossils in his book Wonderful Life was criticized by Simon Conway Morris in his 1998 book The Crucible Of Creation.^[25] Gould had emphasized the "weirdness" of the Burgess Shale fauna, and the role of unpredictable, contingent phenomena in determining which members of this fauna survived and flourished. Conway Morris stressed the phylogenetic linkages between the Burgess Shale forms and modern taxa, particularly, the importance of convergent evolution in producing general predictable responses to similar environmental circumstances. Paleontologist Richard Fortey has noted that prior to the release of Wonderful Life Conway Morris shared many of Gould's sentiments and views. It was only after publication of Wonderful Life that Conway Morris revised his interpretation and adopted a more deterministic stance towards the history of life.^[26]

Mismeasure of Man

Gould was also the author of The Mismeasure of Man (1981) a history and skeptical inquiry of psychometrics and intelligence testing. Gould investigated many of the techniques of nineteenth century craniometry, as well as modern-day psychological testingand claimed they developed unnecessarily from an unfounded faith in biological determinism. The Mismeasure of Man has generated perhaps the most controversy of all Gould's books, and has been subject to widespread praise (by skeptics) and extensive criticism (by psychologists)including claims by some scientists that Gould had misrepresented their work.^[27]

Books

For technical audiences
- Ontogeny and Phylogeny (Harvard University Press, 1977), ISBN 0-674-63940-5
- The Structure of Evolutionary Theory (Harvard University Press, 2002), ISBN 0-674-00613-5

For general audiences
- The Mismeasure of Man (W.W. Norton, 1981; revised 1996), ISBN 0-393-03972-2
- Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle (Harvard University Press, 1987), ISBN 0-674-89198-8
- Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History (W.W. Norton, 1989), ISBN 0-393-02705-8
- Full House: The Spread of Excellence From Plato to Darwin (Harmony Books, 1996), ISBN 0-517-70394-7 (Released outside North America as Life's Grandeur: The Spread of Excellence From Plato to Darwin (Jonathan Cape Ltd, 1996), ISBN 0-099-89360-6)
- Questioning the Millennium: A Rationalist's Guide to a Precisely Arbitrary Countdown (Harmony, 1997); also published in a substantially extended second edition (Harmony, 1999), ISBN 0-609-60541-0
- Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life (Ballantine Books, 1999), ISBN 0-345-43009-3
- The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox: Mending the Gap Between Science and the Humanities (Harmony, 2003), ISBN 0-609-60140-7

Collected essays from Natural History magazine
- Ever Since Darwin: Reflections in Natural History (Norton, 1977), ISBN 0-393-06425-5
- The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History (Norton, 1980), ISBN 0-393-01380-4
- Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes: Further Reflections in Natural History (Norton, 1983), ISBN 0-393-01716-8
- The Flamingo's Smile (Norton, 1985), ISBN 0-393-02228-5
- Bully for Brontosaurus (Norton, 1991), ISBN 0-393-02961-1
- Eight Little Piggies (Norton, 1994), ISBN 0-393-03416-X
- Dinosaur in a Haystack (Harmony, 1995), ISBN 0-517-70393-9
- Leonardo's Mountain of Clams and the Diet of Worms (Harmony, 1998), ISBN 0-609-60141-5
- The Lying Stones of Marrakech: Penultimate Reflections in Natural History (Harmony, 2000), ISBN 0-609-60142-3
- I Have Landed: The End of a Beginning in Natural History (Harmony, 2001), ISBN 0-609-60143-1

Other essay collections
- An Urchin in the Storm (Norton, 1987), ISBN 0-393-02492-X
- Triumph and Tragedy in Mudville: A Lifelong Passion for Baseball (Norton, 2003), ISBN 0-393-05755-0
- Paul McGarr, ed., The Richness of Life: A Stephen Jay Gould Reader (Jonathan Cape, 2006), ISBN 0-224-07607-8

End material

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Stephen Jay Gould

Notes

↑ Stephen Jay Gould (2002) pp. 15-21.
↑ John Maynard Smith (1984).
↑ The Harvard Gazette "Paleontologist, author Gould dies at 60" May 20, 2002.
↑ Michael Shermer (2002) "This View of Science" Social Studies of Science 32 (August): 518.
Awards include a National Book Award for The Panda’s Thumb, a National Book Critics Circle Award for The Mismeasure of Man, the Phi Beta Kappa Book Award for Hen’s Teeth and Horse’s Toes, and a Pulitzer Prize Finalist for Wonderful Life, on which Gould commented ‘close but, as they say, no cigar’. Forty-four honorary degrees and 66 major fellowships, medals, and awards bear witness to the depth and scope of his accomplishments in both the sciences and humanities: Member of the National Academy of Sciences, President and Fellow of AAAS, MacArthur Foundation ‘genius’ Fellowship (in the first group of awardees), Humanist Laureate from the Academy of Humanism, Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Fellow of the European Union of Geosciences, Associate of the Mus´eum National D’Histoire Naturelle Paris, the Schuchert Award for excellence in paleontological research, Scientist of the Year from Discover magazine, the Silver Medal from the Zoological Society of London, the Gold Medal for Service to Zoology from the Linnean Society of London, the Edinburgh Medal from the City of Edinburgh, the Britannica Award and Gold Medal for dissemination of public knowledge, Public Service Award from the Geological Society of America, Anthropology in Media Award from the American Anthropological Association, Distinguished Service Award from the National Association of Biology Teachers, Distinguished Scientist Award from UCLA, the Randi Award for Skeptic of the Year from the Skeptics Society, and a Festschrift in his honour at Caltech.
↑ Leda Cosmides and John Tooby (1997) write:
John Maynard Smith, one of the world's leading evolutionary biologists, recently summarized in the NYRB the sharply conflicting assessments of Stephen Jay Gould: "Because of the excellence of his essays, he has come to be seen by non-biologists as the preeminent evolutionary theorist. In contrast, the evolutionary biologists with whom I have discussed his work tend to see him as a man whose ideas are so confused as to be hardly worth bothering with, but as one who should not be publicly criticized because he is at least on our side against the creationists." (NYRB, Nov. 30th 1995, p. 46). No one can take any pleasure in the evident pain Gould is experiencing now that his actual standing within the community of professional evolutionary biologists is finally becoming more widely known. . . But as Maynard Smith points out, more is at stake. Gould "is giving non-biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory"or as Ernst Mayr says of Gould and his small group of alliesthey "quite conspicuously misrepresent the views of [biology's] leading spokesmen." Indeed, although Gould characterizes his critics as "anonymous" and "a tiny coterie," nearly every major evolutionary biologist of our era has weighed in in a vain attempt to correct the tangle of confusions that the higher profile Gould has inundated the intellectual world with.* The point is not that Gould is the object of some criticismso properly are we allit is that his reputation as a credible and balanced authority about evolutionary biology is non-existent among those who are in a professional position to know. *These include Ernst Mayr, John Maynard Smith, George Williams, Bill Hamilton, Richard Dawkins, E.O. Wilson, Tim Clutton-Brock, Paul Harvey, Brian Charlesworth, Jerry Coyne, Robert Trivers, John Alcock, Randy Thornhill, and many others.
It should be noted that Ernst Mayr in this quotation is not speaking of Gould in particular, and does not mention him by name, but is speaking of many critics of the Neo-Darwinian Synthesis generally. Some of the names Tooby and Cosmides cite are quite debatableMayr, Williams, Hamilton, Dawkins, Wilson, Coyne, and Trivers, for exampledebates over issues of theory cannot be taken as an indication of respective ability and scholarship. In reference to Maynard Smith, Gould writes (1997):

A false fact can be refuted, a false argument exposed; but how can one respond to a purely ad hominem attack? This harder, and altogether more discouraging, task may best be achieved by exposing internal inconsistency and unfairness of rhetoric. . . . It seems futile to reply to an attack so empty of content, and based only on comments by anonymous critics . . . Instead of responding to Maynard Smith's attack against my integrity and scholarship, citing people unknown and with arguments unmentioned, let me, instead, merely remind him of the blatant inconsistency between his admirable past and lamentable present. Some sixteen years ago he wrote a highly critical but wonderfully supportive review of my early book of essays, The Panda's Thumb, stating: "I hope it will be obvious that my wish to argue with Gould is a compliment, not a criticism." He then attended my series of Tanner Lectures at Cambridge in 1984 and wrote in a report for Nature, and under the remarkable title "Paleontology at the High Table," the kindest and most supportive critical commentary I have ever received. He argued that the work of a small group of American paleobiologists had brought the entire subject back to theoretical centrality within the evolutionary sciences. . . . Most remarkably of all, he then reviewed two books on dinosaurs for this journal and devoted more than half his space (much to the distress, I am sure, of the authors of the books supposedly under review) to a trenchant critique of my views on adaptation. . . . So we face the enigma of a man who has written numerous articles, amounting to tens of thousands of words, about my work—always strongly and incisively critical, always richly informed (and always, I might add, enormously appreciated by me). But now Maynard Smith needs to canvass unnamed colleagues to find out that my ideas are "hardly worth bothering with." He really ought to be asking himself why he has been bothering about my work so intensely, and for so many years. Why this dramatic change?
↑ Stephen Jay Gould (2002) pp. 1006-1021. [1]
↑ See Andrew Brown (1999), Richard Morris (2001), and Steve Rose (2002).
↑ Michelle Green (1986) "Stephen Jay Gould: driven by a hunger to learn and to write" People Weekly June 2.
↑ Stephen Jay Gould quoted in Lester Grinspoon, Marihuana, The Forbidden Medicine, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993, pp. 39-41.
↑ Jill Krementz (2002) "Jill Krementz Photo Journal" New York Social Diary June 2.
↑ Masha Etkin (2002) "A Tribute to Stephen Jay Gould '63" Antiochian, Winter edition.
↑ Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin (1979)
↑ Examples include the "masculinized genitalia in female hyenas, exaptive use of an umbilicus as a brooding chamber by snails, the shoulder hump of the giant Irish deer, and several key features of human mentality." (Gould 1997c)
↑ Including enough essays to publish a posthumous anthology Triumph and Tragedy in Mudville. See his essays "The Streak of Streaks" and "Baseball's reliquary" as examples. For an extensive quantitative content analysis of Gould's 300 Natural History essays, see Michael Shermer's "This View of Science" (2002). Shermer found that 78 were primarily about evolutionary theory, and only 15 were primarily about paleontology or paleobiology. By contrast, Shermer classifies 148 essaysnearly half of Gould's totalas primarily "History of Science/Science Studies." Shermer quotes historian of science Ronald Numbers as saying: "I can't say much about Gould's strengths as a scientist, but for a long time I've regarded him as the second most influential historian of science (next to Thomas Kuhn)." (p. 492). Essay analysis from histogram p. 505.
↑ Gould went on to develop this idea in some detail, particularly in the books Rocks of Ages (1999) and The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox (2003). In a 1982 essay for Natural History Gould writes: "Our failure to discern a universal good does not record any lack of insight or ingenuity, but merely demonstrates that nature contains no moral messages framed in human terms. Morality is a subject for philosophers, theologians, students of the humanities, indeed for all thinking people. The answers will not be read passively from nature; they do not, and cannot, arise from the data of science. The factual state of the world does not teach us how we, with our powers for good and evil, should alter or preserve it in the most ethical manner." Stephen Jay Gould, "Nonmoral Nature" Natural History 91 (February): 19-26; and reprinted in Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes. New York: W.W. Norton, 1983, pp. 42-43.
↑ John Maynard Smith (1981a) and (1981b).
↑ John Maynard Smith (1995); also quoted in John Tooby and Leda Cosmides (1997).
↑ John Maynard Smith (1981b)
↑ John Maynard Smith (1984).
↑ Robert Wright (1999).
↑ Stephen Jay Gould, "Evolution as fact and theory" Discover 2 (May 1981): 34-37.
↑ But Stephen Jay Gould (1980b) also writes: "Sociobiologists have broadened their range of selective stories by invoking concepts of inclusive fitness and kin selection to solve (successfully I think) the vexatious problem of altruismpreviously the greatest stumbling block to a Darwinian theory of social behavior. . . . Here sociobiology has had and will continue to have success. And here I wish it well. For it represents an extension of basic Darwinism to a realm where it should apply." [2]
↑ Steven Pinker (2002) Ch. 6: "Political Scientists."
↑ Stephen Jay Gould (1997b).
↑ Gould and Conway Morris debated the issue in a piece titled "Showdown on the Burgess Shale" published in Nat. Hist. 107 (10): 48-55.
↑ Richard Fortey (1998) "Shock Lobsters" London Review of Books Vol. 20, October 1.
↑ Arthur Jensen (1982).

Bibliography

Brown, A. (1999) The Darwin Wars. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Carroll, J. (2003) "Modern Darwinism and the Pseudo-Revolutions of Stephen Jay Gould." In Joseph Carroll, ed., On the Origin of Species New York: Broadview Press, 2003.
Conway Morris, S. (1998) The Crucible of Creation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Eldredge, N., S.J. Gould (1972) "Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism" In T.J.M. Schopf, ed., Models in Paleobiology. San Francisco: Freeman, Cooper and Company, pp. 82-115.
Gould, S.J. (1980a) "Is a new and general theory of evolution emerging?" Paleobiology 6: 119-130.
Gould, S.J. (1980b) "Sociobiology and the theory of natural selection." In G. W. Barlow and J. Silverberg, eds., Sociobiology: Beyond Nature/Nurture? Boulder CO: Westview Press, pp. 257-269.
Gould, S.J. (1987) "The limits of adaptation: Is language a spandrel of the human brain?" Paper presented to the Cognitive Science Seminar, Centre for Cognitive Science, MIT.
Gould, S.J. (1992) "The confusion over evolution" New York Review of Books, Nov. 19, pp. 39-54.
Gould, S.J. (1997a) "Darwinian Fundamentalism" New York Review of Books, June 12, pp. 34-37.
Gould, S.J. (1997b) "Evolution: The Pleasures of Pluralism" New York Review of Books, June 26, pp. 47-52.
Gould, S.J. (1997c) "The Exaptive Excellence of Spandrels as a Term and Prototype" Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 94: 10750-55.
Gould, S.J. (2002) The Structure of Evolutionary Theory. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.
Gould, S.J., and Richard Lewontin (1979). The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossion paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme. Proc R Soc Lond B 205 (1161): 581–598.
Jensen, A. (1982). The debunking of scientific fossils and straw persons. Contemporary Education Review 1 (2): 121-135.
Maynard Smith, J. (1981a) "Did Darwin get it right?" The London Review of Books. 3 (11): 10-11.
Maynard Smith, J. (1981b) "Review of Stephen Jay Gould's The Panda's Thumb." The London Review of Books. Sept. pp. 17-30.
Maynard Smith, J. (1984) "Paleontology at the high table." Nature 309:401-402.
Maynard Smith, J. (1992) "Taking a Chance on Evolution" NYRB (May 14): 34-36.
Maynard Smith, J. (1995) "Genes, Memes, & Minds" The New York Review of Books 42 (Nov.): 46-48.
Mayr, E. (1992) "Speciational Evolution or Punctuated Equilibria" from Albert Somit and Steven Peterson The Dynamics of Evolution. New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 21-53.
Morris, R. (2001) The Evolutionists. New York: Henry Holt & Company.
Pinker, S. (2002) The Blank Slate. New York: Penguin.
Rose, S. (2002) Obituaries: Stephen Jay Gould The Guardian. (May 22): 20.
Rushton, J. P. (1996). Race, intelligence, and the brain. Personality and Individual Differences 23 (1): 169–180.
Shermer, M. (2002) "This View of Science" Social Studies of Science 32/4(August) 489–525.
Tooby, J. and L. Cosmides (1997) Letter to the Editor of The New York Review of Books
Wright, R. (1999) "The Accidental Creationist" The New Yorker (Dec. 13): 56-65.

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[1] Stephen Jay Gould (2002) pp. 15-21.

[2] John Maynard Smith (1984).

[3] The Harvard Gazette "Paleontologist, author Gould dies at 60" May 20, 2002.

[4] Michael Shermer (2002) "This View of Science" Social Studies of Science 32 (August): 518.
Awards include a National Book Award for The Panda’s Thumb, a National Book Critics Circle Award for The Mismeasure of Man, the Phi Beta Kappa Book Award for Hen’s Teeth and Horse’s Toes, and a Pulitzer Prize Finalist for Wonderful Life, on which Gould commented ‘close but, as they say, no cigar’. Forty-four honorary degrees and 66 major fellowships, medals, and awards bear witness to the depth and scope of his accomplishments in both the sciences and humanities: Member of the National Academy of Sciences, President and Fellow of AAAS, MacArthur Foundation ‘genius’ Fellowship (in the first group of awardees), Humanist Laureate from the Academy of Humanism, Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Fellow of the European Union of Geosciences, Associate of the Mus´eum National D’Histoire Naturelle Paris, the Schuchert Award for excellence in paleontological research, Scientist of the Year from Discover magazine, the Silver Medal from the Zoological Society of London, the Gold Medal for Service to Zoology from the Linnean Society of London, the Edinburgh Medal from the City of Edinburgh, the Britannica Award and Gold Medal for dissemination of public knowledge, Public Service Award from the Geological Society of America, Anthropology in Media Award from the American Anthropological Association, Distinguished Service Award from the National Association of Biology Teachers, Distinguished Scientist Award from UCLA, the Randi Award for Skeptic of the Year from the Skeptics Society, and a Festschrift in his honour at Caltech.

[5] Leda Cosmides and John Tooby (1997) write:
John Maynard Smith, one of the world's leading evolutionary biologists, recently summarized in the NYRB the sharply conflicting assessments of Stephen Jay Gould: "Because of the excellence of his essays, he has come to be seen by non-biologists as the preeminent evolutionary theorist. In contrast, the evolutionary biologists with whom I have discussed his work tend to see him as a man whose ideas are so confused as to be hardly worth bothering with, but as one who should not be publicly criticized because he is at least on our side against the creationists." (NYRB, Nov. 30th 1995, p. 46). No one can take any pleasure in the evident pain Gould is experiencing now that his actual standing within the community of professional evolutionary biologists is finally becoming more widely known. . . But as Maynard Smith points out, more is at stake. Gould "is giving non-biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory"or as Ernst Mayr says of Gould and his small group of alliesthey "quite conspicuously misrepresent the views of [biology's] leading spokesmen." Indeed, although Gould characterizes his critics as "anonymous" and "a tiny coterie," nearly every major evolutionary biologist of our era has weighed in in a vain attempt to correct the tangle of confusions that the higher profile Gould has inundated the intellectual world with.* The point is not that Gould is the object of some criticismso properly are we allit is that his reputation as a credible and balanced authority about evolutionary biology is non-existent among those who are in a professional position to know. *These include Ernst Mayr, John Maynard Smith, George Williams, Bill Hamilton, Richard Dawkins, E.O. Wilson, Tim Clutton-Brock, Paul Harvey, Brian Charlesworth, Jerry Coyne, Robert Trivers, John Alcock, Randy Thornhill, and many others.
It should be noted that Ernst Mayr in this quotation is not speaking of Gould in particular, and does not mention him by name, but is speaking of many critics of the Neo-Darwinian Synthesis generally. Some of the names Tooby and Cosmides cite are quite debatableMayr, Williams, Hamilton, Dawkins, Wilson, Coyne, and Trivers, for exampledebates over issues of theory cannot be taken as an indication of respective ability and scholarship. In reference to Maynard Smith, Gould writes (1997):

A false fact can be refuted, a false argument exposed; but how can one respond to a purely ad hominem attack? This harder, and altogether more discouraging, task may best be achieved by exposing internal inconsistency and unfairness of rhetoric. . . . It seems futile to reply to an attack so empty of content, and based only on comments by anonymous critics . . . Instead of responding to Maynard Smith's attack against my integrity and scholarship, citing people unknown and with arguments unmentioned, let me, instead, merely remind him of the blatant inconsistency between his admirable past and lamentable present. Some sixteen years ago he wrote a highly critical but wonderfully supportive review of my early book of essays, The Panda's Thumb, stating: "I hope it will be obvious that my wish to argue with Gould is a compliment, not a criticism." He then attended my series of Tanner Lectures at Cambridge in 1984 and wrote in a report for Nature, and under the remarkable title "Paleontology at the High Table," the kindest and most supportive critical commentary I have ever received. He argued that the work of a small group of American paleobiologists had brought the entire subject back to theoretical centrality within the evolutionary sciences. . . . Most remarkably of all, he then reviewed two books on dinosaurs for this journal and devoted more than half his space (much to the distress, I am sure, of the authors of the books supposedly under review) to a trenchant critique of my views on adaptation. . . . So we face the enigma of a man who has written numerous articles, amounting to tens of thousands of words, about my work—always strongly and incisively critical, always richly informed (and always, I might add, enormously appreciated by me). But now Maynard Smith needs to canvass unnamed colleagues to find out that my ideas are "hardly worth bothering with." He really ought to be asking himself why he has been bothering about my work so intensely, and for so many years. Why this dramatic change?

[6] Stephen Jay Gould (2002) pp. 1006-1021. [1]

[7] See Andrew Brown (1999), Richard Morris (2001), and Steve Rose (2002).

[8] Michelle Green (1986) "Stephen Jay Gould: driven by a hunger to learn and to write" People Weekly June 2.

[9] Stephen Jay Gould quoted in Lester Grinspoon, Marihuana, The Forbidden Medicine, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993, pp. 39-41.

[10] Jill Krementz (2002) "Jill Krementz Photo Journal" New York Social Diary June 2.

[11] Masha Etkin (2002) "A Tribute to Stephen Jay Gould '63" Antiochian, Winter edition.

[12] Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin (1979)

[13] Examples include the "masculinized genitalia in female hyenas, exaptive use of an umbilicus as a brooding chamber by snails, the shoulder hump of the giant Irish deer, and several key features of human mentality." (Gould 1997c)

[14] Including enough essays to publish a posthumous anthology Triumph and Tragedy in Mudville. See his essays "The Streak of Streaks" and "Baseball's reliquary" as examples. For an extensive quantitative content analysis of Gould's 300 Natural History essays, see Michael Shermer's "This View of Science" (2002). Shermer found that 78 were primarily about evolutionary theory, and only 15 were primarily about paleontology or paleobiology. By contrast, Shermer classifies 148 essaysnearly half of Gould's totalas primarily "History of Science/Science Studies." Shermer quotes historian of science Ronald Numbers as saying: "I can't say much about Gould's strengths as a scientist, but for a long time I've regarded him as the second most influential historian of science (next to Thomas Kuhn)." (p. 492). Essay analysis from histogram p. 505.

[15] Gould went on to develop this idea in some detail, particularly in the books Rocks of Ages (1999) and The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox (2003). In a 1982 essay for Natural History Gould writes: "Our failure to discern a universal good does not record any lack of insight or ingenuity, but merely demonstrates that nature contains no moral messages framed in human terms. Morality is a subject for philosophers, theologians, students of the humanities, indeed for all thinking people. The answers will not be read passively from nature; they do not, and cannot, arise from the data of science. The factual state of the world does not teach us how we, with our powers for good and evil, should alter or preserve it in the most ethical manner." Stephen Jay Gould, "Nonmoral Nature" Natural History 91 (February): 19-26; and reprinted in Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes. New York: W.W. Norton, 1983, pp. 42-43.

[16] John Maynard Smith (1981a) and (1981b).

[17] John Maynard Smith (1995); also quoted in John Tooby and Leda Cosmides (1997).

[18] John Maynard Smith (1981b)

[19] John Maynard Smith (1984).

[20] Robert Wright (1999).

[21] Stephen Jay Gould, "Evolution as fact and theory" Discover 2 (May 1981): 34-37.

[22] But Stephen Jay Gould (1980b) also writes: "Sociobiologists have broadened their range of selective stories by invoking concepts of inclusive fitness and kin selection to solve (successfully I think) the vexatious problem of altruismpreviously the greatest stumbling block to a Darwinian theory of social behavior. . . . Here sociobiology has had and will continue to have success. And here I wish it well. For it represents an extension of basic Darwinism to a realm where it should apply." [2]

[23] Steven Pinker (2002) Ch. 6: "Political Scientists."

[24] Stephen Jay Gould (1997b).

[25] Gould and Conway Morris debated the issue in a piece titled "Showdown on the Burgess Shale" published in Nat. Hist. 107 (10): 48-55.

[26] Richard Fortey (1998) "Shock Lobsters" London Review of Books Vol. 20, October 1.

[27] Arthur Jensen (1982).

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@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 [[Image:Stephen Jay Gould.png|frame|right|Stephen Jay Gould]]
-'''Stephen Jay Gould''' ([[September 10]], [[1941]] &ndash; [[May 20]], [[2002]]) was a [[New York]]-born [[United States| US American]] [[paleontologist]], [[evolutionary biology|evolutionary biologist]], and [[History of science|historian of science]]. He was one of the most influential and widely read writers of [[popular science]] of his generation. Born [[Jewish]], he did not formally practice any organized [[religion]], and though he was raised in a [[socialist]] home he did not become an active socialist himself.  He spoke out against what he saw as cultural oppression in all its forms, especially [[pseudoscience]] in the service of [[racism]] and [[sexism]].
+[[Image:Stephen Jay Gould.png|frame|right|Stephen Jay Gould]]
-He served as a member of the faculty at [[Harvard University |Harvard]] beginning in 1967, after obtaining his [[Ph.D.]] at [[Columbia University|Columbia]]. Toward the end of his life he served as the [[Alexander Agassiz]] Professor of [[Zoology]] at that university. He helped [[Niles Eldredge]] develop the theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]] in [[1972]], wherein evolutionary change occurs relatively rapidly in comparatively brief periods of [[natural environment|environment]]al stress, separated by longer periods of evolutionary stability. According to Gould, this overthrew a key tenet of [[neo-Darwinism]]; according to most evolutionary biologists, the theory was an important insight but merely modified neo-Darwinism in a way fully compatible with what had been known before.
+'''Stephen Jay Gould''' ([[September 10]], [[1941]] &ndash; [[May 20]], [[2002]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[Paleontology|paleontologist]], [[Evolution|evolutionary biologist]], and [[History of science|historian of science]]. He was also one of the most influential and widely read writers of [[popular science]] of his generation, which led many authors to call him "America's unofficial evolutionist laureate." He spent most of his career teaching at [[Harvard University]] and working at the [[American Museum of Natural History]].
-== Gould as a public figure ==
+Early in his career he developed with [[Niles Eldredge]] the theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]], where evolutionary change occurs relatively rapidly to comparatively longer periods of evolutionary stability. According to Gould, punctuated equilibrium revised a key pillar of [[neo-Darwinism]].<small><ref>Stephen Jay Gould (2002) pp. 15-21.</ref></small> Some evolutionary biologists have argued that the theory was an important insight, but merely modified neo-Darwinism in a manner which was fully compatible with what had been known before.<small><ref>John Maynard Smith (1984).</ref></small>
+Gould received many accolades for his scholarly work<small><ref>''The Harvard Gazette'' [http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2002/05.16/99-gould.html "Paleontologist, author Gould dies at 60"] May 20, 2002.</ref></small> and popular expositions of natural history,<small><ref>Michael Shermer (2002) [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/shermer_sjgould.pdf "This View of Science"] ''Social Studies of Science'' '''32''' (August): 518.<blockquote>Awards include a National Book Award for ''The Panda’s Thumb'', a National Book Critics Circle Award for ''The Mismeasure of Man'', the Phi Beta Kappa Book Award for ''Hen’s Teeth and Horse’s Toes'', and a Pulitzer Prize Finalist for ''Wonderful Life'', on which Gould commented ‘close but, as they say, no cigar’. Forty-four honorary degrees and 66 major fellowships, medals, and awards bear witness to the depth and scope of his accomplishments in both the sciences and humanities: Member of the National Academy of Sciences, President and Fellow of AAAS, MacArthur Foundation ‘genius’ Fellowship (in the first group of awardees), Humanist Laureate from the Academy of Humanism, Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Fellow of the European Union of Geosciences, Associate of the Mus´eum National D’Histoire Naturelle Paris, the Schuchert Award for excellence in paleontological research, Scientist of the Year from ''Discover'' magazine, the Silver Medal from the Zoological Society of London, the Gold Medal for Service to Zoology from the Linnean Society of London, the Edinburgh Medal from the City of Edinburgh, the Britannica Award and Gold Medal for dissemination of public knowledge, Public Service Award from the Geological Society of America, Anthropology in Media Award from the American Anthropological Association, Distinguished Service Award from the National Association of Biology Teachers, Distinguished Scientist Award from UCLA, the Randi Award for Skeptic of the Year from the Skeptics Society, and a ''Festschrift'' in his honour at Caltech.</blockquote></ref></small> but was criticized by some in the biological community who felt his public presentations were, in various respects, out of step with mainstream evolutionary theory. Other critics went further and accused Gould of misrepresenting their work;<small><ref>Leda Cosmides and John Tooby (1997) write:<blockquote>John Maynard Smith, one of the world's leading evolutionary biologists, recently summarized in the NYRB the sharply conflicting assessments of Stephen Jay Gould: "Because of the excellence of his essays, he has come to be seen by non-biologists as the preeminent evolutionary theorist. In contrast, the evolutionary biologists with whom I have discussed his work tend to see him as a man whose ideas are so confused as to be hardly worth bothering with, but as one who should not be publicly criticized because he is at least on our side against the creationists." (NYRB, Nov. 30th 1995, p. 46). No one can take any pleasure in the evident pain Gould is experiencing now that his actual standing within the community of professional evolutionary biologists is finally becoming more widely known. . . But as Maynard Smith points out, more is at stake. Gould "is giving non-biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory"&#151;or as Ernst Mayr says of Gould and his small group of allies&#151;they "quite conspicuously misrepresent the views of [biology's] leading spokesmen." Indeed, although Gould characterizes his critics as "anonymous" and "a tiny coterie," nearly every major evolutionary biologist of our era has weighed in in a vain attempt to correct the tangle of confusions that the higher profile Gould has inundated the intellectual world with.* The point is not that Gould is the object of some criticism&#151;so properly are we all&#151;it is that his reputation as a credible and balanced authority about evolutionary biology is non-existent among those who are in a professional position to know. *These include [[Ernst Mayr]], [[John Maynard Smith]], [[George C. Williams|George Williams]], [[W. D. Hamilton|Bill Hamilton]], [[Richard Dawkins]], [[E. O. Wilson|E.O. Wilson]], [[Tim Clutton-Brock]], [[Paul Harvey (biologist)|Paul Harvey]], [[Brian Charlesworth]], [[Jerry Coyne]], [[Robert Trivers]], [[John Alcock (biologist)|John Alcock]], [[Randy Thornhill]], and many others.</blockquote>It should be noted that Ernst Mayr in this quotation is not speaking of Gould in particular, and does not mention him by name, but is speaking of many critics of the Neo-Darwinian Synthesis generally. Some of the names Tooby and Cosmides cite are quite debatable&#151;Mayr, Williams, Hamilton, Dawkins, Wilson, Coyne, and Trivers, for example&#151;debates over issues of theory cannot be taken as an indication of respective ability and scholarship. In reference to Maynard Smith, Gould writes (1997):<blockquote>
+:A false fact can be refuted, a false argument exposed; but how can one respond to a purely ad hominem attack? This harder, and altogether more discouraging, task may best be achieved by exposing internal inconsistency and unfairness of rhetoric. . . . It seems futile to reply to an attack so empty of content, and based only on comments by anonymous critics . . . Instead of responding to Maynard Smith's attack against my integrity and scholarship, citing people unknown and with arguments unmentioned, let me, instead, merely remind him of the blatant inconsistency between his admirable past and lamentable present. Some sixteen years ago he wrote a highly critical but wonderfully supportive review of my early book of essays, ''The Panda's Thumb'', stating: "I hope it will be obvious that my wish to argue with Gould is a compliment, not a criticism." He then attended my series of Tanner Lectures at Cambridge in 1984 and wrote in a report for ''Nature'', and under the remarkable title "Paleontology at the High Table," the kindest and most supportive critical commentary I have ever received. He argued that the work of a small group of American paleobiologists had brought the entire subject back to theoretical centrality within the evolutionary sciences. . . . Most remarkably of all, he then reviewed two books on dinosaurs for this journal and devoted more than half his space (much to the distress, I am sure, of the authors of the books supposedly under review) to a trenchant critique of my views on adaptation. . . . So we face the enigma of a man who has written numerous articles, amounting to tens of thousands of words, about my work—always strongly and incisively critical, always richly informed (and always, I might add, enormously appreciated by me). But now Maynard Smith needs to canvass unnamed colleagues to find out that my ideas are "hardly worth bothering with." He really ought to be asking himself why he has been bothering about my work so intensely, and for so many years. Why this dramatic change?</blockquote></ref></small> likewise Gould's critics were accused of misrepresenting his.<small><ref>Stephen Jay Gould (2002) pp. 1006-1021. [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_structure.html]</ref></small> The public debates between those that agreed with Gould and those that criticized him have been so quarrelsome that they have been dubbed "The Darwin Wars" by several commentators.<small><ref>See Andrew Brown (1999), Richard Morris (2001), and Steve Rose (2002).</ref></small>.
-Gould became widely known through his popular science essays in ''[[Natural History (magazine)|Natural History]]'' magazine, collections of essays like ''The Panda's Thumb'' and ''The Flamingo's Smile'', and extended studies like ''[[Wonderful Life (book)|Wonderful Life]]'' and others.
+==Personal life==
+Gould was born and raised in [[Queens]], [[New York City|New York]], [[New York State|NY]]. His father Leonard was a [[Court reporter|court stenographer]], and his mother Eleanor an [[artist]]. When Gould was five years old his father took him to the "Hall of Dinosaurs" in the [[American Museum of Natural History]], where he first met ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]''. "I had no idea there were such things—I was awestruck," Gould once recalled.<small><ref>Michelle Green (1986) [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/green_sjgould.html "Stephen Jay Gould: driven by a hunger to learn and to write"]  ''People Weekly'' June 2.</ref></small> It was in that moment that he decided he would become a paleontologist.
-Gould was an emphatic advocate of evolutionary theory and wrote prolifically on the subject, trying to communicate his understanding of contemporary evolutionary theory to a wide audience. A recurring theme in his writings is the history and development of evolutionary (and pre-evolutionary) thinking. His early research involved the study of the [[fossil record]] of [[snail]]s (detailed in one of his essays). He was also an enthusiastic [[baseball]] fan and made frequent references to the sport (including an entire essay) and a very wide range of other topics.
+Raised in a [[Secular Jewish culture|nominally]] [[Jew|Jewish]] home, Gould did not formally practice organized [[religion]] and preferred to be called an [[agnostic]]. Politically, though he "had been brought up by a Marxist father," he is quoted as saying that his politics were "very different" from his.  Throughout his career and writings he spoke out against [[Oppression|cultural oppression]] in all its forms, especially what he saw as [[pseudoscience]] in the service of [[racism]] and [[sexism]]. In the early [[1970s]] Gould joined a group called "[[Science for the People]]," a left-wing organization which emerged from the [[Peace movement|antiwar movement]]. He also gave a course titled "Biology as a Social Weapon," which, Gould explained, was intended to foster "a powerful political and moral vision of how science, properly interpreted and used to empower all the people, might truly help us to be free."{{fact}}
-Although a [[neo-Darwinism|neo-Darwinist]], his emphasis was less [[gradualism|gradualist]] and [[reductionism|reductionist]] than most [[neo-Darwinism|neo-Darwinists]], and he opposed [[sociobiology]]. He spent much of his time fighting against [[creationism]] (and the related constructs [[Creation Science]] and [[Intelligent Design]]) and what he regarded as other forms of [[pseudoscience]]. Gould used the term Non-Overlapping Magisteria (NOMA) to describe how, in his view, science and religion could not comment on each other's realm.
+Gould was twice married; to Deborah Lee in [[1965]] which ended in divorce, and to artist Rhonda Roland Shearer in [[1995]]. Gould had two children, Jesse and Ethan, by his first marriage, and two stepchildren, Jade and London.
-==Gould as a biologist==
+In July [[1982]] Gould was diagnosed with [[abdominal]] [[mesothelioma]]. He later published a column in [[Discover (magazine)|''Discover'' magazine]], titled [http://www.cancerguide.org/median_not_msg.html "The Median Isn't the Message,"] in which he discusses his discovery that [[mesothelioma|mesothelioma patients]] had only a median lifespan of eight months after diagnosis. He then describes the research he uncovered behind this number, and his relief upon the realization that [[statistics]] are not destiny. After his diagnosis and receiving an experimental treatment, Gould continued to live for nearly twenty years. His column became a source of comfort for many cancer patients.
-In addition to his work on [[punctuated equilibrium]], Gould, together with [[Richard Lewontin]], in an influential 1979 paper,  popularized the use of the architectural word "[[spandrel]]" in an evolutionary context, using it to mean a feature of an organism that exists as a necessary consequence of other features and is not actually selected for.  The relative frequency of spandrels, so defined, versus adaptive features in nature, remains a controversial topic in evolutionary biology.
+It was during his bout with [[mesothelioma|abdominal mesothelioma]] that Gould became a user of [[Medical cannabis|marijuana]] to alleviate the nausea associated with his cancer treatments. According to Gould, his use of the illegal drug had the "most important effect" on his eventual cure.<small><ref>Stephen Jay Gould quoted in [[Lester Grinspoon]], [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_marijuana.html ''Marihuana, The Forbidden Medicine''], New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993, pp. 39-41.</ref></small> His personal success with the substance led him to become a medical marijuana advocate later in his life. In [[1998]] Gould testified in the case of Jim Wakeford, a Canadian medical-marijuana user and activist.
-Shortly before his death, Gould published a long treatise recapitulating his version of modern evolutionary theory, written primarily for the technical audience of evolutionary biologists: ''The Structure of Evolutionary Theory'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 2002), ISBN 0-674-00613-5.
+Stephen Jay Gould died [[May 20]], [[2002]] from a [[Metastasis|metastatic]] [[adenocarcinoma]] of the [[lung]] (a form of [[lung cancer]], which had spread to his brain). This cancer was completely unrelated to his [[mesothelioma|abdominal mesothelioma]], from which he had fully recovered almost twenty years earlier. He died in his home "in a bed set up in the library of his Soho loft, surrounded by his wife Rhonda, his mother Eleanor, and the many books he loved."<small><ref>Jill Krementz (2002) [http://www.asrlab.org/archive/jillPage.htm "Jill Krementz Photo Journal"] ''New York Social Diary'' June 2.</ref></small>
-== Controversies ==
+==Gould as a scientist==
-Gould was considered by many outsiders to be one of the pre-eminent theoreticians in his field. However, some influential evolutionary biologists disagreed with the way that Gould presented his views; they feel that Gould gave the public, as well as scientists in other fields, a very distorted picture of evolutionary theory. Few evolutionary biologists question his motives, insight, or his new ideas. However, many hold that his claims to have overthrown standard views of neo-Darwinism were exaggerated to the point of falsehood, and that his claims of replacing adaptation as a key component of natural selection were erroneous.
+Gould began his higher education at [[Antioch College]], a distinguished [[Liberal arts college|liberal arts]] school in [[Ohio]], graduating with a degree in [[geology]] in [[1963]]. He spent a brief period of this time studying at the [[University of Leeds]], [[England]]&#151;an experience which may have influenced the development of his nascent political awareness.<small><ref>Masha Etkin (2002) [http://www.antioch-college.edu/antiochian/archive/Antiochian_wi02/winter2002/obit_gould.html "A Tribute to Stephen Jay Gould '63"] ''Antiochian'', Winter edition.</ref></small> After completing his graduate work at [[Columbia University]] in [[1967]] under the guidance of [[Norman D. Newell|Norman Newell]], he was immediately hired by [[Harvard University]] where he worked until the end of his life ([[1967]]-[[2002]]). In [[1973]] Harvard promoted him to Professor of Geology and [[Curator]] of [[Invertebrate paleontology|Invertebrate Paleontology]] at the institution's Museum of Comparative Zoology, and in [[1982]] was awarded the title of [[Alexander Agassiz]] Professor of Zoology. In [[1983]] he was awarded fellowship into the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]], where he later served as president ([[2000]]). He also served as president of the Paleontological Society ([[1985]]-[[1986]]) and the Society for the Study of Evolution ([[1990]]-[[1991]]). In [[1989]] Gould was elected into the body of the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]].
-Biologist [[John Maynard Smith]] wrote that Gould "is giving non-biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory"; another biologist, [[Ernst Mayr]], wrote of Gould, and those who agree with him, that they "quite conspicuously misrepresent the views of evolutionary biology's leading spokesmen."
+Most of Gould's empirical research was on land snails. His early work was on the [[Bermuda|Bermudian]] genus ''Poecilozonites'', while his later work concentrated on the [[Caribbean|West Indian]] genus ''Cerion''.
-[[John Tooby]] and [[Leda Cosmides]] wrote that "although Gould characterizes his critics as 'anonymous' and 'a tiny coterie', nearly every major evolutionary biologist of our era tried to correct the tangle of confusions that the higher-profile Gould has inundated the intellectual world with. The point is not that Gould is the object of some criticism &mdash; so properly are we all &mdash; it is that his reputation as a credible and balanced authority about evolutionary biology is non-existent among those who are in a professional position to know."
+In addition to his work on [[punctuated equilibrium]] and [[evolutionary developmental biology]], Gould had championed [[constraint|biological constraints]] and other non-selectionist forces in evolution. Together with [[Richard Lewontin]] they authored an influential [[1979]] paper critiquing the overuse of adaptation in biology.<small><ref>Stephen Jay Gould  and Richard Lewontin (1979)</ref></small> Their paper introduced the architectural word "[[spandrel]]" in an evolutionary context, using it to mean a feature of an organism that exists as a necessary consequence of other features and not built directly, piece by piece, by natural selection.<small><ref>Examples include the "masculinized genitalia in female hyenas, exaptive use of an umbilicus as a brooding chamber by snails, the shoulder hump of the giant Irish deer, and several key features of human mentality." (Gould 1997c)</ref></small> The relative frequency of spandrels, so defined, versus adaptive features in nature, remains a controversial topic in [[evolutionary biology]].
-It is important, however, to recognize that these quotes are all from biologists who had quarreled with Gould at some point. Few evolutionary biologists without a stake in sociobiology or evolutionary psychology were as critical of Gould. Evolutionary biology, even more than in most fields of science, is filled with strong personalities who often develop personal antipathies which lead them to criticize each other personally.
+Shortly before his death, Gould published a long treatise recapitulating his version of modern evolutionary theory, written primarily for the technical audience of evolutionary biologists: ''The Structure of Evolutionary Theory.''
-One reason for such strong antipathies was that Gould presented his ideas as a revolutionary new way of understanding evolution that relegated [[adaptationism]] to a much less important position. As such, many non-specialists became convinced due to his early writings that neo-Darwinism has been proven to be wrong (which Gould never wanted to imply). Worse, his works were sometimes used out of context as a "proof" that scientists no longer understood how organisms evolved, giving [[creationism|creationists]] ammunition in their battle against evolutionary theory.  Gould himself corrected some of these misinterpretations and distortions of his teachings in later works.
+== Gould as a public figure ==
+Gould became widely known through his popular science essays in ''[[Natural History (magazine)|Natural History]]'' magazine and his [[Bestseller|best-selling]] [[Stephen Jay Gould#Books|books]] on [[evolution]]. Many of his essays were reprinted in collected volumes, such as ''Ever Since Darwin'' and ''The Panda's Thumb'', while his popular treatises included books such as ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'', ''[[Wonderful Life (book)|Wonderful Life]]'' and ''Full House''.
-Gould had a long-running feud with [[E. O. Wilson]], [[Richard Dawkins]] and other evolutionary biologists over [[sociobiology]] and its descendant [[evolutionary psychology]], which Gould strongly opposed but Dawkins, [[Daniel Dennett]], [[Steven Pinker]] and others strongly advocated, and over the importance of [[gene selection]] in evolution: Dawkins argued that all evolution is ultimately caused by gene competition, while Gould advocated the importance of higher-level competition including, but certainly not limited to, [[species]] selection. Strong criticism of Gould can be found particularly in Dawkins' ''[[The Blind Watchmaker]]'' and Dennett's ''[[Darwin's Dangerous Idea]]''; Dennett's criticism has tended to be harsher while Dawkins actually praises Gould in evolutionary topics other than those of contention.  Gould, [[Richard Lewontin|Lewontin]] and other opponents of evolutionary psychology are accused by Pinker ([[The Blank Slate|2002]]) of being "radical scientists", whose stance on human nature is influenced by politics rather than science.  In turn, Gould countered that sociobiologists/evolutionary psychologists are often heavily influenced by their own beliefs, prejudices, and interests (Gould 1992). Gould was also criticized as 'misinterpreting' Cambrian Burgess Shale fossils in his book ''Wonderful Life'' by [[Simon Conway Morris]], in Morris's 1998 book ''The Crucible Of Creation''.
+Gould was a passionate advocate of evolutionary theory and wrote prolifically on the subject, trying to communicate his understanding of contemporary evolutionary theories to a wide audience. A recurring theme in his writings is the history and development of evolutionary, and pre-evolutionary, [[History of evolutionary thought|thought]]. He was also an enthusiastic [[baseball]] fan and made frequent references to the sport in his essays.<small><ref>Including enough essays to publish a posthumous anthology ''Triumph and Tragedy in Mudville''. See his essays [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4337 "The Streak of Streaks"] and [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1134/is_2_111/ai_83553539 "Baseball's reliquary"] as examples. For an extensive quantitative content analysis of Gould's 300 ''Natural History'' essays, see Michael Shermer's [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/shermer_sjgould.pdf "This View of Science"] (2002). Shermer found that 78 were primarily about evolutionary theory, and only 15 were primarily about paleontology or paleobiology. By contrast, Shermer classifies 148 essays&#151;nearly half of Gould's total&#151;as primarily "History of Science/Science Studies." Shermer quotes historian of science [[Ronald Numbers]] as saying: "I can't say much about Gould's strengths as a scientist, but for a long time I've regarded him as the second most influential historian of science (next to [[Thomas Kuhn]])." (p. 492). Essay analysis from histogram p. 505.</ref></small>
-Gould was also the author of ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'', a study of the history of [[psychometrics]] and intelligence testing as a form of scientific racism; the most recent edition includes a strong refutation of the arguments of ''[[The Bell Curve]]''.
+Although a proud [[neo-Darwinism|Darwinist]], his emphasis was less [[gradualism|gradualist]] and [[reductionism|reductionist]] than most [[neo-Darwinism|neo-Darwinists]]. He also opposed many aspects of [[sociobiology]] and its intellectual descendant [[evolutionary psychology]]. He spent much of his time fighting against [[creationism]] (and the related constructs [[Creation Science]] and [[Intelligent Design]]) and other forms of [[pseudoscience]]. Most notably, Gould provided expert testimony against the equal-time creationism law in [[McLean v. Arkansas]]. Gould used the term [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_noma.html "Non-Overlapping Magisteria" (NOMA)] to describe how, in his view, science and religion could not comment on each other's realm.<small><ref>Gould went on to develop this idea in some detail, particularly in the books ''Rocks of Ages'' (1999) and ''The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox'' (2003). In a 1982 essay for ''Natural History'' Gould writes: "Our failure to discern a universal good does not record any lack of insight or ingenuity, but merely demonstrates that nature contains no moral messages framed in human terms. Morality is a subject for philosophers, theologians, students of the humanities, indeed for all thinking people. The answers will not be read passively from nature; they do not, and cannot, arise from the data of science. The factual state of the world does not teach us how we, with our powers for good and evil, should alter or preserve it in the most ethical manner." Stephen Jay Gould, [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_nonmoral.html "Nonmoral Nature"] ''Natural History'' '''91''' (February): 19-26; and reprinted in ''Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes''. New York: W.W. Norton, 1983, pp. 42-43.</ref></small>
-== Personal life ==
+Gould had become a noted public face of science, and often appeared on [[television]]. He once [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/audio/thesimpsons.rm voiced] a [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/images/simpsons.jpg cartoon version] of himself on an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'', a widely popular [[Animation|animated]] [[television program]].  [[The Simpsons]] also paid tribute to him after his death.  In an episode entitled [[Papa's Got A Brand New Badge]], at the beginning of the credits, the message "Dedicated to the memory of Stephen Jay Gould" appears with a picture from the episode he was in.
-Gould was married twice and had two children.
+== Controversies ==
+Gould was considered by many people to be one of the pre-eminent theoreticians in his field. However, a good number of evolutionary biologists have disagreed with the way in which Gould publicly presented his views. [[John Maynard Smith]], for example, thought that Gould trivialized the role of adaptation, and overestimated the possible role of mutations of large effect.<small><ref>John Maynard Smith (1981a) and (1981b).</ref></small> In a recent review of [[Daniel Dennett]]'s book ''[[Darwin's Dangerous Idea]]'', Maynard Smith wrote that Gould "is giving non-biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory."<small><ref>John Maynard Smith (1995); also quoted in John Tooby and Leda Cosmides (1997).</ref></small> But Maynard Smith has not been consistently negative, writing in a review of ''The Panda's Thumb'' that often "he infuriates me, but I hope he will go right on writing essays like these."<small><ref>John Maynard Smith (1981b)</ref></small> Maynard Smith was also among those who welcomed Gould's reinvigoration of evolutionary paleontology.<small><ref>John Maynard Smith (1984).</ref></small>
-Gould was diagnosed with an [[abdominal]] [[mesothelioma]] in July 1982. He later published a column in Natural History titled "The [[Median]] Isn't the Message", in which he discusses his discovery that [[mesothelioma]] patients had a median lifespan of eight months after diagnosis. He then describes the research he uncovered behind this number, and his relief upon the realization that [[statistics]] are not prophecy.
+One reason for such criticism was that Gould appeared to be presenting his ideas as a revolutionary way of understanding evolution, which relegated [[natural selection]] to a much less important position. As such, many non-specialists became convinced (due to his early writings) that Darwinian explanations had been proven to be unscientific (which Gould never wanted to imply). His works were sometimes used out of context as a "proof" that scientists no longer understood how organisms evolved, giving [[creationism|creationists]] ammunition in their battle against evolutionary theory.<small><ref>Robert Wright (1999).</ref></small>Gould himself corrected some of these misinterpretations and distortions of his teachings in later works.<small><ref>Stephen Jay Gould, [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_fact-and-theory.html "Evolution as fact and theory"] ''Discover'' '''2''' (May 1981): 34-37.</ref></small>.
-After his diagnosis and receiving an experimental treatment, Gould continued to live for nearly twenty years, until his death from another, unrelated type of cancer; a metastatic [[adenocarcinoma]] of the [[lung]]. The column itself (linked below) has been a source of comfort for many cancer patients.
-Shortly after his mesolthelioma diagnosis, Gould became a user of marijuana to alleviate the nausea associated with his cancer treatments.  According to Gould, his use of the illegal drug had the "most important effect" on his eventual cure [http://www.cannabisculture.com/articles/2783.html].  His personal success with the substance lead him to become a medical marijuana advocate later in his life.  In 1998, Gould testified in the case of [[Jim Wakeford]], a Canadian medical-marijuana user and activist.
+Gould also had a long-running feud with [[E. O. Wilson]], [[Richard Dawkins]] and other evolutionary biologists over [[sociobiology]] and its descendant [[evolutionary psychology]], which Gould strongly opposed but Dawkins, [[Daniel Dennett]], [[Steven Pinker]] and others strongly advocated.<small><ref>But Stephen Jay Gould (1980b) also writes: "Sociobiologists have broadened their range of selective stories by invoking concepts of [[inclusive fitness]] and [[kin selection]] to solve (successfully I think) the vexatious problem of altruism&#151;previously the greatest stumbling block to a Darwinian theory of social behavior. . . . Here sociobiology has had and will continue to have success. And here I wish it well. For it represents an extension of basic Darwinism to a realm where it should apply." [http://www.ags.uci.edu/~mzyoung/p1.htm]</ref></small> Gould and Dawkins also disagreed over the importance of [[gene selection]] in evolution: Dawkins argued that all evolution is ultimately caused by gene competition, while Gould advocated the importance of higher-level competition including, but certainly not limited to, [[species]] selection. Strong criticism of Gould can be found in Dawkins' ''[[The Blind Watchmaker]]'' and Dennett's ''[[Darwin's Dangerous Idea]]''. Dennett's criticism has tended to be harsher, while Dawkins praises Gould in evolutionary topics other than those of contention. Pinker accuses Gould, [[Richard Lewontin|Lewontin]] and other opponents of evolutionary psychology of being "radical scientists," whose stance on human nature is influenced by politics rather than science.<small><ref>Steven Pinker (2002) Ch. 6: "Political Scientists."</ref></small>  Gould countered that sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists are often heavily influenced, perhaps unconsciously, by their own prejudices and interests.<small><ref>Stephen Jay Gould (1997b).</ref></small>.
-Gould once voiced a cartoon version of himself on an episode of the animated [[television]] program, ''[[The Simpsons]]''.
+Gould's interpretation of the [[Cambrian]] [[Burgess Shale]] fossils in his book ''[[Wonderful Life (book)|Wonderful Life]]'' was criticized by [[Simon Conway Morris]] in his 1998 book ''The Crucible Of Creation''.<small><ref>Gould and Conway Morris debated the issue in a piece titled [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/naturalhistory_cambrian.html "Showdown on the Burgess Shale"] published in ''Nat. Hist.'' '''107''' (10): 48-55.</ref></small> Gould had emphasized the "weirdness" of the Burgess Shale fauna, and the role of unpredictable, contingent phenomena in determining which members of this fauna survived and flourished. Conway Morris stressed the phylogenetic linkages between the Burgess Shale forms and modern taxa, particularly, the importance of convergent evolution in producing general predictable responses to similar environmental circumstances. Paleontologist Richard Fortey has noted that prior to the release of ''[[Wonderful Life (book)|Wonderful Life]]'' Conway Morris shared many of Gould's sentiments and views. It was only after publication of ''[[Wonderful Life (book)|Wonderful Life]]'' that Conway Morris revised his interpretation and adopted a more deterministic stance towards the history of life.<small><ref>Richard Fortey (1998) [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v20/n19/fort01_.html "Shock Lobsters"] ''London Review of Books'' Vol. 20, October 1.</ref></small>
-Members of Gould's family are suing two [[radiologist]]s at the [[Brigham and Women’s Hospital]] and another doctor at the [[Dana-Farber Cancer Institute]] over what they claim was a botched reading of a [[radiograph]] that might have diagnosed Gould's fatal lung cancer early enough in the disease's progression for it to be successfully treated.
+== ''Mismeasure of Man'' ==
+{{main|The Mismeasure of Man}}
-==Books==
+Gould was also the author of ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'' ([[1981]]) a [[History of science|history]] and [[Scientific skepticism|skeptical inquiry]] of [[psychometrics]] and [[Intelligence quotient|intelligence testing]]. Gould investigated many of the techniques of  [[nineteenth century]] [[craniometry]], as well as modern-day [[Intelligence quotient|psychological testing]]&#151;and claimed they developed unnecessarily from an unfounded faith in [[biological determinism]]. ''The Mismeasure of Man'' has generated perhaps the most controversy of all Gould's books, and has been subject to widespread praise (by [[Debunker|skeptics]]) and extensive criticism (by [[psychology|psychologists]])&#151;including claims by some scientists that Gould had misrepresented their work.<small><ref>Arthur Jensen (1982).</ref></small>
+== Books ==
 * For technical audiences
-** ''[[Ontogeny and Phylogeny]]'' ([[Harvard University Press]], 1977)
+** ''[[Ontogeny and Phylogeny (book)|Ontogeny and Phylogeny]]'' ([[Harvard University Press]], 1977), ISBN 0-674-63940-5
-** ''[[Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle]]'' (Harvard University Press, 1988), ISBN 0-674-89198-8
 ** ''[[The Structure of Evolutionary Theory]]'' (Harvard University Press, 2002), ISBN 0-674-00613-5
 * For general audiences
-** ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'' (1981; revised 1996)
+** ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'' ([[W.W. Norton]], 1981; revised 1996), ISBN 0-393-03972-2
-** ''[[Wonderful Life (book)|Wonderful Life]]'' ([[W.W. Norton]], 1989), ISBN 0-393-02705-8
+** ''[[Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle]]'' (Harvard University Press, 1987), ISBN 0-674-89198-8
-** ''[[Full House: The Spread of Excellence From Plato to Darwin]]'' ([[Harmony Books]], 1996), ISBN 0-517-70394-7
+** ''[[Wonderful Life (book)|Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History]]'' (W.W. Norton, 1989), ISBN 0-393-02705-8
+** ''[[Full House: The Spread of Excellence From Plato to Darwin]]'' ([[Harmony Books]], 1996), ISBN 0-517-70394-7 (Released outside North America as ''[[Life's Grandeur: The Spread of Excellence From Plato to Darwin]]'' (Jonathan Cape Ltd, 1996), ISBN 0-099-89360-6)
 ** ''[[Questioning the Millennium: A Rationalist's Guide to a Precisely Arbitrary Countdown]]'' (Harmony, 1997); also published in a substantially extended second edition (Harmony, 1999), ISBN 0-609-60541-0
 ** ''[[Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life]]'' ([[Ballantine Books]], 1999), ISBN 0-345-43009-3
 ** ''[[The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox: Mending the Gap Between Science and the Humanities]]'' (Harmony, 2003), ISBN 0-609-60140-7
-* Collected essays from ''[[Natural History (magazine)|Natural History]]''
+* Collected essays from ''[[Natural History (magazine)|Natural History]]'' magazine
 ** ''[[Ever Since Darwin: Reflections in Natural History]]'' (Norton, 1977), ISBN 0-393-06425-5
 ** ''[[The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History]]'' (Norton, 1980), ISBN 0-393-01380-4
 ** ''[[Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes: Further Reflections in Natural History]]'' (Norton, 1983), ISBN 0-393-01716-8
-** ''[[The Flamingo's Smile]]'' (Norton, 1985), 0-393-02228-5
+** ''[[The Flamingo's Smile]]'' (Norton, 1985), ISBN 0-393-02228-5
 ** ''[[Bully for Brontosaurus]]'' (Norton, 1991), ISBN 0-393-02961-1
 ** ''[[Eight Little Piggies]]'' (Norton, 1994), ISBN 0-393-03416-X
 ** ''[[Dinosaur in a Haystack]]'' (Harmony, 1995), ISBN 0-517-70393-9
 ** ''[[Leonardo's Mountain of Clams and the Diet of Worms]]'' (Harmony, 1998), ISBN 0-609-60141-5
-** ''[[The Lying Stones of Marrakech]]'' (Harmony, 2000), ISBN 0-609-60142-3
+** ''[[The Lying Stones of Marrakech: Penultimate Reflections in Natural History]]'' (Harmony, 2000), ISBN 0-609-60142-3
 ** ''[[I Have Landed: The End of a Beginning in Natural History]]'' (Harmony, 2001), ISBN 0-609-60143-1
@@ Line 79: / Line 86: @@
 ** ''[[An Urchin in the Storm]]'' (Norton, 1987), ISBN 0-393-02492-X
 ** ''[[Triumph and Tragedy in Mudville: A Lifelong Passion for Baseball]]'' (Norton, 2003), ISBN 0-393-05755-0
+** Paul McGarr, ed., ''[[The Richness of Life: A Stephen Jay Gould Reader]]'' ([[Jonathan Cape]], 2006), ISBN 0-224-07607-8
+== End material ==
+{{wikiquote}}
+===Notes===
+<div class="references-small"><references/></div>
-== References ==
-*[[Ernst Mayr|Mayr, E]], ''Toward a new philosophy of biology'', 1988 Harvard University Press, pp. 534 - 535
-*Gould, S.J., and Richard Lewontin, "The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossion paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme", ''Proc R Soc Lond B'' '''205''', pp. 581-598, (1979)
-*Gould, S.J. (1987) ''The limits of adaptation: Is language a spandrel of the human brain?'' Paper presented to the Cognitive Science Seminar, Centre for Cognitive Science, MIT.
-*{{Journal reference issue | Author=Gould, S. J. | Title=The confusion over evolution. | Journal=New York Review of Books | Volume=39 | Issue=19 | Year=1992| Pages=39-54}}
-*[[Steven Pinker|Pinker, S.]], 2002.  ''[[The Blank Slate]]'', Penguin.  Ch. 6: "Political Scientists".
-*[[John Tooby|Tooby, J.]] and [[Leda Cosmides|L. Cosmides]], Letter to the Editor of ''The New York Review of Books'' on Stephen Jay Gould's ''Darwinian Fundamentalism'' (June 12, 1997) and ''Evolution: The Pleasures of Pluralism'' (June 26, 1997)
-* {{Journal reference | Author=Rushton, J. P. | Title=Race, intelligence, and the brain: The errors and omissions of the revised edition of S. J. Gould's ''The Mismeasure of Man'' | Journal=Personality and Individual Differences | Year=1996 | Volume=23 | Pages=169&ndash;180}}
-== External links ==
+===Bibliography===
-{{wikiquote}}
+:*Brown, A. (1999) ''The Darwin Wars.'' New York: Simon & Schuster.
-* [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1151 ''Darwinian Fundamentalism'']: article by Gould on evolution
+:*Carroll, J. (2003) [http://www.umsl.edu/~engjcarr/web_documents/pseudo-revs-gould.htm "Modern Darwinism and the Pseudo-Revolutions of Stephen Jay Gould."] In Joseph Carroll, ed., ''On the Origin of Species'' New York: Broadview Press, 2003.
-* [http://www.cancerguide.org/median_not_msg.html ''The Median Isn't the Message'']: Gould confronts the statistics of cancer and finds hope
+:*Conway Morris, S. (1998) ''The Crucible of Creation.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.
-* [http://www.world-of-dawkins.com/Catalano/the_g_files.htm The Gould vs. Dawkins debate]
+:*[[Niles Eldredge|Eldredge, N.]], S.J. Gould (1972) [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/classictexts/eldredge.pdf "Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism"] In T.J.M. Schopf, ed., ''Models in Paleobiology''. San Francisco: Freeman, Cooper and Company, pp. 82-115.
-* [http://www.debunker.com/texts/jensen.html ''Arthur Jensen Replies to Steven Jay Gould''] Extended review of ''Mismeasure of Man''
+:*Gould, S.J. (1980a) "Is a new and general theory of evolution emerging?" ''Paleobiology'' 6: 119-130.
-* [http://www.aaas.org/spp/dser/evolution/history/spandrel.shtml ''The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm'']: Gould and Lewontin's classic article
+:*Gould, S.J. (1980b) "Sociobiology and the theory of natural selection." In G. W. Barlow and J. Silverberg, eds., ''Sociobiology: Beyond Nature/Nurture?'' Boulder CO: Westview Press, pp. 257-269.
-* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1132/is_6_54/ai_94142087 Richard C. Lewontin sums up Gould's career in an obituary]
+:*Gould, S.J. (1987) "The limits of adaptation: Is language a spandrel of the human brain?" Paper presented to the ''Cognitive Science Seminar'', Centre for Cognitive Science, MIT.
-* [http://www.stephenjaygould.org The Unofficial Stephen Jay Gould Archive] contains a wide range of resources including copies of a selection of papers and essays, biographies and overviews.
+:*Gould, S.J. (1992) [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/reviews/gould_confusion.html "The confusion over evolution"] ''New York Review of Books'', Nov. 19, pp. 39-54.
-* [http://home.comcast.net/~neoeugenics/gou.htm ''The Mismeasure of Gould: Marxist ideology vs. biological reality''] - criticism
+:*Gould, S.J. (1997a) [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1151 "Darwinian Fundamentalism"] ''New York Review of Books'', June 12, pp. 34-37.
-* [http://www.annonline.com/interviews/961009/ Online audio interview with Gould]
+:*Gould, S.J. (1997b) [http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Debate/Gould.html "Evolution: The Pleasures of Pluralism"] ''New York Review of Books'', June 26, pp. 47-52.
-* [http://www.cosmoetica.com/B50-DES24.htm An Elegy For Gould: Peaches, Tarpaper, & Stephen Jay Gould]
+:*Gould, S.J. (1997c) [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/20/10750 "The Exaptive Excellence of Spandrels as a Term and Prototype"] ''Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.'' 94: 10750-55.
-* [http://prelectur.stanford.edu/lecturers/gould/excerpts/ Excerpts from Gould Lectures at Stanford University]
+:*Gould, S.J. (2002) ''The Structure of Evolutionary Theory''. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.
-* [http://www.nonzero.org/newyorker.htm Criticism of Gould re: Creationism in Kansas]
+:* {{cite journal
+ | author = Gould, S.J., and Richard Lewontin
+ | date = 1979
+ | url = http://www.aaas.org/spp/dser/03_Areas/evolution/perspectives/Gould_Lewontin_1979.shtml
+ | title = The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossion paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme
+ | journal = Proc R Soc Lond B
+ | volume = 205 | issue = 1161 | pages = 581–598
+ }}
+:*{{cite journal
+ | last =Jensen | first = A.
+ | url = http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/jensen-gould-fossils
+ | title = The debunking of scientific fossils and straw persons
+ | journal=Contemporary Education Review
+ | volume=1 | issue=2 | year=1982 | pages=121-135
+ }}
+:*Maynard Smith, J. (1981a) "Did Darwin get it right?" ''The London Review of Books.'' '''3''' (11): 10-11.
+:*Maynard Smith, J. (1981b) "Review of Stephen Jay Gould's ''The Panda's Thumb''." ''The London Review of Books''. Sept. pp. 17-30.
+:*Maynard Smith, J. (1984) "Paleontology at the high table." ''Nature'' 309:401-402.
+:*Maynard Smith, J. (1992) [http://www.evolutionary.tripod.com/maynard-smith_nyrb_may92_34-36.html "Taking a Chance on Evolution"] ''NYRB'' (May 14): 34-36.
+:*Maynard Smith, J. (1995) [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1703 "Genes, Memes, & Minds"] ''The New York Review of Books'' 42 (Nov.): 46-48.
+:*Mayr, E. (1992) [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/mayr_punctuated.html "Speciational Evolution or Punctuated Equilibria"] from Albert Somit and Steven Peterson ''The Dynamics of Evolution''. New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 21-53.
+:*Morris, R. (2001) ''The Evolutionists''. New York: Henry Holt & Company.
+:*[[Steven Pinker|Pinker, S.]] (2002) ''[[The Blank Slate]]''. New York: Penguin.
+:*Rose, S. (2002) [http://books.guardian.co.uk/obituaries/story/0,11617,720266,00.html Obituaries: Stephen Jay Gould] ''The Guardian''. (May 22): 20.
+:*{{cite journal
+ | last = Rushton | first = J. P.
+ | url = http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/stalkers/jpr_gould_paid.html
+ | title = Race, intelligence, and the brain
+ | journal=Personality and Individual Differences
+ | year=1996 | volume=23 | issue=1 | pages=169–180
+ }}
+:*Shermer, M. (2002) [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/shermer_sjgould.pdf "This View of Science"] ''Social Studies of Science'' 32/4(August) 489–525.
+:*[[John Tooby|Tooby, J.]] and [[Leda Cosmides|L. Cosmides]] (1997) [http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Debate/CEP_Gould.html Letter to the Editor of ''The New York Review of Books'']
+:*[[Robert Wright (journalist)|Wright, R.]] (1999) [http://www.nonzero.org/newyorker.htm "The Accidental Creationist"] ''[[The New Yorker]]'' (Dec. 13): 56-65.
-{{credit|31893982}}
+{{credit|63550136}}
 [[Category:Life sciences]]