Difference between revisions of "Rudra" - New World Encyclopedia
m (→References) |
|||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Claimed}} | {{Claimed}} | ||
| − | '''Rudra''' ([[Sanskrit]]: रुद्रः) ("Howler") is a capricious [[Rigveda|Rigvedic]] deity who holds jurisdiction over varied aspects of reality, including wild animals, the storm, the hunt, disease, [[death]], and the [[medicine]]. Alternatively, Rudra means "One who gives speech." Rudra also means "one who drives away sorrows." Rudra is frequently depicted in the Vedas as a terrifying entity, representing the numinous aspect of God with fear-inspiring abilities such as that which causes disease. In contrast, Rudra also possesses milder characteristics such as the ability to heal. | + | '''Rudra''' ([[Sanskrit]]: रुद्रः) ("Howler") is a capricious [[Rigveda|Rigvedic]] deity who holds jurisdiction over varied aspects of reality, including wild animals, the storm, the hunt, disease, [[death]], and the [[medicine]]. Alternatively, Rudra means "One who gives speech." Rudra also means "one who drives away sorrows." Rudra is frequently depicted in the Vedas as a terrifying entity, representing the numinous aspect of God with fear-inspiring abilities such as that which causes disease. In contrast, Rudra also possesses milder characteristics such as the ability to heal. Rudra often possessed many such antithetical traits, a consequence of the considerable amount of synctretism of regional and tribal gods which took place under his name. Rudra is thought to be an early form of [[Shiva]], the lord of destruction in [[Hinduism]]. |
==Origins== | ==Origins== | ||
| Line 16: | Line 16: | ||
==Rudra and Other Deities== | ==Rudra and Other Deities== | ||
| − | Unlike other gods, Rudra is infrequently associated with other deities in the Rig Veda. He had two primary female companions, Prsni and alter Rudrani (or Midhusi). The names of both consorts connote Rudra's connections to rainwater, as the former refers to a leather water bag, while the latter's title suggests Rudra's role as "pourer". With [[Diti]] he | + | Unlike other gods, Rudra is infrequently associated with other deities in the Rig Veda. He had two primary female companions, Prsni and alter Rudrani (or Midhusi). The names of both consorts connote Rudra's connections to rainwater, as the former refers to a leather water bag, while the latter's title suggests Rudra's role as "pourer". With the earth goddess [[Diti]] he fathered the [[Maruts]], the storm deities who attended [[Indra]]. Marut derives from the Sanskrit root ''mr'' ("to die") which suggests a connection with the darker, chthonic nature of their father. Cultic activity directed toward Rudra also suggests that he was linked with Yama, the god of death, as well as spirits of the dead. As god of the storm, Rudra is also closely related to Vayu-Vatah, the gods of wind. Rudra is connected with [[Agni]], the god of fire, and [[Soma]], the anthropomorphic representation of the sacrificial beverage. Like Agni, he is powerful and resplendent, with a great capacity for destruction. Like Soma, he is often said to reside on the summit of a mountain, often Mount Mujavat. |
==Worship== | ==Worship== | ||
| Line 30: | Line 30: | ||
==Rudra & Shiva == | ==Rudra & Shiva == | ||
| − | + | By the time the Upanishads appeared, Rudra began to take on more typical traits of a Supreme Lord, such as omnipotence, omniscience, and trascendence. In the Svetsvara Upanishad particularly, Rudra-Shiva is proclaimed to be identical with Purusa and even Brahman. He is perceived to be protector and creator of all things. It is also at this point where he starts to more closely resemble the God currently recognized of Shiva. The importance of Rudra seems to suggest that Shiva is one the most ancient divinities in the Hindu tradition. In the Svetasvatara Upanishad, Shiva seems to be referred to as Rudra. | |
:He who is the source and origin of the gods | :He who is the source and origin of the gods | ||
| Line 36: | Line 36: | ||
:Who of old created the Golden Germ | :Who of old created the Golden Germ | ||
| − | This verse foreshadows the importance that Rudra would attain after transforming into the deity [[Shiva]]. In the Rg Veda, the theonym "Shiva" was at first merely an epithet for Rudra's milder, more auspicious aspect, although he would later develop his own distinct character and supplant Rudra entirely. No doubt much of the macabre imagery related to Shiva was inherited from Rudra. As well, Shiva assumed Rudra's status as a divine "outsider", keeping his home away from society in the Himalyas. Although many opposites met in Rudra, they were never fully reconciled until the character of Shiva was fully developed. | + | This verse foreshadows the importance that Rudra would attain after transforming into the deity [[Shiva]]. Even before this in the later Vedas, Rudra came to inherit new monikers such as Bhava, Sarva, Mahadeva, and Shiva, most of which were probably names of regional or indigenous gods of non-Aryan of non-Vedic origin. In the divine persona of Rudra the traits of these deities seem to have been syncretized into one supreme god, which eventually came to be known as Shiva, Rudra's successor in Hindu mythology. In the Rg Veda, the theonym "Shiva" was at first merely an epithet for Rudra's milder, more auspicious aspect, although he would later develop his own distinct character and supplant Rudra entirely. No doubt much of the macabre imagery related to Shiva was inherited from Rudra. As well, Shiva assumed Rudra's status as a divine "outsider", keeping his home away from society in the Himalyas. Although many opposites met in Rudra, they were never fully reconciled until the character of Shiva was fully developed. Because of the complexly interwoven relationship between Rudra and Shiva, scholars often used the term "Rudra-Shiva" to refer to the fusion of Rudra and Shiva in both myth and worship. |
==Legacy== | ==Legacy== | ||
| Line 44: | Line 44: | ||
==References == | ==References == | ||
| − | *Davis, Richard H. "Introduction: A Brief History of Religions in India." In ''Religions of Asia in Practice''. Donald S. Lopez. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2002. | + | * Bhattacharji, Sukumari. "Rudra" ''Encyclopedia of Religion''. Mercia Eliade, ed. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 481-482. |
| − | *Dhallapiccola, Anna. ''Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend''. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004. ISBN 0-500-51088-1 | + | * Davis, Richard H. "Introduction: A Brief History of Religions in India." In ''Religions of Asia in Practice''. Donald S. Lopez. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-691-09060-2 |
| − | *Embree, Ainslee T. (ed.). ''The Hindu Tradition''. New York: Vintage Books, 1966. ISBN 0394717023 | + | * Dhallapiccola, Anna. ''Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend''. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004. ISBN 0-500-51088-1 |
| − | *Zaenher, R. C. ''Hinduism.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 1962. ISBN 019888012 | + | * Embree, Ainslee T. (ed.). ''The Hindu Tradition''. New York: Vintage Books, 1966. ISBN 0394717023 |
| + | * Moor, Edward. ''The Hindu Pantheon.'' New Delhi: Cosmo Publications, 2000. ISBN 81-7755-029-2 | ||
| + | * Zaenher, R. C. ''Hinduism.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 1962. ISBN 019888012 | ||
==External Links== | ==External Links== | ||
Revision as of 06:27, 31 January 2007
Rudra (Sanskrit: रुद्रः) ("Howler") is a capricious Rigvedic deity who holds jurisdiction over varied aspects of reality, including wild animals, the storm, the hunt, disease, death, and the medicine. Alternatively, Rudra means "One who gives speech." Rudra also means "one who drives away sorrows." Rudra is frequently depicted in the Vedas as a terrifying entity, representing the numinous aspect of God with fear-inspiring abilities such as that which causes disease. In contrast, Rudra also possesses milder characteristics such as the ability to heal. Rudra often possessed many such antithetical traits, a consequence of the considerable amount of synctretism of regional and tribal gods which took place under his name. Rudra is thought to be an early form of Shiva, the lord of destruction in Hinduism.
Origins
Worship of Rudra seems to take root in the early pre-Aryan phallus worship. This theory is supported by the discovery of seals at Harappa which depict an ithyphallic deity. This deity has a pair of horns, and is attended on one of the seals by a number of creatures including a tiger and a rhinoceros. Thus, the erect phallus and close relation to animals suggests that this deity was a precursor to Rudra-Shiva, whose character would be further developed in Vedic times. Rudra also embodies many qualities of Varuna, the supreme god of the early Vedas who was eventually eclipsed by Indra. In the Great God of the later Vedas, Rudra seems to have inherited many of Varuna's essential attributes. For example, Varuna's power of maya, or the ability by which he created, gradually became Shakti one of Rudra-Shiva's paramount powers.
Attributes
Rudra is the divine archer, mounted upon a chariot and constantly in search of beings to devour. Rudra has arrows which cause disease in whomever he hits whether it be a god, human or animal. His arrows bring disease and death, therefore beings who are shot with one are prone to great suffering, including fevers, coughs and poisoning. Thus, every being lives in fear of Rudra. This includes the other gods, who recognize their inferiority to Rudra's immense power, since he can destroy any one of them, as well. Rudra is also notable for his unpredictability. Prescribed courses of actions do not always satisfy him, for he is not easily pleased. Even a minor transgression by one of his most faithful devotees can send him into a tempestuous rage. Due to this temperment, Rudra is related to nature's destructive forces, such as the storm and the wind. Rudra came to be portrayed even more viciously in the Brahmanas, where he is described variously as a murderer, thief, and cheater, as well as the lord of all robbers (see Atharva Veda 11.2.18 and VS 16.20-21). These malevolent traits were acquired later on in the Vedas, as Rudra began to syncretize with indigenous, non-Aryan gods.
On the other hand, Rudra is also described in milder terms. In the Rg Veda, he is often referred to as the bringer of fertilizing rain. This association with fertility was probably carried over from Rundra's precursors in the religion of the Indus Valley. Not only does he possess immense potential for destruction, but also the power to heal. He is frequently described as the divine physician who possesses a thousands of remedies for any know malady. He is able to heal any illness bestowed upon humans by the other gods. This ability to bestow fedundity and heal wounds while also inflicting them exemplifies Rudra's role as the confluence of many diametric opposites. While he is related with all things terrible, Rudra also inspires a certain tenderness for that which is terrible.
Rudra is commonly associated with animals. In the Atharva Veda, for instance, he is given the title pasupati, or "Lord of the cattle." His jurisdiction spread beyond the bovine, however, as he was also said to rule over undomesticated animals, as well. He was commonly depicted as surrounded by creatures of the wild. Further, he took his residence outside of society in places of wild, such as the forest and the mountains.
Rudra and Other Deities
Unlike other gods, Rudra is infrequently associated with other deities in the Rig Veda. He had two primary female companions, Prsni and alter Rudrani (or Midhusi). The names of both consorts connote Rudra's connections to rainwater, as the former refers to a leather water bag, while the latter's title suggests Rudra's role as "pourer". With the earth goddess Diti he fathered the Maruts, the storm deities who attended Indra. Marut derives from the Sanskrit root mr ("to die") which suggests a connection with the darker, chthonic nature of their father. Cultic activity directed toward Rudra also suggests that he was linked with Yama, the god of death, as well as spirits of the dead. As god of the storm, Rudra is also closely related to Vayu-Vatah, the gods of wind. Rudra is connected with Agni, the god of fire, and Soma, the anthropomorphic representation of the sacrificial beverage. Like Agni, he is powerful and resplendent, with a great capacity for destruction. Like Soma, he is often said to reside on the summit of a mountain, often Mount Mujavat.
Worship
Rudra was one of the more prevalently worshipped gods of the Vedic pantheon, particularly in his form as "lord of the cattle." In this form, devotees flocked to him, envisioning themselves as the herd of cattle over whom Rudra was the master. Due to his close relation with various forms of life and also to his association with fertility, Rudra was commonly worshipped in the form of the phallic emblem. This emblem came to supplant his anthropomorphic representation, and is still used today in the worship of Shiva.
Regardless of his popularity, only four hymns in the Rg Veda are actually dedicated to Rudra. The most notable of these hymns which is the mantra Shri Rudram. This mantra celebrates the various health giving aspects of Rudra and asks for deliverance from Rudra's darker aspects:
- O Rudra! Salutations to Your anger! Let that anger go towards our enemies, not towards us! Also let (our) salutations be to Your arrow. And also saluations be to Your bow. Also saluations be to Your two hands which hold the bow and arrow. Let all these be active in destroying enemies, but not in me (from verse 1.1).
This hymn, as is common with other hymns to Rudra, seeks to avert Rudra's wrath and thereby prevent the speaker from becoming victim to the deity's arrows. Although Rudra has been replaced in contemporary Hinduism by the god Shiva, this mantra is still chanted by Hindus today.
Rudra & Shiva
By the time the Upanishads appeared, Rudra began to take on more typical traits of a Supreme Lord, such as omnipotence, omniscience, and trascendence. In the Svetsvara Upanishad particularly, Rudra-Shiva is proclaimed to be identical with Purusa and even Brahman. He is perceived to be protector and creator of all things. It is also at this point where he starts to more closely resemble the God currently recognized of Shiva. The importance of Rudra seems to suggest that Shiva is one the most ancient divinities in the Hindu tradition. In the Svetasvatara Upanishad, Shiva seems to be referred to as Rudra.
- He who is the source and origin of the gods
- The ruler of all, Rudra, the great seer,
- Who of old created the Golden Germ
This verse foreshadows the importance that Rudra would attain after transforming into the deity Shiva. Even before this in the later Vedas, Rudra came to inherit new monikers such as Bhava, Sarva, Mahadeva, and Shiva, most of which were probably names of regional or indigenous gods of non-Aryan of non-Vedic origin. In the divine persona of Rudra the traits of these deities seem to have been syncretized into one supreme god, which eventually came to be known as Shiva, Rudra's successor in Hindu mythology. In the Rg Veda, the theonym "Shiva" was at first merely an epithet for Rudra's milder, more auspicious aspect, although he would later develop his own distinct character and supplant Rudra entirely. No doubt much of the macabre imagery related to Shiva was inherited from Rudra. As well, Shiva assumed Rudra's status as a divine "outsider", keeping his home away from society in the Himalyas. Although many opposites met in Rudra, they were never fully reconciled until the character of Shiva was fully developed. Because of the complexly interwoven relationship between Rudra and Shiva, scholars often used the term "Rudra-Shiva" to refer to the fusion of Rudra and Shiva in both myth and worship.
Legacy
Although the deity Rudra has largely fallen out of currency in contemporary Hindu worship, he is still of immense importance. He represents an important phase in the evolution of the destroyer god Shiva, who is today one of the most widely worshipped Gods in the Hindu faith today. Rudra represents some of the first movements in the Hindu tradition to venerate the power of destruction, and all the macabre imagery associated with it, much of which still characterizes Shiva today. Rudra's terrifying traits, such as his irascible, unpredictable temperment and his ability to inflict death upon all beings illustrate one of Rudolph Otto's three important aspects of God — that of tremendum or the ability to invoke reverence by way of dread.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Bhattacharji, Sukumari. "Rudra" Encyclopedia of Religion. Mercia Eliade, ed. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 481-482.
- Davis, Richard H. "Introduction: A Brief History of Religions in India." In Religions of Asia in Practice. Donald S. Lopez. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-691-09060-2
- Dhallapiccola, Anna. Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004. ISBN 0-500-51088-1
- Embree, Ainslee T. (ed.). The Hindu Tradition. New York: Vintage Books, 1966. ISBN 0394717023
- Moor, Edward. The Hindu Pantheon. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications, 2000. ISBN 81-7755-029-2
- Zaenher, R. C. Hinduism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1962. ISBN 019888012
External Links
Credits
New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:
The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:
Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.
