Difference between revisions of "Kingdom of Ghana" - New World Encyclopedia

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The Ghana Empire in Africa

The Kingdom of Ghana existed from approximately 750 C.E. to 1076 C.E. in modern day southeastern Mauritania, Western Mali, and Eastern Senegal. The kingdom of Ghana was known as Wagadou in the native Sonicke language of the region, a word that combines the word dou ( land) and the word waga (herd). The term the Kingdom of Ghana, or sometimes the Empire of Ghana, came about in Europe and Arabia as a way to identify the region. Ghana is a traditional honorific title of leaders in Wagadou, thus the term Ghana Empire relates to the title of the emperor not a geographic area.

Origins

The rise of the Ghana Empire in the eighth century marked a shift in Western Africa from small political organizations rooted in village life to large scale political entities that controlled vast geographic regions. The founders of the Ghana Empire were Sonicke, whose modern day counterparts live in the republic of Senegal. The Sonicke traditionally were traders who capitalized on the ideal location of Ancient Ghana to form relationships with the caravans in the north and gold traders in the south. Due to the trade routes crossing the desert, the Kingdom of Ghana grew rich exporting gold, ivory and salt. Market surpluses allowed urban centers to develop, where inhabitants could live comfortable lives through specialized occupations. The Sonicke established a monarchy in Ghana, and twenty two individuals took the throne before the beginning of the Muslim era in 622 C.E.

As well as being important to the political formation of the Kingdom of Ghana, trade was also responsible for providing historical documentation of the region. The first written sources about the region can be traced to Andalusian traders who frequently visited the area. Documentation of the Kingdom of Ghana increased in the late ninth century C.E. and the early tenth century C.E. when a centralized monarchy emerged in the region and controlled all trade routes through Ghanian territory. The most detailed account of life in the Kingdom of Ghana was written by the Cordoban scholar al-Bakri, who collected stories from a number of travelers to the region and consolidated the accounts into a detailed description of the kingdom in 1067. His report documents a new form of expansion, where subdued kingdoms were forced to pay tribute to the Kingdom of Ghana and pay taxes. His contemporaries argued that Ghana was a massive political force that could raise an army of 200,000 soldiers and calvary if the need arose.

In the sevenh and eighth centuries C.E. Islam began to spread across Northern Africa. The religion reached the Kingdom of Ghana in the ninth and tenth centuries when Saharan traders introduced their new religion to the region. The royal court of Ghana, however, did not convert to Islam and retained traditional religious practices throughout the city. Recognizing the importance of placating the Muslim Saharan traders, the King of Ghana allowed them to engage in trade and create their own city ten kilometers from the emperor's town.

Height of the Kingdom of Ghana

The empire's capital was built at Kumbi Saleh on the edge of the Sahara in a region called the Sahel. The capital was formed from two distinct cities that were originally situated six miles apart. As populations increased, the two cities merged into one. While technically merged into one single city, both sides of the city retained a distinct character. One half of the city, called the El Ghaba section, was considered the spiritual center of the Kingdom of Ghana. It was home to the royal palace, as well as other wealthy residents of the town. Most homes in the El Ghaba section were built from wood and stone, while poorer sections of the town contained houses made of wood and clay. Flanked on all sides by a stone wall, the El Ghaba side of town also contained a sacred grove of trees that was used in religious ceremonies. The other section of the town, whose name has not been preserved in historical record, was considered a trading center. It functioned as the business district of the town and was inhabited almost entirely by Arab and Berber merchants. Due to the fact that Islam was the prominent religion on this side of the town, more than a dozen mosques were located within the trading center. At its height Kumbi Saleh boasted a population of over 30,000 inhabitants.

The Kingdom of Ghana was able to retain its position in Western Africa by collecting tribute and taxes from its citizens. There were two distinct types of taxes that were paid the royal treasury: import and export tax and production tax. The import and export tax was paid by traders for the right to bring commodities in or out of Kumbi Saleh. The second tax, the production tax, was applied to the production of gold.

Decline

In the early eleventh century C.E. Ghana entered a period of decline that was marked by a series of military attacks by the Berbers in the north. The Berbers were a predominately poor society that sought the trade access of the Kingdom of Ghana. The Berber advance on Ghanian territory took a religious turn soon after 1000 C.E., when a dynamic leader named Abdullah Ibn Yasin emerged. Adbullah Ibn Yasin founded a religious center called a hermitage where his followers, the Almoravids, practiced a strict Muslim lifestyle. In 1056 C.E. the Almoravids launched a movement northward and captured the city of Sijilmasa. Following that movement the Almoravids crossed the straits of Gibraltar and took over Muslim Spain. A southern portion of the Almoravid movement, led by Abu Bakr, launched an attack against Ghana. The attack against the Kingdom of Ghana finally suceeded in 1054 C.E., when the city of Audaghost fell to the Almoravid attack.

Aftermath

After the death of Abu Bakr in 1087, the Kingdom of Ghana was no longer a formidable power. The death of Abu Bakr did not stop the Almoravid advance, as Ghana was weakened to the point that it had little military force remaining with which to battle the invasion. In particular, the deterioration of the empire could be marked through geographic loss, as the royal palace no longer exercised control over its former provinces.

The former provinces of Ghana broke apart and became independent states in their own right. The larger territories in the region had better sucess rates when they became independent, three of which were Takrur, Diara, and Kaniaga. Tied to the emergence of the new states was a group called the Peul, referred to as the Fulani people in English. They were the major inhabitants of Takrur, and upon being released from the control of the kingdom of Ghana, launched an expansionist movement designed to gain more territory.

Lasting Influence

The ancient kingdom of Ghana provided the namesake for the modern day country of Ghana. While the country pays a debt to the kingdom through its name, no physical territory is shared between the modern country and the ancient kingdom. According to folklore, the nominal link is due to a migration of the survivors of the Ghana Empire following its fall. This theory, however, remains controversial. Most scholars feel that the naming is a respectful move, where the modern country sought to tie its legacy to the historical prominence of the Kingdom of Ghana. The Sosso people also tie themselves to the ancient kingdom, and claim to have migrated to the area after the fall of the kingdom of Ghana.

Sources and Further reading

Mauny, R. The Western Sudan. 1971.
Monteil, C. La legende du Ouagadou et l'origine des Soninke. Melanges Ethnologiques. 1953. 359-408.
Kea, R. Expansions and contractions: World-historical change and the Western Sudan world-system (1200/1000 B.C.E.-1200/1250 C.E.). Peace Research Abstracts. 42(3)(2005).
Davidson, Basil. West Africa before the colonial era: a history to 1850. London: Longman, 1998. ISBN 0582318521 and ISBN 9780582318526
Lewis, Brenda Ralph. Great civilizations. Bath: Parragon, 2002. ISBN 0752561413 and ISBN 9780752561417
Brooks, George E. Eurafricans in western Africa: commerce, social status, gender, and religious observance from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. Western African studies. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003. ISBN 0821414852 and ISBN 9780821414859

External links

All links retrieved April 18, 2018.

Timeline of Art History. The Empires of the Western Sudan: Ghana Empire.
Kingdom of Ghana BU African Studies Center.

Credits

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-{{Claimed}}
+{{Approved}}{{Submitted}}{{Images OK}}{{Paid}}{{Copyedited}}
 [[Image:Empire ghana.png|thumb|right|The Ghana Empire in Africa]]
-The '''Kingdom of Ghana'' existed from approximately 750 A.D. to 1076 A.D. in modern day southeastern [[Mauritania]], Western [[Mali]], and Eastern [[Senegal]].  The kingdom of Ghana was known as Wagadou in the native Sonicke language of the region, a word that combines the word ''dou'' ( land)  and the word ''waga'' (herd). The term the Kingdom of Ghana, or sometimes the Empire of Ghana, came about in Europe and Arabia as a way to identify the region. Ghana is a traditional honorific title of leaders in Wagadou, thus the term Ghana Empire relates to the title of the emporer not a geographic area.
+The '''Kingdom of Ghana''' existed from approximately 750 C.E. to 1076 C.E. in modern day southeastern [[Mauritania]], Western [[Mali]], and Eastern [[Senegal]]. The kingdom of Ghana was known as Wagadou in the native [[Sonicke]] language of the region, a word that combines the word ''dou'' ( land)  and the word ''waga'' (herd). The term the Kingdom of Ghana, or sometimes the Empire of Ghana, came about in [[Europe]] and [[Arabia]] as a way to identify the region. Ghana is a traditional honorific title of leaders in Wagadou, thus the term Ghana Empire relates to the title of the emperor not a geographic area.
+{{toc}}
-It is believed to be the first of many empires that would rise in that part of Africa.  It first began in the eighth century, when a dramatic shift in the economy of the [[Sahel]] area south of the [[Sahara]] allowed more centralized states to form.  The introduction of the [[camel]], which preceeded Arabs and [[Islam]] by several centuries, brought about a gradual revolution in trade, and for the first time, the extensive [[gold]], [[ivory]], and [[salt]] resources of the region could be sent north and east to population centers in [[North Africa]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Europe]] in exchange for manufactured goods.
-The Ghana empire grew rich from the [[trans-Saharan trade]] in gold and salt. This trade produced an increasing surplus, allowing for larger urban centres.  It also encouraged territorial expansion to gain control over the lucrative trade routes.
-Most of the early written information about the empire coming from [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] traders who frequently visited the country, and from the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]], who invaded the kingdom in the late 11th century.
-The first written mention of the kingdom comes soon after it was contacted by [[Sanhaja]] traders in the eighth century.  In the late ninth and early tenth centuries, there are more detailed accounts of a centralized monarchy that dominated the states in the region.  The [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]]n scholar [[al-Bakri]] collected stories from a number of travelers to the region, and gave a detailed description of the kingdom in [[1067]].  At that time it was alleged by contemporary  writters that the ''Ghana'' could field an army of some 200,000 soldiers and calvary.
-Upon the death of a ''Ghana'', he was succeeded by his sister's son.  The deceased ''Ghana'' would be buried in a large dome-roofed tomb.  The religion of the kingdom involved [[imperial cult|emperor worship]] of the Ghana and worship of the ''Bida'a'', a mythical water serpent of the [[Niger River]].
 ==Origins==
-The Ghana Empire is believed by many to have been a continuation of the cultural complex at Tichitt-walata attributed to [[Mandé]] people known as the [[Soninke people|Soninke]]. Subsequent incursions of [[Berber|Amazigh Berber]] tribes however, collapsed the earlier socio-political organization in the region and established small settlements in the area known as '''Awkar''', around the middle of the fourth century. Around 750 or 800 C.E. however, the [[Soninke people|Soninke]] adjusted and united under Majan Dyabe Cisse or Dinga Cisse in taking over Awkar..<ref>Jackson, John G.: "Introduction to African Civilization". Citadel Press, 1970</ref><ref>http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8537(1980)21%3A4%3C457%3AAATPOO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23</ref>
+The rise of the Ghana Empire in the eighth century marked a shift in [[Western Africa]] from small political organizations rooted in village life to large scale political entities that controlled vast geographic regions. The founders of the Ghana Empire were [[Sonicke]], whose modern day counterparts live in the republic of [[Senegal]]. The Sonicke traditionally were traders who capitalized on the ideal location of Ancient Ghana to form relationships with the caravans in the north and gold traders in the south. Due to the trade routes crossing the desert, the Kingdom of Ghana grew rich exporting [[gold]], [[ivory]] and [[salt]]. Market surpluses allowed urban centers to develop, where inhabitants could live comfortable lives through specialized occupations. The Sonicke established a monarchy in Ghana, and twenty two individuals took the throne before the beginning of the [[Muslim]] era in 622 C.E.
-Some people believe that the Ghana Empire was a small kingdom, with its base at the city of Kumbi, and that Al Fazari was the first to describe it to the world. Later, it was conquered by King Sumaguru Kante of Sosso in 1203.  It was later incorporated by the King of Mali around 1240.
+As well as being important to the political formation of the Kingdom of Ghana, trade was also responsible for providing historical documentation of the region. The first written sources about the region can be traced to [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] traders who frequently visited the area. Documentation of the Kingdom of Ghana increased in the late ninth century C.E. and the early tenth century C.E. when a centralized monarchy emerged in the region and controlled all trade routes through Ghanian territory. The most detailed account of life in the Kingdom of Ghana was written by the [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]]n scholar [[al-Bakri]], who collected stories from a number of travelers to the region and consolidated the accounts into a detailed description of the kingdom in 1067. His report documents a new form of expansion, where subdued kingdoms were forced to pay tribute to the Kingdom of Ghana and pay taxes. His contemporaries argued that Ghana was a massive political force that could raise an army of 200,000 soldiers and calvary if the need arose.
-Archaeological testimony supports that the Mandé are thought to have been among the first peoples on the continent, outside the Nile region and Ethiopia, to produce stone settlement civilizations. These were built on the rocky promontories of the Tichitt-Walata and Tagant cliffs of Mauritania where hundreds of stone masonry settlements, with clear street layouts, have been found. Dating from as early as 1600 B.C.E., these towns had a unique four-tier hierarchy and tribute collection system. This civilization began to decline around 300 B.C.E.  with the intrusion of Berber armies from the Sahara, but with later reorganization and new trade opportunities, the Wagadou/Ghana Kingdom arose.  This polity seems to have inherited the social and economic organization of the Tichitt-Walata complex.
+In the sevenh and eighth centuries C.E. [[Islam]] began to spread across [[Northern Africa]]. The [[religion]] reached the Kingdom of Ghana in the ninth and tenth centuries when Saharan traders introduced their new religion to the region. The royal court of Ghana, however, did not convert to Islam and retained traditional religious practices throughout the city. Recognizing the importance of placating the Muslim Saharan traders, the King of Ghana allowed them to engage in trade and create their own city ten kilometers from the emperor's town.
-Over time, Wagadou became the center of power for trade in the region. The Dinga Cisse became the first ''Ghana'' (warrior king) and his clan became the rulers of the new state. To this day, the Cisse name is prominent in the politics of [[Mali]] and [[Mauritania]].
 ==Height of the Kingdom of Ghana==
-===Kumbi Saleh===
+The empire's capital was built at [[Kumbi Saleh]] on the edge of the [[Sahara]] in a region called the [[Sahel]]. The capital was formed from two distinct cities that were originally situated six miles apart. As populations increased, the two cities merged into one. While technically merged into one single city, both sides of the city retained a distinct character. One half of the city, called the El Ghaba section, was considered the spiritual center of the Kingdom of Ghana. It was home to the royal palace, as well as other wealthy residents of the town. Most homes in the El Ghaba section were built from wood and stone, while poorer sections of the town contained houses made of wood and clay. Flanked on all sides by a stone wall, the El Ghaba side of town also contained a sacred grove of trees that was used in religious ceremonies. The other section of the town, whose name has not been preserved in historical record, was considered a trading center. It functioned as the business district of the town and was inhabited almost entirely by [[Arab]] and [[Berber]] merchants. Due to the fact that Islam was the prominent religion on this side of the town, more than a dozen [[mosque]]s were located within the trading center. At its height Kumbi Saleh boasted a population of over 30,000 inhabitants.
-The empire's capital was built at [[Kumbi Saleh]] on the edge of the Sahara. The capital was actually two cities six miles apart separated by a six-mile road. But settlements between the cities became so dense due to the influx of people coming to trade, that it merged into one.  Most of the houses were built of wood and clay, but wealthy and important residents lived in homes of wood and stone. This large metropolis of over 30,000 people remained divided after its merger forming two distinct areas within the city.
-===El Ghaba Section===
+The Kingdom of Ghana was able to retain its position in [[Western Africa]] by collecting tribute and taxes from its citizens. There were two distinct types of taxes that were paid the royal treasury: import and export tax and production tax. The import and export tax was paid by traders for the right to bring commodities in or out of Kumbi Saleh. The second tax, the production tax, was applied to the production of [[gold]].
-The major part of the city was called El-Ghaba.                        It was protected by a stone wall and functioned as the royal and spiritual capital of the Empire. It contained a sacred grove of trees used for Soninke religious rites. It also contained the king's palace, the grandest structures in the city. There was also one mosque for visiting Muslim officials. (El-Ghaba, coincidentally or not, means "the Forest" in Arabic.)
-===Merchant Section===
-The name of the other section of the city has not been passed down.  We do know it was the center of trade and functioned as a sort of business district of the capital. It was inhabited almost entirely by Arab and [[Berber people|Berber]] merchants. Because the majority of these merchants were Muslim, this part of the city contained more than a dozen ''[[mosques|masjids]]''.
 ==Decline==
-The empire began struggling after reaching its apex in the early 11th century. By 1059, the population density around the empire's leading cities was seriously overtaxing the region. The Sahara desert was expanding southward threatening food supplies. While imported food was sufficient to support the population when income from trade was high, when trade faltered, this system also broke down. The growing power of the Almoravids soon led them to launch a war against Ghana in 1062 under [[Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar]] to gain control of the coveted Saharan trade routes.  The war was justified as an act of conversion through military arms ([[lesser jihad]]).  The Almoravids fought the Ghana empire for five years before reaching and laying siege to the capital city in 1067. For ten more years, under the leadership of ''Ghana'' Bassi and his successor ''Ghana'' Tunka Menin, the empire resisted.  Finally, in 1076, General [[Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar]] captured the capital and ended the state as an empire while converting many to [[Islam]].
+In the early eleventh century C.E. Ghana entered a period of decline that was marked by a series of military attacks by the Berbers in the north. The Berbers were a predominately poor society that sought the trade access of the Kingdom of Ghana. The Berber advance on Ghanian territory took a religious turn soon after 1000 C.E., when a dynamic leader named [[Abdullah Ibn Yasin]] emerged. Adbullah Ibn Yasin founded a religious center called a hermitage where his followers, the [[Almoravids]], practiced a strict Muslim lifestyle. In 1056 C.E.. the Almoravids launched a movement northward and captured the city of [[Sijilmasa]]. Following that movement the Almoravids crossed the [[straits of Gibraltar]] and took over Muslim [[Spain]]. A southern portion of the Almoravid movement, led by [[Abu Bakr]], launched an attack against Ghana. The attack against the Kingdom of Ghana finally suceeded in 1054 C.E., when the city of [[Audaghost]] fell to the Almoravid attack.
 ===Aftermath===
-General Abu Bakr died in [[1087]] and the Almoravid rule over the remains of the Ghana Empire did not long survive him.  The now fractionalized region came under the rule of the Soninke again though with far less power.
-===Sosso Occupation===
+After the death of Abu Bakr in 1087, the Kingdom of Ghana was no longer a formidable power. The death of Abu Bakr did not stop the Almoravid advance, as Ghana was weakened to the point that it had little military force remaining with which to battle the invasion. In particular, the deterioration of the empire could be marked through geographic loss, as the royal palace no longer exercised control over its former provinces.
-Around [[1140]], the rabidly anti-Muslim [[Sosso]] people of the [[Kaniaga]] kingdom captured much of the former empire. [[Diara Kante]] took control of Koumbi Saleh in [[1180]] and established the [[Diarisso]] Dynasty. His son, [[Soumaoro Kante]], succeeded him in [[1203]] and forced the people to pay him tribute. The Sosso also managed to annex the neighboring [[Mandinka]] state of [[Kangaba]] to the south, where the important goldfield of [[Bure, Africa|Bure]] were located.
-===Mandinka Rule===
+The former provinces of Ghana broke apart and became independent states in their own right. The larger territories in the region had better sucess rates when they became independent, three of which were Takrur, Diara, and Kaniaga. Tied to the emergence of the new states was a group called the Peul, referred to as the [[Fulani people]] in English. They were the major inhabitants of Takrur, and upon being released from the control of the kingdom of Ghana, launched an expansionist movement designed to gain more territory.
-In [[1230]], Kangaba led a rebellion under Prince [[Sundiata Keita]] against Sosso rule. ''Ghana'' Soumaba Cisse, at the time a vassal of the Sosso, rebelled with Kangaba and a loose federation of Mande speaking states. After Soumaoro's defeat at the [[Battle of Kirina]] in [[1235]], the new rulers of Koumbi Saleh became permanent allies of the [[Mali Empire]].  As Mali became more powerful, Koumbi Saleh's role as an ally declined to that of a submissive state.  It ceased to be an independent kingdom by [[1240]].
 ==Lasting Influence==
-The modern country of [[Ghana]] is named after the ancient empire, though there is no territory shared between the two states.  There are traditional stories that the survivors of the Ghana Empire migrated to the region of modern Ghana, but there is no evidence that this is true. The Sosso, however, are present along the Atlantic coast of West Africa and claim to have migrated after the fall of the Sosso kingdom.
+The ancient kingdom of Ghana provided the namesake for the modern day country of [[Ghana]]. While the country pays a debt to the kingdom through its name, no physical territory is shared between the modern country and the ancient kingdom. According to folklore, the nominal link is due to a migration of the survivors of the Ghana Empire following its fall. This theory, however, remains controversial. Most scholars feel that the naming is a respectful move, where the modern country sought to tie its legacy to the historical prominence of the Kingdom of Ghana. The Sosso people also tie themselves to the ancient kingdom, and claim to have migrated to the area after the fall of the kingdom of Ghana.
+==Sources and Further reading==
+{{Reflist|3}}
+* Mauny, R. ''The Western Sudan.'' 1971.
+* Monteil, C.  ''La legende du Ouagadou et l'origine des Soninke.'' ''Melanges Ethnologiques.'' 1953. 359-408.
+* Kea, R.  ''Expansions and contractions: World-historical change and the Western Sudan world-system (1200/1000 B.C.E.-1200/1250 C.E.).'' ''Peace Research Abstracts.'' 42(3)(2005).
+* Davidson, Basil. ''West Africa before the colonial era: a history to 1850.'' London: Longman, 1998. ISBN 0582318521 and ISBN 9780582318526
+* Lewis, Brenda Ralph. ''Great civilizations.'' Bath: Parragon, 2002. ISBN 0752561413 and ISBN 9780752561417
+* Brooks, George E. ''Eurafricans in western Africa: commerce, social status, gender, and religious observance from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century.'' Western African studies. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003. ISBN 0821414852 and ISBN 9780821414859
 ==External links==
-*[http://www.ghana.co.uk/history/history/ancient_ghana.htm Ancient Ghana]
+All links retrieved April 18, 2018.
-*[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ghan/hd_ghan.htm Empires of west Sudan]
-*[http://www.soninkara.org/histoire-soninkara/wagadou/recherches/index.php Empire oh Ghana, Wagadou, Soninke]
-*[http://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/materials/handouts/k_o_ghana.html Kingdom of Ghana, Primary Source Documents]
-*[http://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/materials/handouts/gold.html Gold: Select Bibliography for Teaching about GOLD in the West African Kingdoms]
-*[http://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/materials/handouts/SUNDIATA.pdf Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali]
-*[http://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/materials/handouts/Ancient_Mali.pdf Why this epic of Ancient Mali?]
-*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/rams/4audio0.ram BBC World Service Audio: The Empire of Ancient Ghana]
-==References==
+* ''Timeline of Art History''. [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ghan/hd_ghan.htm The Empires of the Western Sudan: Ghana Empire].
-{{Reflist|3}}
+* [http://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/resources/k_o_ghana/ Kingdom of Ghana] BU African Studies Center.
-* Mauny, R. (1971), “The Western Sudan” in Shinnie: 66-87.
-* Monteil, Charles (1953), “La Légende du Ouagadou et l’Origine des Soninke” in Mélanges Ethnologiques (Dakar: Bulletin del’Institut Francais del’Afrique Noir)
-* Expansions And Contractions: World-Historical Change And The Western Sudan World-System 1200/1000 B.C.–1200/1250 A.D. Ray A. Kea. Journal of World Systems Research: Fall 2004
-* Davidson, Basil. ''West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850''. Essex: Pearson Education Limited, 1998. ISBN 0582318521
-* Lewis, Brenda Ralph. ''Great Civilizations''. Bath: Parragon Publishing, 1999. ISBN 0752561413
-* Brooks, George E. ''Eurafricans in Western Africa''. Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2003. ISBN 0821414852
-[[Category:History and biography]]
-[[Category:Nations and places]]
-[[Category:Africa]]
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+[[Category:History]]
+[[Category:Geography]]
+[[Category:Africa]]