Difference between revisions of "Skandha" - New World Encyclopedia
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− | [[Image:Buddha_image_-_white_stone.jpg|thumb| | + | [[Image:Buddha_image_-_white_stone.jpg|thumb|left|The doctrine of the five Skandhas was an important part of the Buddha's teachings.]] |
− | In [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] doctrine and [[metaphysics]], the word '''skandha''' (Sanskrit: स्कान्धास) refers to the five "aggregate" elements that are said to comprise the psychophysical personality. These five aggregates are: form (rūpa)<ref>In Rawson (1991: p.11), the first skandha is defined as: "name and form (Sanskrit ''nāma-rūpa'', Tibetan ''gzugs'')...". In the Pali literature, ''nāma-rūpa'' traditionally refers to the first four aggregates, as opposed to the fifth aggregate, consciousness.</ref>, feeling (vedanā)<ref>Generally, ''vedanā'' is considered to ''not'' include "emotions." For example, Bodhi (2000a), p. 80, writes: "The Pali word ''vedanā'' does not signify emotion (which appears to be a complex phenomenon involving a variety of concomitant mental factors), but the bare affective quality of an experience, which may be either pleasant, painful or neutral." Correspondingly, Trungpa (2001), p. 32, notes: "In this case 'feeling' is not quite our ordinary notion of feeling. It is not the feeling we take so seriously as, for instance, when we say, 'He hurt my feelings.' This kind of feeling that we take so seriously belongs to the fourth and fifth skandhas of concept and consciousness."</ref>, perception (samjñā)<ref>In some [[sutra]]s, it is explicitly tied to all types of sensory experience: "These six classes of perception — perception of form, perception of sound, perception of smell, perception of taste, perception of tactile sensation, perception of ideas: this is called perception." [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn22/sn22.057.than.html Sattatthana Sutta] ''Samyutta Nikaya'' 22.57. Translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 1997.</ref>, consciousness (Skt. ''visjñāna'', Pāli ''viññāṇa''), and reasoning (Skt. "vāsanā" or ''samskāra'').<ref>The [[Abhidhamma]] divides ''sankhāra'' into fifty mental factors consisting of all types of mental habits, thoughts, ideas, opinions, compulsions, and decisions triggered by an object(Bodhi, 2000a, p. 26).</ref> The term skandha can also mean " | + | In [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] doctrine and [[metaphysics]], the word '''skandha''' (Sanskrit: स्कान्धास) refers to the five "aggregate" elements that are said to comprise the psychophysical personality. These five aggregates are: form (rūpa)<ref>In Rawson (1991: p.11), the first skandha is defined as: "name and form (Sanskrit ''nāma-rūpa'', Tibetan ''gzugs'')...". In the Pali literature, ''nāma-rūpa'' traditionally refers to the first four aggregates, as opposed to the fifth aggregate, consciousness.</ref>, feeling (vedanā)<ref>Generally, ''vedanā'' is considered to ''not'' include "emotions." For example, Bodhi (2000a), p. 80, writes: "The Pali word ''vedanā'' does not signify emotion (which appears to be a complex phenomenon involving a variety of concomitant mental factors), but the bare affective quality of an experience, which may be either pleasant, painful or neutral." Correspondingly, Trungpa (2001), p. 32, notes: "In this case 'feeling' is not quite our ordinary notion of feeling. It is not the feeling we take so seriously as, for instance, when we say, 'He hurt my feelings.' This kind of feeling that we take so seriously belongs to the fourth and fifth skandhas of concept and consciousness."</ref>, perception (samjñā)<ref>In some [[sutra]]s, it is explicitly tied to all types of sensory experience: "These six classes of perception — perception of form, perception of sound, perception of smell, perception of taste, perception of tactile sensation, perception of ideas: this is called perception." [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn22/sn22.057.than.html Sattatthana Sutta] ''Samyutta Nikaya'' 22.57. Translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 1997.</ref>, consciousness (Skt. ''visjñāna'', Pāli ''viññāṇa''), and reasoning (Skt. "vāsanā" or ''samskāra'').<ref>The [[Abhidhamma]] divides ''sankhāra'' into fifty mental factors consisting of all types of mental habits, thoughts, ideas, opinions, compulsions, and decisions triggered by an object (Bodhi, 2000a, p. 26).</ref> The term skandha can also mean "compound, mass, heap, bundle or tree trunk." <ref>Thanissaro (2002). Also see, for example, Thanissaro (2005) where ''khandha'' is translated as "mass" in the phrase ''dukkhakkhandha'' (which Thanissaro translates as "mass of stress") and Thanissaro (1998) where ''khandha'' is translated as "aggregate" but in terms of bundling the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] into the categories of virtue (''silakkhandha''), concentration (''samadhikkhandha'') and wisdom (''pannakkhandha'')</ref> |
− | According to the teachings of the [[Buddha]], a proper understanding of the Skandhas is an important step towards the attainment of [[Nirvana]] (freedom from suffering). In the [[Theravada]] tradition of [[Buddhism]], suffering (''dukkha'') arises when one identifies with, or otherwise clings to, an aggregate; suffering is [[nirvana|extinguished]] therefore by relinquishing attachments to aggregates. In the [[Mahayana]] ([[Madhyamkia]]) tradition of Buddhism, ultimate freedom is said to be realized by deeply penetrating the intrinsically [[Shunyata|empty nature]] of all aggregates. | + | According to the teachings of the [[Buddha]], a proper understanding of the Skandhas is an important step towards the attainment of [[Nirvana]] (freedom from suffering). In the [[Theravada]] tradition of [[Buddhism]], suffering (''dukkha'') arises when one identifies with, or otherwise clings to, an aggregate; suffering is [[nirvana|extinguished]] therefore by relinquishing attachments to aggregates. In the [[Mahayana]] ([[Madhyamkia]]) tradition of Buddhism, ultimate freedom is said to be realized by deeply penetrating the intrinsically [[Shunyata|empty nature]] of all aggregates. These doctrinal developments arose out of Buddhist metaphysics, which denies the existence of any eternal soul (atman) outside of this aggregation. |
==Enumeration and Relationship== | ==Enumeration and Relationship== | ||
In the [[Pali canon]], the aggregates are causally related as follows:<ref>See, for instance, [[Samyutta Nikaya|SN]] 35.93, "The Dyad (2)" (Bodhi, 2000b, pp. 1172-3).</ref> | In the [[Pali canon]], the aggregates are causally related as follows:<ref>See, for instance, [[Samyutta Nikaya|SN]] 35.93, "The Dyad (2)" (Bodhi, 2000b, pp. 1172-3).</ref> | ||
<table><tr><td> | <table><tr><td> | ||
− | *'''Form''' (''rupa'') arises from experientially irreducible physical/physiological phenomena.<ref>In terms of how these phenomena are | + | *'''Form''' (''rupa'') arises from experientially irreducible physical/physiological phenomena.<ref>In terms of how these phenomena are analyzed in traditional Buddhist texts, see the description of the "Great Elements" in the [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.140.than.html Dhatu-vibhanga Sutta].</ref> |
*Form – in terms of an external object (such as a sound) and its associated sense organ (such as the ear) – gives rise to '''consciousness''' (''viññāṇa'').<ref>In the Pali canon, the concurrence of an object, its sense organ and the related consciousness (''viññāṇa'') is called "contact" (''phassa''). In addition to referring to the five '''form'''-derived sense faculties (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body), their associated objects and consciousness, ''phassa'' also pertains to these aspects of '''mentality''' (''nama''): mind, mind objects and mind-consciousness. In the [[Abhidhamma]] (e.g., see Bodhi, 2000a, p. 78), ''phassa'' is a mental factor, the means by which consciousness "touches" an object.</ref><ref>Traditional Buddhist texts do not directly address Western philosophy's so-called [[Philosophy of Mind|mind-body problem]] since in Buddhism the exploration of the aggregates is not primarily to ascertain ultimate empirical reality but to obtain ultimate release from suffering.</ref> | *Form – in terms of an external object (such as a sound) and its associated sense organ (such as the ear) – gives rise to '''consciousness''' (''viññāṇa'').<ref>In the Pali canon, the concurrence of an object, its sense organ and the related consciousness (''viññāṇa'') is called "contact" (''phassa''). In addition to referring to the five '''form'''-derived sense faculties (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body), their associated objects and consciousness, ''phassa'' also pertains to these aspects of '''mentality''' (''nama''): mind, mind objects and mind-consciousness. In the [[Abhidhamma]] (e.g., see Bodhi, 2000a, p. 78), ''phassa'' is a mental factor, the means by which consciousness "touches" an object.</ref><ref>Traditional Buddhist texts do not directly address Western philosophy's so-called [[Philosophy of Mind|mind-body problem]] since in Buddhism the exploration of the aggregates is not primarily to ascertain ultimate empirical reality but to obtain ultimate release from suffering.</ref> | ||
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*From the contact of form and consciousness arise the three mental (''nāma'') aggregates of '''feeling''' (''vedanā''), '''perception''' (''saññā'') and '''mental formation''' (''sankhāra'').<ref>A mental aggregate arises either from conscious contact with form or from another mental aggregate (Bodhi, 2000a, pp. 78ff).</ref> | *From the contact of form and consciousness arise the three mental (''nāma'') aggregates of '''feeling''' (''vedanā''), '''perception''' (''saññā'') and '''mental formation''' (''sankhāra'').<ref>A mental aggregate arises either from conscious contact with form or from another mental aggregate (Bodhi, 2000a, pp. 78ff).</ref> | ||
− | In this scheme, physical form, the mental aggregates,<ref>Form and the mental aggregates together are technically referred to as ''nāmarūpa'', which is variously defined as "name-and-form," "materiality-mentality" and "matter-mind." Bodhi (2000b), pp. 47-48, mentions that Ñāṇamoli translated ''nāmarūpa'' as "mentality-materiality," which Bodhi assesses to be "[i]n some respects ... doctrinally more accurate, but it is also unwieldy...." Bodhi goes on to note that, "in the Nikāyas, ''nāmarūpa'' does not include ''consciousness'' (viññāṇa)."</ref> and consciousness are mutually dependent.<ref>According to Bodhi (2000b), p. 48, based on suttas in SN 14, consciousness "can operate only in dependence on a physical body (''rūpa'') and in conjunction with its constellation of concomitants (''nāma''); conversely, only when consciousness is present can a compound of material elements function as a sentient body and the mental concomitants participate in cognition." Also, for example, see the Nagara Sutta ("The City," SN 12:65) [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.065.than.html (Thanissaro, 1997a)], where the Buddha in part states: "[F]rom name-&-form as a requisite condition comes consciousness, from consciousness as a requisite condition comes name-&-form."</ref> Other Buddhist literature has described the aggregates as arising in a linear or progressive fashion, from form to feeling to perception to mental formations to consciousness.<ref>Trungpa (2001), pp. 36-37.</ref> | + | In this scheme, physical form, the mental aggregates,<ref>Form and the mental aggregates together are technically referred to as ''nāmarūpa'', which is variously defined as "name-and-form," "materiality-mentality" and "matter-mind." Bodhi (2000b), pp. 47-48, mentions that Ñāṇamoli translated ''nāmarūpa'' as "mentality-materiality," which Bodhi assesses to be "[i]n some respects ... doctrinally more accurate, but it is also unwieldy...." Bodhi goes on to note that, "in the Nikāyas, ''nāmarūpa'' does not include ''consciousness'' (viññāṇa)."</ref> and consciousness are mutually dependent.<ref>According to Bodhi (2000b), p. 48, based on suttas in SN 14, consciousness "can operate only in dependence on a physical body (''rūpa'') and in conjunction with its constellation of concomitants (''nāma''); conversely, only when consciousness is present can a compound of material elements function as a sentient body and the mental concomitants participate in cognition." Also, for example, see the Nagara Sutta ("The City," SN 12:65) [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn12/sn12.065.than.html (Thanissaro, 1997a)], where the Buddha in part states: "[F]rom name-&-form as a requisite condition comes consciousness, from consciousness as a requisite condition comes name-&-form."</ref> Other Buddhist literature has described the aggregates as arising in a linear or progressive fashion, from form to feeling to perception to mental formations to consciousness.<ref>Trungpa (2001), pp. 36-37.</ref> In regards to these aggregates: |
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**The first five <u>sense organs</u> (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body) are derivates of '''form'''. The sixth sense organ (mind) is part of '''consciousness'''. | **The first five <u>sense organs</u> (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body) are derivates of '''form'''. The sixth sense organ (mind) is part of '''consciousness'''. | ||
**The first five <u>sense objects</u> (visible forms, sound, smell, taste, touch) are also derivatives of '''form'''. The sixth sense object (mental object) includes '''form''', '''sensation''', '''perception''' and '''mental formations'''. | **The first five <u>sense objects</u> (visible forms, sound, smell, taste, touch) are also derivatives of '''form'''. The sixth sense object (mental object) includes '''form''', '''sensation''', '''perception''' and '''mental formations'''. | ||
− | **The <u>six sense consciousness</u> is the basis for '''consciousness'''. | + | **The <u>six sense consciousness</u> is the basis for '''consciousness'''.<ref>Bodhi (2000a), pp. 287-8.</ref> |
+ | Traditional Buddhist literature (such as the [[Abhidhamma]]) speaks of one physical aggregate (form), three mental factors (sensation, perception and mental formations) and consciousness. Contemporary writers (such as Trungpa Rinpoche and Red Pine) sometimes conceptualize the five aggregates as "one physical and four mental" aggregates. | ||
− | + | (See [[#References in Buddhist literature|Table 1]] for examples of definitional references to the aggregates in the Buddhist canon.) | |
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− | See [[#References in Buddhist literature|Table 1]] for examples of definitional references to the aggregates in the Buddhist canon. | ||
==Role in Buddhist Metaphysics and Soteriology== | ==Role in Buddhist Metaphysics and Soteriology== | ||
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:"Prior to the Buddha, the Pali word khandha had very ordinary meanings: A khandha could be a pile, a bundle, a heap, a mass. It could also be the trunk of a tree. In his first sermon, though, the Buddha gave it a new, psychological meaning, introducing the term 'clinging-khandhas' to summarize his analysis of the truth of stress and suffering. Throughout the remainder of his teaching career, he referred to these psychological khandhas time and again."[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/khandha.html] | :"Prior to the Buddha, the Pali word khandha had very ordinary meanings: A khandha could be a pile, a bundle, a heap, a mass. It could also be the trunk of a tree. In his first sermon, though, the Buddha gave it a new, psychological meaning, introducing the term 'clinging-khandhas' to summarize his analysis of the truth of stress and suffering. Throughout the remainder of his teaching career, he referred to these psychological khandhas time and again."[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/khandha.html] | ||
− | The Buddha taught that self- | + | The Buddha taught that self-identifying with an aggregate would, by necessity, lead to clinging (''upadana'')<ref>Note that, in Buddhism, one ''clings'' to (guards) something they have (or mistakenly believe they have), whereas one ''craves'' (searches) for that which they lack. (See the articles on [[upadana]] and [[tanha]] for references.) Thus, the notion of the "''clinging'' aggregates" refers to things with which we identify or which we think we can possess. When, instead, one ''desires'' such things, it is technically ''craving'', not clinging.</ref> to that element; and, given that all aggregates are impermanent (''anicca''), it is invariable that this attachment would eventually yield agitation (''paritassati''), loss, grief, stress or suffering. Therefore, to be free of suffering required the wisdom to experience the aggregates clearly, without clinging or craving (''[[tanha]]''), and without associating them with any notion of self (''anatta''). |
For example, if one believes "this body is mine" or "I exist within this body," then as their body ages, becomes ill and approaches death, such a person will likely experience longing for youth or health or eternal life, will likely dread of aging, sickness and death, and will likely spend much time and energy lost in fears, fantasies and ultimately futile activities. | For example, if one believes "this body is mine" or "I exist within this body," then as their body ages, becomes ill and approaches death, such a person will likely experience longing for youth or health or eternal life, will likely dread of aging, sickness and death, and will likely spend much time and energy lost in fears, fantasies and ultimately futile activities. | ||
− | In the Nikayas, such is likened to shooting oneself with a second arrow, where the first arrow is a physical phenomenon (such as, in this case, a bodily manifestation associated with aging or illness or dying) and the second is the mental anguish of the undisciplined mind associated with the physical phenomenon (see the Sallatha Sutta<ref>On-line translations of the Sallatha Sutta ("The Arrow" or "The Dart," SN 36.6) include [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn36/sn36.006.than.html Thanissaro (1997c)] and [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn36/sn36.006.nypo.html Nyanaponika (1998)].</ref>). | + | In the Nikayas, such is likened to shooting oneself with a second arrow, where the first arrow is a physical phenomenon (such as, in this case, a bodily manifestation associated with aging or illness or dying) and the second is the mental anguish of the undisciplined mind associated with the physical phenomenon (see the Sallatha Sutta<ref>On-line translations of the Sallatha Sutta ("The Arrow" or "The Dart," SN 36.6) include [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn36/sn36.006.than.html Thanissaro (1997c)] and [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn36/sn36.006.nypo.html Nyanaponika (1998)].</ref>). Conversely, it is said that one with a disciplined mind, who is able to see this body as a set of aggregates, will be free of such fear, frustration and time-consuming escapism. |
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− | + | The way in which one becomes aware of one's own identification with (thus clinging to) the aggregates is found in Buddhist mindfulness practices that are said to awaken understanding, release and wisdom. | |
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− | + | Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000b, p. 840) states that an examination of the aggregates has a "critical role" in understanding the Buddha's teachings: The five aggregates are the "ultimate referent" in the Buddha's elaboration on suffering (''dukkha'') . Thus, "since all four truths revolve around suffering, understanding the aggregates is essential for understanding the [[Four Noble Truths]] as a whole." Understanding the Nature of Release (''[[nirvana]]'') can only be achieved once an individual ceases clinging to the five aggregates. | |
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According to the ''Mahasunnata Sutta'' ("The Greater Discourse on Emptiness," MN 122): | According to the ''Mahasunnata Sutta'' ("The Greater Discourse on Emptiness," MN 122): | ||
:"When he [a monk] abides contemplating rise and fall in these five aggregates affected by clinging, the conceit 'I am' based on these five aggregates affected by clinging is abandoned in him...." (Nanamoli & Bodhi, 2001, p. 975.) | :"When he [a monk] abides contemplating rise and fall in these five aggregates affected by clinging, the conceit 'I am' based on these five aggregates affected by clinging is abandoned in him...." (Nanamoli & Bodhi, 2001, p. 975.) | ||
− | + | ==Theravada and Mahayana perspectives== | |
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− | :" | + | In Theravada Buddhism, the [[Pāli Canon]] bears out the importance of the doctrine of the ''skandhas''. In regards to how [[Theravada]] practitioners view the aggregates, Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2002) argues: |
− | + | :"The [Pāli] canon depicts the Buddha as saying that he taught only two topics: suffering and the end of suffering ([[SN]] 22.86[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn22/sn22.086.than.html]). A survey of the Pali discourses shows him using the concept of the khandhas to answer the primary questions related to those topics: What is suffering? How is it caused? What can be done to bring those causes to an end?" | |
− | In | + | In other words, Theravada practitioners do not see the notion of the aggregates as providing an absolute truth about ultimate reality or as a map of the mind, but instead as providing a tool for understanding how our method of apprehending sensory experiences and the self can lead to either our own suffering or to our own liberation. It is through the five skandhas that clinging (''upadana'') occurs.<ref>For instance, see the ''Samadhi Sutta'' (SN 22:5).[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn22/sn22.005.than.html]</ref> |
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− | + | Additionally, the Samyutta Nikaya contains a book entitled the "Khandhavagga" ("The Book of Aggregates"), which compiles over a hundred suttas related to the five aggregates. Typical of the materials in this collection is the ''Upadaparitassana Sutta'' ("Agitation through Clinging Discourse," SN 22:7), which states in part: | |
:"...[T]he instructed noble disciple ... does not regard form [or other aggregates] as self, or self as possessing form, or form as in self, or self as in form. That form of his changes and alters. Despite the change and alteration of form, his consciousness does not become preoccupied with the change of form.... [T]hrough non-clinging he does not become agitated."<ref>Trans. by Bodhi, 2000b, pp. 865-866.</ref> | :"...[T]he instructed noble disciple ... does not regard form [or other aggregates] as self, or self as possessing form, or form as in self, or self as in form. That form of his changes and alters. Despite the change and alteration of form, his consciousness does not become preoccupied with the change of form.... [T]hrough non-clinging he does not become agitated."<ref>Trans. by Bodhi, 2000b, pp. 865-866.</ref> | ||
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#An instructed noble disciple (sutavā ariyasāvaka) does ''not'' regard form as self, etc., and thus, when form changes, dukkha does not arise.<ref>Note that, in each of the suttas where the above formula is used, subsequent verses replace "form" with each of the other aggregates: sensation, perception, mental formations and consciousness.</ref> | #An instructed noble disciple (sutavā ariyasāvaka) does ''not'' regard form as self, etc., and thus, when form changes, dukkha does not arise.<ref>Note that, in each of the suttas where the above formula is used, subsequent verses replace "form" with each of the other aggregates: sensation, perception, mental formations and consciousness.</ref> | ||
− | + | In contrast, [[Mahayana]] Buddhism emphasizes the intrinsic emptiness of all things including Skandhas. The classic "Prajnaparamita Hridaya Sutra" ("[[Heart Sutra]]") begins: | |
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− | [[Mahayana]] Buddhism emphasizes the intrinsic emptiness of all things including Skandhas. The classic "Prajnaparamita Hridaya Sutra" ("[[Heart Sutra]]") begins: | ||
:''The [[Bodhisattva]] [[Avalokitesvara|Avalokita]],'' | :''The [[Bodhisattva]] [[Avalokitesvara|Avalokita]],'' | ||
:''while moving in the deep course of [[Prajnaparamita|Perfect Understanding]],'' | :''while moving in the deep course of [[Prajnaparamita|Perfect Understanding]],'' | ||
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<tr> | <tr> | ||
<td></td> | <td></td> | ||
− | <td>It constructs '' | + | <td>It constructs ''constructed'' forms, feelings, perceptions, volitional formation, consciousness.</td> |
<td>SN 22.79</td> | <td>SN 22.79</td> | ||
</tr> | </tr> | ||
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<tr> | <tr> | ||
<td></td> | <td></td> | ||
− | <td>It cognizes what is sour, bitter, pungent, sweet, sharp, mild, salty, bland.<ref>Regarding SN 22.79's typifying perception (''saññā'') through visual colors and consciousness (''viññāṇa'') through assorted tastes, Bodhi (2000b, p. 1072, n. 114) mentions | + | <td>It cognizes what is sour, bitter, pungent, sweet, sharp, mild, salty, bland.<ref>Regarding SN 22.79's typifying perception (''saññā'') through visual colors and consciousness (''viññāṇa'') through assorted tastes, Bodhi (2000b, p. 1072, n. 114) mentions the Samyutta Nikaya's subcommentary states that perception grasps appearances and shapes while consciousness "can grasp particular distinctions in an object even when there is no appearance and shape." |
Similarly, in the Visuddhimagga (Buddhaghosa, 1999, pp. 435-6), there is an extended analogy about a child, an adult villager and an expert "money-changer" seeing a heap of coins; the child's experience is analogous to perception, the villager's experience to consciousness, and the money-changer's experience to understanding (''paňňā'').</ref></td> | Similarly, in the Visuddhimagga (Buddhaghosa, 1999, pp. 435-6), there is an extended analogy about a child, an adult villager and an expert "money-changer" seeing a heap of coins; the child's experience is analogous to perception, the villager's experience to consciousness, and the money-changer's experience to understanding (''paňňā'').</ref></td> | ||
<td>SN 22.79</td> | <td>SN 22.79</td> |
Revision as of 09:28, 16 February 2007
In Buddhist doctrine and metaphysics, the word skandha (Sanskrit: स्कान्धास) refers to the five "aggregate" elements that are said to comprise the psychophysical personality. These five aggregates are: form (rūpa)[1], feeling (vedanā)[2], perception (samjñā)[3], consciousness (Skt. visjñāna, Pāli viññāṇa), and reasoning (Skt. "vāsanā" or samskāra).[4] The term skandha can also mean "compound, mass, heap, bundle or tree trunk." [5]
According to the teachings of the Buddha, a proper understanding of the Skandhas is an important step towards the attainment of Nirvana (freedom from suffering). In the Theravada tradition of Buddhism, suffering (dukkha) arises when one identifies with, or otherwise clings to, an aggregate; suffering is extinguished therefore by relinquishing attachments to aggregates. In the Mahayana (Madhyamkia) tradition of Buddhism, ultimate freedom is said to be realized by deeply penetrating the intrinsically empty nature of all aggregates. These doctrinal developments arose out of Buddhist metaphysics, which denies the existence of any eternal soul (atman) outside of this aggregation.
Enumeration and Relationship
In the Pali canon, the aggregates are causally related as follows:[6]
In this scheme, physical form, the mental aggregates,[11] and consciousness are mutually dependent.[12] Other Buddhist literature has described the aggregates as arising in a linear or progressive fashion, from form to feeling to perception to mental formations to consciousness.[13] In regards to these aggregates:
Traditional Buddhist literature (such as the Abhidhamma) speaks of one physical aggregate (form), three mental factors (sensation, perception and mental formations) and consciousness. Contemporary writers (such as Trungpa Rinpoche and Red Pine) sometimes conceptualize the five aggregates as "one physical and four mental" aggregates. (See Table 1 for examples of definitional references to the aggregates in the Buddhist canon.) Role in Buddhist Metaphysics and SoteriologyIn the Buddha's first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta" ("The Setting in Motion the Wheel of Truth Discourse," Samyutta Nikaya 56:11), he mentions the role of the skandhas as follows:
According to Thanissaro (2002):
The Buddha taught that self-identifying with an aggregate would, by necessity, lead to clinging (upadana)[16] to that element; and, given that all aggregates are impermanent (anicca), it is invariable that this attachment would eventually yield agitation (paritassati), loss, grief, stress or suffering. Therefore, to be free of suffering required the wisdom to experience the aggregates clearly, without clinging or craving (tanha), and without associating them with any notion of self (anatta). For example, if one believes "this body is mine" or "I exist within this body," then as their body ages, becomes ill and approaches death, such a person will likely experience longing for youth or health or eternal life, will likely dread of aging, sickness and death, and will likely spend much time and energy lost in fears, fantasies and ultimately futile activities. In the Nikayas, such is likened to shooting oneself with a second arrow, where the first arrow is a physical phenomenon (such as, in this case, a bodily manifestation associated with aging or illness or dying) and the second is the mental anguish of the undisciplined mind associated with the physical phenomenon (see the Sallatha Sutta[17]). Conversely, it is said that one with a disciplined mind, who is able to see this body as a set of aggregates, will be free of such fear, frustration and time-consuming escapism. The way in which one becomes aware of one's own identification with (thus clinging to) the aggregates is found in Buddhist mindfulness practices that are said to awaken understanding, release and wisdom. Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000b, p. 840) states that an examination of the aggregates has a "critical role" in understanding the Buddha's teachings: The five aggregates are the "ultimate referent" in the Buddha's elaboration on suffering (dukkha) . Thus, "since all four truths revolve around suffering, understanding the aggregates is essential for understanding the Four Noble Truths as a whole." Understanding the Nature of Release (nirvana) can only be achieved once an individual ceases clinging to the five aggregates. According to the Mahasunnata Sutta ("The Greater Discourse on Emptiness," MN 122):
Theravada and Mahayana perspectivesIn Theravada Buddhism, the Pāli Canon bears out the importance of the doctrine of the skandhas. In regards to how Theravada practitioners view the aggregates, Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2002) argues:
In other words, Theravada practitioners do not see the notion of the aggregates as providing an absolute truth about ultimate reality or as a map of the mind, but instead as providing a tool for understanding how our method of apprehending sensory experiences and the self can lead to either our own suffering or to our own liberation. It is through the five skandhas that clinging (upadana) occurs.[18] Additionally, the Samyutta Nikaya contains a book entitled the "Khandhavagga" ("The Book of Aggregates"), which compiles over a hundred suttas related to the five aggregates. Typical of the materials in this collection is the Upadaparitassana Sutta ("Agitation through Clinging Discourse," SN 22:7), which states in part:
Many of the suttas in the Khandhavagga express the aggregates in the context of the following sequence:
In contrast, Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes the intrinsic emptiness of all things including Skandhas. The classic "Prajnaparamita Hridaya Sutra" ("Heart Sutra") begins:
From its very first verse, the Heart Sutra introduces an alternative to the practice and view of the Theravada school with respect to the aggregates. First, whereas Theravada meditation practice generally uses change-penetrating (vipassana) meditation, in Mahayana the non-dualistic prajnaparamita practice is invoked. Second, when "emptiness of self" is mentioned in Theravada texts, , the English word "self" is a translation of the Pali word "atta" (Sanskrit, "atman"); in the Heart Sutra, the English word "self" is a translation of the Sanskrit word "sva-bhava".[23] According to Red Pine, "the 'self' (sva) ... was more generalized in its application than 'ego' (atman) and referred not only to beings but to any inherent substance that could be identified as existing in time or space as a permanent or independent entity"[24] [Italics added]. In other words, whereas the Sutta Pitaka typically instructs one to apprehend the aggregates without clinging or self-identification, Prajnaparamita leads one to apprehend the aggregates as having no intrinsic reality.[25] In the Heart Sutra's second verse, after rising from his meditation on the aggregates, Avalokiteshvara (the bodhisattva of compassion) declares:
Red Pine interprets this statement as follows:
Vajrayana perspectivesThe Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism further develops the Buddhist understanding of the skandhas in terms of mahamudra epistemology and tantric reifications. The truth of our insubstantialityReferring to mahamudra teachings, Chogyam Trungpa identifies the form aggregate as the "solidification" of ignorance (Pali, avijja; Skt., avidya), allowing one to have the illusion of "possessing" ever dynamic and spacious wisdom (Pali, vijja; Skt. vidya), and thus being the basis for the creation of a dualistic relationship between "self" and "other."[28] According to Trungpa Rinpoche (1976, pp. 20-22), the five skandhas are "a set of Buddhist concepts which describe experience as a five-step process" and that "the whole development of the five skandhas...is an attempt on our part to shield ourselves from the truth of our insubstantiality," while "the practice of meditation is to see the transparency of this shield." (ibid, p.23) In this way, the illusory (or at least impermanent) nature of the all bodily experiences, and the means of penetrating these illusions (tantric meditation) are emphasized. Bardo deity manifestationsOne of the major developments of the Tibetan Buddhist tradition was a profound exploration of the metaphysical and cosmological nature of reincarnation (samsara). One element of these discoveries was the description of various deities and interim states (bardos) that exist between incarnations, all of which came to be depicted in their unique iconographic tradition. Intriguingly, some Tibetan Lamas postulate a connection between this iconography and their particular perspective on the aggregates. It is in this sense that the Tibetan Book of the Dead (Fremantle & Trungpa, 2003) makes the following associations between the aggregates and tantric deities during the bardo after death:
References in Buddhist literatureThe table below briefly cites Buddhist primary sources that characterize different aspects of the aggregates. This table is by no means exhaustive.
References
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