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| − | [[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
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| − | [[Image:Hongkong central kowloon-full.jpg|thumb|250px|Urban planning is concerned with the ordering and design of settlements, from the smallest towns to the world's largest cities. Shown here is [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]], [[Hong Kong]]'s [[central business district]].]]'''Urban, city, and town planning''' is the integration of the disciplines of [[land-use planning]] and [[transport planning]], to explore a very wide range of aspects of the built and social environments of urbanized municipalities and communities. [[Regional planning]] deals with a still larger environment, at a less detailed level.
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| − | Based upon the origins of urban planning from the Roman (pre-dark ages) era, the current discipline revisits the synergy of the disciplines of urban planning, architecture, and landscape architecture, varying upon from the interlectural strategic positioning from university to university.
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| − | Another key role of urban planning is [[urban renewal]], and re-generation of inner cities by adapting urban-planning methods to existing cities suffering from long-term infrastructural decay.
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| − | ==History==
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| − | Urban planning as an organized profession has existed for less than a century. However, most settlements and cities reflect various degrees of forethought and conscious design in their layout and functioning.
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| − | The development of technology, particularly the discovery of agriculture, before the beginning of recorded history facilitated larger populations than the very small communities of the Paleolithic, and may have compelled the development of stronger, more coercive governments at the same time. The pre-Classical and Classical ages saw a number of cities laid out according to fixed plans, though many tended to develop organically.
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| − | Designed cities were characteristic of the totalitarian [[Mesopotamia]]n, [[Indus Valley Civilization|Harrapan]], and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] [[civilization]]s of the third millennium B.C.E..
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| − | ===Indus Valley Civilization===
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| − | The cities of [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]] in the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] (in modern-day [[Pakistan]] and northwest [[India]]) are perhaps the earliest examples of deliberately planned and managed cities. The streets of these early cities were often paved and laid out at right angles in a [[grid plan|grid pattern]], with a hierarchy of streets from major boulevards to residential alleys. [[Archaeology|Archaeological]] evidence suggests that many Harrapan houses were laid out to protect from noise and enhance residential privacy; also, they often had their own water wells, probably for both sanitary and ritual purposes. These ancient cities were unique in that they often had drainage systems, seemingly tied to a well-developed ideal of urban [[sanitation]]<ref>Jacob Eapen (1997), [http://www.eapen.com/jacob/report/indus.html Indus River Valley Civilization]</ref>. [[Ur]], located near the [[Euphrates]] and [[Tigris]] rivers in modern-day [[Iraq]] also had urban planning in later periods.
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| − | ===Mesopotamia===
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| − | [[Image:Babylon 600B.C.E. Painting.jpg|thumb|350px|Mural depicting the palace quarter of [[Nebuchadnezzar]]'s [[Babylon]], [[Mesopotamia]], around 600 B.C.E.]]
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| − | Babylon was a [[city-state]] of ancient Mesopotamia (which was sometimes considered an [[empire]]), the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, [[Iraq]], about 55 miles south of [[Baghdad]].
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| − | All that remains today of the ancient famed [[city]] of Babylon is a mound, or tell, of broken mud-brick buildings and debris in the fertile Mesopotamian [[plain]] between the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] [[river]]s in Iraq. Historical resources inform us that Babylon was at first a small [[town]], that had sprung up by the beginning of the third millennium B.C.E. (the dawn of the dynasties). The town flourished and attained prominence and political repute with the rise of the first Babylonian [[dynasty]]. It was the "holy city" of Babylonia by approximately 2300 B.C.E., and the seat of the Neo-Babylonian Empire from 612 B.C.E. The [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] were one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]].
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| − | The city itself was built upon the Euphrates and divided in equal parts along its left and right banks, with steep embankments to contain the river's seasonal [[flood]]s. Babylon grew in extent and grandeur over time, but gradually became subject to the rule of [[Assyria]]. It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world from ca. 1770 to 1670 B.C.E., and again between ca. 612 and 320 B.C.E. It was perhaps the first city to reach a [[population]] above 200,000.
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| − | ===Graeco-Roman period===
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| − | The Greek [[Hippodamus]] (c. 407 B.C.E.) is widely considered the father of city planning in the West, for his design of [[Miletus]]. Alexander commissioned him to lay out his new city of [[Alexandria]], the grandest example of idealized urban planning of the Mediterranean world, where stability was aided in large part by its level site near a mouth of the Nile.
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| − | The [[ancient Rome|ancient Romans]] used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defense and civil convenience. The basic plan is a central forum with city services, surrounded by a compact rectilinear grid of streets and wrapped in a wall for defense. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets cross the square grid corner-to-corner, passing through the central square. A river usually flowed through the city, to provide water, transport, and sewage disposal.
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| − | <ref>{{cite book
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| − | | last = Vitrivius
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| − | | trans = Morris H. Morgan
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| − | | date = 1914
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| − | | title = The Ten Books on Architecture, Bk I
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| − | | publisher = Dover
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| − | }}</ref>
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| − | Many European towns, such as [[Turin]], still preserve the essence of these schemes. The Romans had a very logical way of designing their cities. They laid out the streets at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All the roads were equal in width and length, except for two, which formed the center of the grid and intersected in the middle. One went East/West, the other North/South. They were slightly wider than the others. All roads were made of carefully fitted stones and smaller hard packed stones. Bridges were also constructed where needed. Each square marked by four roads was called an ''insula'', which was the Roman equivalent of modern city blocks. Each insula was 80 square yards, with the land within each insula being divided up.
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| − | As the city developed, each insula would eventually be filled with buildings of various shapes and sizes and would be crisscrossed with back roads and alleys. Most insulae were given to the first settlers of a budding new Roman city, but each person had to pay for the construction of their own house. The city was surrounded by a wall to protect the city from invaders and other enemies, and to mark the city limits. Areas outside of the city limits were left open as farmland. At the end of each main road, there would be a large gateway with watchtowers. A portcullis covered the opening when the city was under siege, and additional watchtowers were constructed around the rest of the city’s wall. A water aqueduct was built outside of the city's walls.
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| − | ===Middle Ages===
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| − | The collapse of Roman civilization saw the end of their urban planning, among many other arts. Urban development in the Middle Ages, characteristically focused on a fortress, a fortified abbey, or a (sometimes abandoned) Roman nucleus, occurred "like the annular rings of a tree"<ref>[[Siegfried Giedion]], ''Space, Time and Architecture'' (1941) 1962, in reference to an air view (fig.8) of the medieval Italian town of Bagnocavallo. Giedion's source was Luigi Piccinati, "Urbanistica Medioevale" in ''Urbanistica deal Antichità ad Oggi'' (Florence 1943).</ref> whether in an extended village or the center of a larger city. Since the new center was often on high, defensible ground, the city plan took on an organic character, following the irregularities of [[Topography|elevation contours]] like the shapes that result from [[Terrace (agriculture)|agricultural terracing]].
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| − | [[Image:Raffael 098.jpg|thumb|left|The ideal centrally planned urban space: ''Sposalizio'' by [[Raphael Sanzio]], 1504]]
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| − | The ideal of wide streets and orderly cities was not lost, however. A few medieval cities were admired for their wide thoroughfares and other orderly arrangements, but the juridical chaos of medieval cities (where the administration of streets was sometimes hereditary with various noble families), and the characteristic tenacity of medieval Europeans in legal matters, prevented frequent or large-scale urban planning.
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| − | It was not until the [[Renaissance]] and the enormous strengthening of all central governments, from city-states to the kings of [[France]], characteristic of that epoch could urban planning advance.
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| − | ===The Renaissance===
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| − | In the 1990s, the [[University of Kentucky]] voted the Italian town of [[Todi]] as the ideal city and "most livable town in the world," the place where man and nature, history and tradition come together to create a site of excellence. Todi had ancient Italic origins, but after the twelfth century C.E. the city expanded again: the [[government]] was held first by [[consul]]s, and then by podestà and a people's captain, some of whom achieved wide fame. In 1244, the new quarters, housing mainly the new [[artisan]] classes, were enclosed in a new circle of [[wall]]s. In 1290, the city had 40,000 inhabitants. In Italy, other examples of ideal cities planned according to scientific methods, are: [[Urbino]](origins, fifteenth century), [[Pienza]] (1462), [[Ferrara]] (early twelfth century), [[San Giovanni Valdarno]] (early twelfth century), and [[San Lorenzo Nuovo]] (early twelfth century).
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| − | The [[star fort|star-shaped fortification]] had a formative influence on the patterning of the Renaissance ideal city. They were employed by [[Michelangelo]] in the defensive earthworks of [[Florence]]. This model was widely imitated, reflecting the enormous cultural power of Florence in this age: "The Renaissance was hypnotized by one city type which for a century and a half—from Filarete to Scamozzi—was impressed upon all utopian schemes: this is the star-shaped city."<ref>Siegfried Giedion, ''Space, Time and Architecture'' (1941) 1962 p 43.</ref> Radial streets extend outward from a defined center of military, communal, or spiritual power. Only in ideal cities did a centrally planned structure stand at the heart, as in [[Raphael Santi|Raphael]]'s ''Sposalizio'' of 1504.
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| − | [[Image:Vigevano0001.jpg|thumb|250 px|Vigevano's famous Piazza Ducale, with the Cathedral façade.]]
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| − | The unique example of a rationally-planned ''[[quattrocento]]'' new city center, that of [[Vigevano]], 1493-1495, resembles a closed space instead, surrounded by arcading. [[Filarete]]'s ideal city, building on hints in [[Leone Battista Alberti]]'s ''De re aedificatoria'', was named "Sforzinda" in compliment to his patron; its 12-pointed shape, circumscribable by a "perfect" [[Pythagoras|Pythagorean figure]], the circle, takes no heed of its undulating terrain in Filarete's manuscript.
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| − | ===Asia===
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| − | The [[Forbidden City]] was the [[China|Chinese]] imperial [[palace]] from the [[Ming Dynasty]] to the end of the [[Qing Dynasty]]. It is located in the middle of [[Beijing]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], and now houses the [[Palace Museum]]. For almost five centuries, it served as the home of the [[Emperor of China|Emperor]] and his household, as well as the ceremonial and political centre of Chinese government.
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| − | Built from 1406 to 1420, the complex consists of 980 surviving buildings with 8,707 bays of rooms and covers 7,800,000 square feet. The palace complex exemplifies traditional [[Chinese architecture|Chinese palatial architecture]], and has influenced cultural and architectural developments in [[East Asia]] and elsewhere. The Forbidden City was declared a [[World Heritage Site]] in 1987, and is listed by [[UNESCO]] as the largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures in the world.
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| − | It is also the world's largest surviving palace complex and was designed to be the center of the ancient, walled city of Beijing. It is enclosed in a larger, walled area called the [[Imperial City (Beijing)|Imperial City]]. The Imperial City is, in turn, enclosed by the Inner City; to its south lies the Outer City.
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| − | The Forbidden City remains important in the civic scheme of Beijing. The central north-south axis remains the central axis of Beijing. This axis extends to the south through Tiananmen gate to [[Tiananmen Square]], the ceremonial center of the People's Republic of China. To the north, it extends through [[Gulou and Zhonglou|the Bell and Drum Towers]] to [[Yongdingmen]]. This axis is not exactly aligned north-south, but is tilted by slightly more than two degrees. Researchers now believe that the axis was designed in the [[Yuan Dynasty]] to be aligned with [[Xanadu]], the other capital of their empire.
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| − | ===Central and South America===
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| − | [[Image:Vista de Machu Picchu.jpg|thumb|250px|Machu Picchu]]
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| − | Many cities in Central American civilizations also engineered urban planning in their cities including sewage systems and running water. In [[Mexico]], [[Tenochtitlan]] was the capital of the Aztec empire, built on an island in Lake Texcoco in what is now the Federal District in central Mexico. At its height, Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities in the world, with close to 250,000 inhabitants.
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| − | Built around 1460, [[Machu Picchu]] is a [[pre-Columbian]] [[Inca]] site located 8,000 feet above sea on a [[mountain]] ridge above the [[Urubamba Valley]] in [[Peru]]. Often referred to as "[[The Lost City of the Incas]]," Machu Picchu is one of the most familiar symbols of the [[Inca Empire]].
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| − | Machu Picchu is composed of 140 structures or features, including [[temple]]s, sanctuaries, [[park]]s, and residences that include houses with thatched roofs. There are more than 100 flights of [[stone]] steps—often completely carved from a single block of [[granite]]—and a great number of [[water]] [[fountain]]s that are interconnected by channels and water-drains perforated in the [[rock]] that were designed for the original [[irrigation system]]. Evidence has been found to suggest that the irrigation system was used to carry water from a holy spring to each of the [[house]]s in turn.
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| − | According to [[archaeologist]]s, the urban sector of Machu Picchu was divided into three great [[district]]s: the Sacred District, the Popular District to the south, and the District of the Priests and the Nobility.
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| − | ===Developed nations===
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| − | ====Modernism====
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| − | In the developed countries of ([[Western Europe]], [[North America]], [[Japan]], and [[Australasia]]), planning and architecture can be said to have gone through various stages of general consensus in the last 200 years. Firstly, there was the industrialized city of the nineteenth century, where control of building was largely held by businesses and the wealthy elite. Around 1900, there began to be a movement for providing citizens, especially factory workers, with healthier environments. The concept of [[garden city movement|garden cities]] arose and several model towns were built, such as [[Letchworth Garden City|Letchworth]] and [[Welwyn Garden City]], the world's first garden cities, in [[Hertfordshire]], Great Britain. However, these were principally small scale in size, typically dealing with only a few thousand residents.<ref>[[Peter Hall (urbanist)|Hall, Peter]] et al. ''Sociable Cities; the legacy of Ebeneezer Howard'', 1998, ISBN 0-471-98504-X, John Wiley & Sons, New York.</ref>
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| − | It was not until the 1920s that [[Modernism]] began to surface. Based on the ideas of [[Le Corbusier]] and utilizing new skyscraper-building techniques, the Modernist city stood for the elimination of disorder, congestion, and the small scale, replacing them instead with pre-planned and widely spaced freeways and tower blocks set within gardens. There were plans for large-scale rebuilding of cities, such as the ''Plan Voisin'' (based on Le Corbusier's [[Ville Contemporaine]]), which proposed clearing and rebuilding most of central Paris. No large-scale plans were implemented until after [[World War II]] however. Throughout the late 1940s and 1950s, housing shortages caused by war destruction led many cities around the world to build substantial amounts of government-subsidized housing blocks. Planners at the time used the opportunity to implement the Modernist ideal of towers surrounded by gardens.
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| − | the Athens Charter was the result of the 1933 [[Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne]] (CIAM). The proceedings went unpublished until 1942, when Le Corbusier published them in heavily edited form. Both the conference and the resulting document concentrated on "The Functional City."
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| − | As later documented by Le Corbusier, CIAM IV laid out a 95-point program for planning and construction of rational cities, addressing topics such as high-rise residential blocks, strict zoning, the separation of residential areas and transportation arteries, and the preservation of historic districts and buildings. The key underlying concept was the creation of independent zones for the four 'functions': living, working, recreation, and circulation.
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| − | These concepts were widely adopted by urban planners in their efforts to rebuild European cities following [[World War II]], for instance [[Mart Stam]]'s plans for postwar [[Dresden]], and for the construction of [[public housing]] worldwide; [[Brasilia]], a fine example of the application of this charter, follows it virtually to the letter.
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| − | [[Image:Brasilia from the universe - ISS005-E-9532.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Brasília's neatly planned layout, seen from space. The Residential Axis is clearly visible, resembling the shape of the wings of an airplane.]]
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| − | Constructed between 1956 and 1960, Brasília is the [[Capital (political)|capital]] of [[Brazil]]. The city and its district are located in the [[Central-West Region, Brazil|Central-West region]] of the country, along a [[plateau]] known as ''[[Planalto Central]]''. It has a population of about 2,557,000 as of the 2008 [[IBGE]] estimate, making it the fourth largest city in Brazil. It is the only twentieth-century city listed as a [[World Heritage Site]] by [[UNESCO]].
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| − | As the national capital, Brasília is the seat of all three branches of the [[Politics of Brazil|Brazilian government]]. The city also hosts the headquarters of many Brazilian companies such as the [[Banco do Brasil]], [[Caixa Econômica Federal]], [[Correios]] and [[Brasil Telecom]]. The city is a world reference for urban planning. The locating of residential [[building]]s around expansive urban areas, of building the city around large [[avenue]]s, and dividing it into sectors, has sparked a debate and reflection on life in big cities in the twentieth century. The city's planned design included specific areas for almost everything, including accommodation—Hotel Sectors North and South. However, new areas are now being developed as locations for hotels, such as the Hotels and Tourism Sector North, located on the shores of Lake Paranoá.
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| − | The city was planned and developed in 1956 with [[Lúcio Costa]] as the principal urban planner and [[Oscar Niemeyer]] as the principal architect. In 1960, it formally became Brazil's national capital. When seen from above, the main planned part of the city's shape resembles an [[airplane]] or a [[butterfly]].
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| − | ====Post-Modernism====
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| − | [[Image:Las Vegas strip.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|The south end of the [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas Strip]] in 2003]]
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| − | However, the Athens Charter was roundly criticized within the profession for its inflexible approach and its inhumane results. By the late 1960s and early 1970s, many planners were coming to realize that the imposition of Modernist clean lines and a lack of human scale also tended to sap vitality from the community. This was expressed in high crime and social problems within many of these planned neighborhoods. <ref>Smith Morris et al. ''British Town Planning and Urban Design'', 1997, ISBN 0-582-23496-4, Longman, Singapore.</ref> Modernism can be said to have ended in the 1970s when the construction of the cheap, uniform [[tower block]]s ended in many countries, such as Britain and France. Since then many have been demolished and in their way more conventional housing has been built. Rather than attempting to eliminate all disorder, planning now concentrates on individualism and diversity in society and the economy. This is the Post-Modernist era.<ref>Smith Morris et al. ''British Town Planning and Urban Design'', 1997, ISBN 0-582-23496-4, Longman, Singapore.</ref> <ref>http://www.angelfire.com/ar/corei/ud.html</ref>
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| − | [[Las Vegas, Nevada]] is one American city that has emerged along Post-Modernist lines in that it is specifically designed to create a unique experience, often simulated, for its millions of annual visitors who come from a wide diversity of [[nation]]s, [[ethnicity|ethnic background]]s, and [[social class|socio-economic classes]].<ref>http://www.transparencynow.com/vegas.htm</ref>
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| − | ==Aspects of planning==
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| − | ===Aesthetics===
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| − | [[Image:Royal.crescent.aerial.bath.arp.jpg|thumb|250px|Towns and cities have been planned with aesthetics in mind, here in [[Bath, Somerset|Bath, England]], eighteenth-century private sector development was designed to appear attractive.]]
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| − | In developed countries, there has been a backlash against excessive man-made clutter in the visual environment, such as signposts, signs, and hoardings.<ref>New Zealand Herald: [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/1/story.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10429079 Tensions spill over in billboard row]</ref> Other issues that generate strong debate among urban designers are tensions between peripheral growth, increased housing density, and planned new settlements. There are also unending debates about the benefits of mixing tenures and land uses, versus the benefits of distinguishing geographic zones where different uses predominate. Regardless, all successful urban planning considers urban character, local identity, respect for heritage, pedestrians, traffic, utilities, and natural hazards.
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| − | Planners are important in managing the growth of cities, applying tools like [[zoning]] to manage the uses of land, and [[growth management]] to manage the pace of development. When examined historically, many of the cities now thought to be most beautiful are the result of dense, long-lasting systems of prohibitions and guidance about building sizes, uses, and features. These allowed substantial freedoms, yet enforce styles, safety, and materials in practical ways. Many conventional planning techniques are being repackaged using the contemporary term [[smart growth]].
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| − | There are some cities that have been planned from conception, and while the results often do not turn out quite as planned, evidence of the initial plan often remains.
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| − | ===Safety===
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| − | [[Image:La Cité from La Bastide.jpg|thumb|250px|The medieval walled city of [[Carcassonne]] in France is built upon high ground to provide maximum protection from attackers.]]
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| − | Historically within the Middle East, Europe, and the rest of the [[Old World]], settlements were located on higher ground (for defense) and close to fresh-water sources. Cities have often grown onto coastal and flood plains at risk of floods and storm surges. Urban planners must consider these threats. If the dangers can be localized, then the affected regions can be made into parkland or [[Greenbelt]], often with the added benefit of an open-space provision.
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| − | Extreme [[weather]], [[flooding]], or other emergencies can often be greatly mitigated with secure [[emergency-evacuation]] routes and emergency-operations centers. These are relatively inexpensive and unintrusive, and many consider them a reasonable precaution for any urban space. Many cities will also have planned, built safety features, such as [[levee]]s, [[retaining wall]]s, and shelters.
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| − | In recent years, practitioners have also been expected to maximize the accessibility of an area to people with different abilities, practicing the notion of "inclusive design" to anticipate criminal behavior and consequently to "design-out crime," and consider "traffic calming" or "pedestrianization" as ways of making urban life more pleasant.
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| − | City planning tries to control [[criminality]] with structures designed from theories such as [[socio-architecture]] or [[environmental determinism]]. These theories say that an urban environment can influence individuals' obedience to social rules. The theories often say that psychological pressure develops in more densely developed, unadorned areas. This stress causes some crimes and some use of illegal drugs. The antidote is usually more individual space and better, more beautiful design in place of [[functionalism (architecture)|functionalism]].
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| − | Oscar Newman’s [[Defensible Space Theory|defensible space theory]] cites the Modernist housing projects of the 1960s as an example of environmental determinism, where large blocks of flats are surrounded by shared and disassociated public areas, which are hard for residents to identify with. As those on lower incomes cannot hire others to maintain public space such as security guards or grounds keepers, and because no individual feels personally responsible, there was a general deterioration of public space leading to a sense of alienation and social disorder.
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| − | [[Jane Jacobs]] is another notable environmental determinist who is associated with the "eyes on the street" concept. By improving ‘natural surveillance’ of shared land and facilities of nearby residents, by literally increasing the number of people who can see it and increasing the familiarity of residents as a collective, residents can more easily detect undesirable or criminal behavior.
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| − | The [[Fixing Broken Windows|"broken-windows" theory]] argues that small indicators of neglect, such as broken windows and unkempt lawns, promote a feeling that an area is in a state of decay. Anticipating decay, people likewise fail to maintain their own properties. The theory suggests that abandonment causes crime, rather than crime causing abandonment.
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| − | Some planning methods might help an elite group to control ordinary citizens. [[Haussmann's renovation of Paris]] created a system of wide boulevards which prevented the construction of barricades in the streets and eased the movement of military troops. In [[Rome]], the [[Fascism|Fascists]] in the 1930s created ''ex novo'' many new [[suburb]]s in order to concentrate [[criminal]]s and poorer classes away from the elegant town.
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| − | Other social theories point out that in Britain and most countries since the eighteenth century, the transformation of [[society|societies]] from rural agriculture to industry caused a difficult adaptation to urban living. These theories emphasize that many planning policies ignore personal tensions, forcing individuals to live in a condition of perpetual extraneity to their cities. Many people therefore lack the comfort of feeling "at home" when at home. Often these theorists seek a reconsideration of commonly used "standards" that rationalize the outcomes of a free (relatively unregulated) market.
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| − | ===Slums===
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| − | [[Image:Jakarta slumlife31.JPG|thumb|250 px|Slum life, [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]]. 2004.]]
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| − | The rapid [[urbanization]] of the last century has resulted in a significant amount of slum habitation in the major cities of the world, particularly in developing countries. There is significant demand for planning resources and strategies to address the issues that arise from slum development. Many planning theorists and practitioners are calling for increased attention and resources in this area, particularly the [[Commonwealth Association of Planners]].<ref>[http://www.commonwealth-planners.org/papers/reinvent.pdf Reinventing planning: A new governance paradigm for managing Human settlements], Commonwealth Association of Planners</ref> When urban planners give their attention to slums, one also has to pay attention to the racial make-up of that area to ensure that [[racial steering]] does not occur.
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| − | The issue of slum habitation has often been resolved via a simple policy of clearance. However, more creative solutions are beginning to emerge such as [[Nairobi]]'s "[[Camp of Fire]]" program, where established slum-dwellers have promised to build proper houses, schools, and community centers without any government money, in return for land they have been illegally squatting on for 30 years. The "Camp of Fire" program is one of many similar projects initiated by [[Slum Dwellers International]], which has programs in [[Africa]], [[Asia]], and [[South America]].<ref>The Christian Science Monitor: [http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0526/p07s01-woaf.html Kenyans buy into slum plan], 26 May 2004</ref>
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| − | ===Urban decay===
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| − | [[Image:BrokenPromises JohnFekner.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Urban decay, [[South Bronx]], [[New York City]], 1980.]]
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| − | [[Urban decay]] is a process by which a [[city]], or a part of a city, falls into a state of disrepair and neglect. It is characterized by [[depopulation]], [[economic restructuring]], property abandonment, high [[unemployment]], fragmented families, political [[disenfranchisement]], [[crime]], and desolate urban landscapes.
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| − | During the 1970s and 1980s, urban decay was often associated with central areas of cities in [[North America]] and parts of [[Europe]]. During this time period, major changes in global economies, demographics, transportation, and government policies created conditions that fostered urban decay<ref>''[http://books.google.com/books?id=uf0vS1A-0dkC Urban Sores: On the Interaction Between Segregation, Urban Decay, and Deprived Neighbourhoods]'' By Hans Skifter Andersen. ISBN 0754633055. 2003.</ref>. Many planners spoke of "white flight" during this time. This pattern was different than the pattern of "outlying slums" and "suburban ghettos" found in many cities outside of North America and Western Europe, where central urban areas actually had higher real-estate vales. Starting in the 1990s, many of the central urban areas in North America have been experiencing a reversal of the urban decay of previous decades, with rising real-estate values, smarter development, demolition of obsolete social-housing areas and a wider variety of housing choices.<ref name="crabgrass">''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0195049837 Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States]'' by Kenneth T Jackson (1987)</ref>.
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| − | ===Reconstruction and renewal===
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| − | [[Image:KABULCITYMAP.jpg|thumb|250px|The overall area plan for the reconstruction of Kabul's Old City area, the proposed [[Kabul]] - City of Light Development.]]
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| − | Areas devastated by war or invasion represent a unique challenge to urban planners. Buildings, roads, services, and basic infrastructure, like power, water, and sewerage, are often severely compromised and need to be evaluated to determine what can be salvaged for re-incorporation. There is also the problem of the existing population, and what needs they may have. Historic, religious or social centers also need to be preserved and re-integrated into the new city plan. A prime example of this is the capital city of [[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]], which, after decades of civil war and occupation, has regions that have literally been reduced to rubble and desolation. Despite this, the indigenous population continues to live in the area, constructing makeshift homes and shops out of whatever can be salvaged. Any reconstruction plan proposed, such as [[Hisham Ashkouri]]'s [[City of Light Development]], needs to be sensitive to the needs of this community and its existing culture, businesses, and needs.
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| − | Urban Reconstruction Development plans must also work with government agencies as well as private interests to develop workable designs.
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| − | ===Transport===
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| − | {{main|Transportation planning}}
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| − | [[Image:Canarywharftube.jpg|thumb|250px|Very densely built-up areas require high capacity urban transit, and urban planners must consider these factors in long term plans.]][[Image:Revised petrol use urban density.JPG|thumb|250px|Although an important factor, there is a complex relationship between urban densities and car use.]]
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| − | Transport within urbanized areas presents unique problems. The density of an urban environment can create significant levels of road traffic, which can impact businesses and increase pollution. Parking space is another concern, requiring the construction of large parking garages in high-density areas which could be better used for other development.
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| − | Good planning uses [[transit oriented development]], which attempts to place higher densities of jobs or residents near high-volume transportation. For example, some cities permit commerce and multi-story apartment buildings only within one block of train stations and multilane boulevards, and accept single-family dwellings and parks farther away.
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| − | The [[Lewis-Mogridge Position]] claims that increasing road space is not an effective way of relieving traffic jams as [[induced demand|latent or induced demand]] invariably emerges to restore a socially-tolerable level of congestion.
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| − | ===Suburbanization===
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| − | [[Image:Suburbia by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|250px|Low (auto-oriented) density suburban development near [[Colorado Springs, Colorado]], United States]]
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| − | In some countries, declining satisfaction with the urban environment is held to blame for continuing [[Human migration|migration]] to smaller towns and rural areas (so-called [[urban exodus]]). Successful urban planning supported [[Regional planning]] can bring benefits to a much larger [[hinterland]] or [[city region]] and help to reduce both congestion along transport routes and the wastage of energy implied by excessive [[commuting]].
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| − | ===Environmental factors===
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| − | [[Environmental protection]] and conservation are of utmost importance to many planning systems across the world. Not only are the specific effects of development to be mitigated, but attempts are made to minimize the overall effect of development on the local and global environment. This is commonly done through the assessment of [[Sustainable urban infrastructure]]. In Europe this process is known as [[Sustainability Appraisal]].
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| − | In most advanced urban- or village-planning models, local context is critical. In many, [[gardening]] and other outdoor activities assumes a central role in the daily life of citizens. Environmental planners are focusing on smaller systems of resource extraction, energy production, and waste disposal. There is even a practice known as [[Arcology]], which seeks to unify the fields of [[ecology]] and [[architecture]], using principles of [[landscape architecture]] to achieve a harmonious environment for all living things. On a small scale, the [[eco-village]] theory has become popular, as it emphasizes a traditional, 100-to-140-person scale for communities.
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| − | An urban planner is likely to use a number of quantitative tools to forecast impacts of development on the environmental, including [[roadway air-dispersion model]]s to predict air- quality impacts of urban highways and [[roadway-noise]] models to predict [[noise-pollution]] effects of urban highways. As early as the 1960s, noise pollution was addressed in the design of urban highways as well as [[noise barrier]]s.<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/x1707075n815g604/ C. Michael Hogan, '' Analysis of highway noise'', Journal of Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, Volume 2, Number 3, Biomedical and Life Sciences and Earth and Environmental Science Issue, pages 387-392, September, 1973, Springer Verlag, Netherlands ISSN 0049-6979]</ref> The [[Phase I Environmental Site Assessment]] can be an important tool to the urban planner by identifying early in the planning process any geographic areas or parcels which have [[toxic]] constraints.
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| − | ===Light and sound===
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| − | The [[urban canyon]] effect is a colloquial, non-scientific term referring to street space bordered by very high buildings. This type of environment may shade the sidewalk level from direct sunlight during most daylight hours. While an often-decried phenomenon, it is rare except in very dense, hyper-tall urban environments, such as those found in Lower and Midtown Manhattan, Chicago's Loop and [[Kowloon]] in Hong Kong.
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| − | In urban planning, sound is usually measured as a source of pollution. Another perspective on urban sounds is developed in [[Soundscape]] studies emphasising that sound aesthetics involves more than noise abatement and decibel measurements. Hedfors<ref>2003 ''[http://diss-epsilon.slu.se/archive/00000325/ Site Soundscapes - Landscape Architecture in the Light of Sound]'' - Per Hedfors (ISBN 91-576-6425-0) - book & CD-Rom</ref> coined 'Sonotope' as a useful concept in urban planning to relate typical sounds to a specific place.
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| − | ===Sustainable development and sustainability===
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| − | [[Sustainable development]] and sustainability have become important concepts in today's urban- planning field, with the recognition that current consumption and living habits may be leading to problems such as the overuse of natural resources, [[ecosystem]] destruction, [[urban heat islands]], [[pollution]], growing [[social inequality]], and large-scale [[climate change]]. Many urban planners have, as a result, begun to advocate for the development of sustainable cities.<ref> Wheeler Stephen. "Planning Sustainable and Livable Cities," 1998, ISBN 0-415-27173-8, Routledge, New York.</ref> However, the notion of sustainable development is a fairly recent concept and somewhat controversial.<ref>Wheeler Stephen. "Planning Sustainable and Livable Cities," 1998, ISBN 0-415-27173-8, Routledge, New York.</ref>Wheeler, in his 1998 article, suggests a definition for sustainable urban development to be as "development that improves the long-term social and ecological health of cities and towns." He goes on to suggest a framework that might help all to better understand what a 'sustainable' city might look like. These include compact, efficient land use; less automobile use yet with better access; efficient resource use, less pollution and waste; the restoration of natural systems; good housing and living environments; a healthy social ecology; sustainable economics; community participation and involvement; and preservation of local culture and wisdom.<ref> Wheeler Stephen. "Planning Sustainable and Livable Cities," 1998, ISBN 0-415-27173-8, Routledge, New York.</ref>
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| − | The challenge facing today's urban planners lies in the implementation of targeted policies and programs, and the need to modify existing urban and regional institutions to achieve the goals of sustainability.
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| − | ==Evolution of urban planning==
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| − | An understanding of the [[evolution]] of the [[purpose]] of cities is needed to explain why urban planning has developed over the [[year]]s. Originally, urban living was established as a defense against [[invaders]] and an efficient way to circulate foodstuffs and essential [[material]]s to an immediate [[population]]. Later as [[production]] methods developed and [[transportation]] modes improved, cities, often serving as governmental centers, became good locations for [[industry]], with finished goods being distributed both locally and to surrounding areas. Later, cities became valued for their providing cultural attractions to residents and visitors alike. Today, people may just as well prefer to live in cities with well-planned [[neighborhood]]s as they would the [[suburb]]s.
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| − | [[Image:ToysRUs.jpg|thumb|250px||right|[[Blight_(urban)|Blight]] may sometimes cause communities to consider redeveloping and urban planning.]]
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| − | The traditional planning process focused on top-down processes where the [[urban planner]] created the plans. The planner is usually skilled in either surveying, engineering, or architecture, bringing to the town-planning process ideals based around these disciplines. They typically worked for national or local governments.
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| − | Changes to the planning process over past decades have witnessed the metamorphosis of the role of the urban planner in the planning process. The general objectives of strategic urban planning (SUP) include clarifying which [[city]] model is desired and working towards that goal, coordinating public and private efforts, channelling energy, adapting to new circumstances and improving the living conditions of the citizens affected.
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| − | Strategic planning is a technique that has been applied to many facets of human activity; we have only to mention [[Sun Tzu]], Arthur Thomson or [[Henry Mintzberg]]; however, the application of strategic planning to urban contexts, or cities, regions and other [[metropolitan areas]] is a relatively recent development whose beginnings were eminently practical and artistical: a mixture of thought, techniques and art or expertise.
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| − | More citizens calling for [[democratic]] planning-and-development processes have played a huge role in allowing the [[public]] to make important decisions as part of the planning process. [[Community organizers]] and [[social workers]] are now very involved in planning from the grassroots level.<ref>Forester John. "Planning in the Face of Conflict," 1987, ISBN 0-415-27173-8, Routledge, New York.</ref>
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| − | [[Real estate developer|Developer]]s too have played huge roles in influencing the way development occurs, particularly through project-based planning. Many recent developments were results of large- and small-scale developers who purchased land, designed the district, and constructed the development from scratch.
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| − | Recent theories of urban planning, espoused for example by Australian mathematician and
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| − | polymath [[Nikos_Salingaros|Salingaros]] <ref>http://zeta.math.utsa.edu/~yxk833/contr.arch.html</ref> <ref>http://www.katarxis3.com/Salingaros-Fractals.htm</ref>, see the city as a [[adaptive_system|adaptive system]] that grows according to process similar to those of [[Plant_morphology|plants]]. They say that urban planning should thus take its cues from such natural processes.
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| − | ==Notes==
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| − | {{Reflist|2}}
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| − | ==References==
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| − | *Garvin, Alexander (2002). ''The American City: What Works and What Doesn't''. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-137367-5
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| − | *Grogan, Paul, and Proscio, Tony (2000). ''Comeback Cities: A Blueprint for Urban Neighborhood Revival'', 2000. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813368139
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| − | *Hopkins, Lewis D. (2001). ''Urban Development: The Logic Of Making Plans''. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. ISBN 1-55963-853-2
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| − | *Matheos Santamouris (2004). ''Environmental Design of Urban Buildings: An Integrated Approach''. London: Earthscan. ISBN 978-1902916422
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| − | *Monti, Daniel J. (1999). ''The American City: A Social and Cultural History''. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 978-1-55786-918-0
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| − | *Tunnard, Christopher, and Pushkarev, Boris (1974). ''Man-Made America: Chaos or Control?: An Inquiry into Selected Problems of Design in the Urbanized Landscape''. New Haven: Yale University Press. OCLC 67264178
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| − | ==External links==
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| − | * {{Dmoz|Science/Social_Sciences/Urban_and_Regional_Planning/|Urban and Regional Planning }}
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| − | {{Credits|Urban_planning|259586142|Athens_Charter|247752184}}
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