Bacon, Roger

Latest revision as of 02:30, 16 December 2022

Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History

Roger Bacon (c. 1214 – 1294), was one of the most famous Franciscan friars of his time. He was an English philosopher who called for the reform of theological study, the study of foreign languages, and the integration of scientific study to the normal university curriculum. He placed considerable emphasis on empiricism, and has been presented as one of the earliest advocates of the modern scientific method in the West; though later studies have emphasized his reliance on occult and alchemical traditions. He was intimately acquainted with Aristotelian logic and philosophy, mathematics, and optics, much of it via the Arab world. Thus he served as a precursor for the reconciliation of science and religion through his call for academic development and reform of the Church in the study of scripture and science.

Early life

Bacon is thought to have been born near Ilchester in Somerset, though he has also been claimed by Bisley in Gloucestershire. His date of birth is equally uncertain. The only source is his statement in the Opus Tertium (1267) stating, "forty years have passed since I first learned the alphabet." The 1214 birth date assumes he was not being literal, and meant 40 years had passed since he matriculated at Oxford at the age of 13. If he had been literal, his birth date was more likely around 1220.

Bacon's family appears to have been well off, but, during the stormy reign of Henry III, their property was despoiled and several members of the family were driven into exile.

Bacon studied and later became a master at the University of Oxford, lecturing on Aristotle. He crossed over to France in 1241 to teach at the University of Paris, then the center of intellectual life in Europe, where the teaching of Aristotle had, up until that time, been forbidden; Aristotle was only available via Islamic commentators. As an Oxford Master, Bacon was a natural choice for the post. He returned to Oxford in 1247 and studied intensively for many years, forgoing much of social and academic life, ordering expensive books (which had to be hand-copied at the time) and instruments. He later became a Franciscan friar probably in 1253, after ten years of study that had left him physically and mentally exhausted.

The two great orders, the Franciscans and Dominicanss, were not long-established, and had begun to take the lead in theological discussion. Alexander of Hales led the Franciscans, while Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas led the rival order. Bacon's abilities were soon recognized, and he enjoyed the friendship of such eminent men as Adam de Marisco and Robert Grosseteste, and the bishop of Lincoln. In the course of his teaching and research, he performed and described various experiments.

Life and works

Optic studies by Bacon

The scientific training Bacon had received showed him the defects in existing academic debate. Aristotle was known only through poor translations, as none of the professors would learn Greek. The same was true of scripture. Physical science was not carried out by experiment in the Aristotelian way, but by arguments based on tradition. Bacon withdrew from the scholastic routine and devoted himself to languages and experimental research. The only teacher whom he respected was Petrus de Maharncuria Picardus, or "of Picardie" (probably the mathematician, Petrus Peregrinus of Picardie), who is perhaps the author of a manuscript treatise, De Magnete, contained in the Bibliotheque Imperiale at Paris. In the Opus Minus and Opus Tertium, he pours forth a violent tirade against Alexander of Hales, and another professor, who, he says, acquired his learning by teaching others, and adopted a dogmatic tone, which caused him to be received at Paris with applause as the equal of Aristotle, Avicenna, or Averroes. Bacon was always an outspoken man who stated what he believed to be true and attacked those with whom he disagreed, which repeatedly caused him great trouble. In 1256 a new head of the scientific branch of the Franciscan order in England was appointed: Richard of Cornwall, with whom Bacon had strongly disagreed in the past. Before long, Bacon was transferred to a monastery in France, where for about ten years he could communicate with his intellectual peers only through writing.

Bacon wrote to the Cardinal Guy le Gros de Foulques, who became interested in his ideas and asked him to produce a comprehensive treatise. Bacon, being constrained by a rule of the Franciscan order against publishing works out of the order without special permission, initially hesitated. The cardinal later became Pope Clement IV and urged Bacon to ignore the prohibition and write the book in secret. Bacon complied and sent his work, the Opus Majus, a treatise on the sciences (grammar, logic, mathematics, physics, and philosophy), to the pope in 1267. It was followed in the same year by the Opus Minus (also known as Opus Secundum), a summary of the main thoughts from the first work. In 1268 he sent a third work, the Opus Tertium to the pope, who died the same year, apparently before even seeing the Opus Majus, although it is known that the work reached Rome.

Some claim that Bacon fell out of favor, and was later imprisoned by the Franciscan order in 1278 in Ancona for his dissemination of Arab alchemy which roused accusations of witchcraft, and his protests against the ignorance and immorality of the clergy. He supposedly stayed imprisoned for over ten years, until intercession of English noblemen secured his release. About this episode, the historian of science David C. Lindberg, quoted by James Hannam, says that "his imprisonment, if it occurred at all probably resulted with his sympathies for the radical 'poverty' wing of the Franciscans (a wholly theological matter) rather than from any scientific novelties which he may have proposed." [1] Bacon died without important followers, was quickly forgotten, and remained so for a long time.

In his writings, Bacon calls for a reform of theological study. He emphasizes that less emphasis should be placed on minor philosophical distinctions as in scholasticism, but instead the Bible itself should return to the center of attention and theologians should thoroughly study the languages in which their original sources were composed. He was fluent in several languages and lamented the corruption of the holy texts and the works of the Greek philosophers by numerous mistranslations and misinterpretations. Furthermore, he urged all theologians to study all sciences closely, and to add them to the normal university curriculum.

He possessed one of the most commanding intellects of his age, or perhaps of any, and, notwithstanding all the disadvantages and discouragements to which he was subjected, made many discoveries, and came near to many others. He rejected the blind following of prior authorities, both in theological and scientific study. His Opus Majus contains treatments of mathematics and optics, alchemy and the manufacture of gunpowder, the positions and sizes of the celestial bodies, and anticipates later inventions such as microscopes, telescopes, spectacles, flying machines and steam ships. Bacon studied astrology and believed that the celestial bodies had an influence on the fate and mind of humans. He also wrote a criticism of the Julian calendar, which was then still in use. He first recognized the visible spectrum in a glass of water, centuries before Sir Isaac Newton discovered that prisms could disassemble and reassemble white light.

Roger Bacon is considered by some to be the author of the Voynich Manuscript, because of his studies in the fields of alchemy, astrology, and languages. Bacon is also the ascribed author of the alchemical manual Speculum Alchemiae, which was translated into English as The Mirror of Alchimy in 1597.

He was an enthusiastic proponent and practitioner of the experimental method of acquiring knowledge about the world. He planned to publish a comprehensive encyclopedia, but only fragments ever appeared.

References
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This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
Bacon, R. 1267. Opus maius. Edited by J. H. Bridges, The 'Opus Maius' of Roger Bacon. Oxford, 1879-90, 3 vols., reprinted 1964; Part III, De signis (On Signs), ed. K.M. Fredborg, L. Nielsen and J. Pinborg, 'An Unedited Part of Roger Bacon's "Opus Maius: De Signis",' Traditio 34: 75-136, 1978.
Clegg, Brian. 2003. The First Scientist: A Life of Roger Bacon. Constable & Robinson. ISBN 0786713585
Easton, S. 1952. Roger Bacon and His Search for a Universal Science. Oxford University Press.
Pinborg, J. 1981. "Roger Baon on Signs: A Newly Recovered Part of the Opus Maius." Miscellanea Mediaevalis 13: 403-12.

External links

All links retrieved December 15, 2022.

Roger Bacon The Catholic Encyclopedia

General Philosophy Sources

Credits

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-:''For the [[Nova Scotia]] premier see [[Roger Bacon (politician)]].''
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+{{epname|Bacon, Roger}}
-[[Image:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg|thumb|300px|Statue of Roger Bacon in the [[Oxford University Museum of Natural History|Oxford University Museum]]]]
+[[Image:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg|thumb|300px|Statue of '''Roger Bacon''' in the [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] Museum of Natural History]]
-'''Roger Bacon''' (c. [[1214]] &ndash; [[1294]]), also known as '''Doctor Mirabilis''' ([[Latin]]: "astounding teacher"), was one of the most famous [[Franciscan]] friars of his time. He was an [[England|English]] [[philosopher]] who placed considerable emphasis on [[empiricism]], and has been presented as one of the earliest advocates of the modern [[scientific method]] in the West; though later studies have emphasized his reliance on [[occult]] and [[alchemy|alchemical]] traditions. He was intimately acquainted with the philosophical and scientific insights of the [[Arab world]], one of the most advanced civilizations at the time.
+'''Roger Bacon''' (c. 1214 &ndash; 1294), was one of the most famous [[Franciscan]] friars of his time. He was an [[England|English]] [[philosopher]] who called for the reform of [[theology|theological]] study, the study of foreign languages, and the integration of scientific study to the normal university curriculum. He placed considerable emphasis on [[empiricism]], and has been presented as one of the earliest advocates of the modern [[scientific method]] in the West; though later studies have emphasized his reliance on occult and [[alchemy|alchemical]] traditions. He was intimately acquainted with [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] logic and [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], and [[optics]], much of it via the Arab world. Thus he served as a precursor for the reconciliation of science and religion through his call for academic development and reform of the Church in the study of scripture and science.
+{{Toc}}
 ==Early life==
-Bacon is thought to have been born near [[Ilchester]] in [[Somerset]], though he has also been claimed by Bisley in [[Gloucestershire]]. His date of birth is equally uncertain. The only source is his statement in the ''Opus Tertium'', written in 1267, that ''forty years have passed since I first learned the alphabet''. The 1214 birth date assumes he was not being literal, and meant 40 years had passed since he matriculated at Oxford at the age of 13. If he had been literal, his birth date was more likely around 1220.
+Bacon is thought to have been born near Ilchester in Somerset, though he has also been claimed by Bisley in Gloucestershire. His date of birth is equally uncertain. The only source is his statement in the ''Opus Tertium'' (1267) stating, "forty years have passed since I first learned the alphabet." The 1214 birth date assumes he was not being literal, and meant 40 years had passed since he matriculated at Oxford at the age of 13. If he had been literal, his birth date was more likely around 1220.
-Bacon's family appears to have been well-off, but, during the stormy reign of [[Henry III of England]], their property was despoiled and several members of the family were driven into exile.
+Bacon's family appears to have been well off, but, during the stormy reign of [[Henry III of England|Henry III]], their property was despoiled and several members of the family were driven into exile.
-Roger Bacon studied and later became a Master at [[Oxford, England|Oxford]], lecturing on [[Aristotle]].  There is no evidence he was ever awarded a doctorate - the title ''Doctor Mirabilis'' was posthumous and figurative. He crossed over to France in 1241 to teach at the university of [[Paris]], then the centre of intellectual life in Europe, where the teaching of Aristotle, till that time forbidden because Aristotle was only available via Islamic commentators, had recently been resumed. As an Oxford Master, Bacon was a natural choice for the post. He returned to Oxford in 1247 and studied intensively for many years, forgoing much of social and academic life, ordering expensive books (which had to be hand-copied at the time) and instruments. He later became a [[Franciscan]] friar. He probably took orders in [[1253]], after 10 years of study which had left him physically and mentally exhausted.
+Bacon studied and later became a master at the [[University of Oxford]], lecturing on [[Aristotle]]. He crossed over to [[France]] in 1241 to teach at the University of [[Paris]], then the center of intellectual life in Europe, where the teaching of Aristotle had, up until that time, been forbidden; Aristotle was only available via Islamic commentators. As an Oxford Master, Bacon was a natural choice for the post. He returned to Oxford in 1247 and studied intensively for many years, forgoing much of social and academic life, ordering expensive books (which had to be hand-copied at the time) and instruments. He later became a [[Franciscan]] friar probably in 1253, after ten years of study that had left him physically and mentally exhausted.
-The two great orders, [[Franciscan]]s and [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]s, were not long-established, and had begun to take the lead in theological discussion. [[Alexander of Hales]] led the Franciscans, while the rival order rejoiced in [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Thomas Aquinas]].  Bacon's abilities were soon recognised, and he enjoyed the friendship of such eminent men as [[Adam de Marisco]] and [[Robert Grosseteste]], bishop of [[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]].  In the course of his teaching and research, he performed and described various experiments.
+The two great orders, the Franciscans and [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]]s, were not long-established, and had begun to take the lead in theological discussion. [[Alexander of Hales]] led the Franciscans, while [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Thomas Aquinas]] led the rival order. Bacon's abilities were soon recognized, and he enjoyed the friendship of such eminent men as [[Adam de Marisco]] and [[Robert Grosseteste]], and the bishop of Lincoln. In the course of his teaching and research, he performed and described various experiments.
 ==Life and works==
-[[Image:Roger Bacon optics01.jpg|thumb|[[Optic]] studies by Bacon]]
+[[Image:Roger Bacon optics01.jpg|thumb|[[Optics|Optic]] studies by Bacon]]
-The scientific training Bacon had received showed him the defects in existing academic debate. Aristotle was known only through poor translations, as none of the professors would learn [[Greek language|Greek]]. The same was true of Scripture. Physical science was not carried out by experiment in the Aristotelian way, but by arguments based on tradition. Bacon withdrew from the scholastic routine and devoted himself to languages and experimental research. The only teacher whom he respected was a certain [[Petrus Peregrinus|Petrus de Maharncuria Picardus]], or "of Picardie", probably identical with a certain mathematician, [[Petrus Peregrinus]] of Picardie, who is perhaps the author of a manuscript treatise, ''De Magnete'', contained in the Bibliotheque Imperiale at Paris. The contrast between the obscurity of such a man and the fame enjoyed by the fluent young doctors roused Bacon's indignation. In the ''Opus Minus'' and ''Opus Tertium'' he pours forth a violent tirade against [[Alexander of Hales]], and another professor, who, he says, acquired his learning by teaching others, and adopted a dogmatic tone, which caused him to be received at Paris with applause as the equal of Aristotle, [[Avicenna]], or [[Averroes]]. Bacon was always an outspoken man who stated what he believed to be true and attacked those with whom he disagreed, which repeatedly caused him great trouble. In 1256 a new head of the scientific branch of the Franciscan order in England was appointed: [[Richard of Cornwall]], with whom Bacon had strongly disagreed in the past. Before long, Bacon was transferred to a monastery in France, where for about 10 years he could communicate with his intellectual peers only in writing.
+The scientific training Bacon had received showed him the defects in existing academic debate. Aristotle was known only through poor translations, as none of the professors would learn [[Greek language|Greek]]. The same was true of scripture. Physical science was not carried out by experiment in the Aristotelian way, but by arguments based on tradition. Bacon withdrew from the scholastic routine and devoted himself to languages and experimental research. The only teacher whom he respected was Petrus de Maharncuria Picardus, or "of Picardie" (probably the mathematician, [[Petrus Peregrinus]] of Picardie), who is perhaps the author of a manuscript treatise, ''De Magnete'', contained in the Bibliotheque Imperiale at Paris. In the ''Opus Minus'' and ''Opus Tertium'', he pours forth a violent tirade against [[Alexander of Hales]], and another professor, who, he says, acquired his learning by teaching others, and adopted a dogmatic tone, which caused him to be received at Paris with applause as the equal of Aristotle, [[Avicenna]], or [[Averroes]]. Bacon was always an outspoken man who stated what he believed to be true and attacked those with whom he disagreed, which repeatedly caused him great trouble. In 1256 a new head of the scientific branch of the Franciscan order in England was appointed: [[Richard of Cornwall]], with whom Bacon had strongly disagreed in the past. Before long, Bacon was transferred to a monastery in France, where for about ten years he could communicate with his intellectual peers only through writing.
-Bacon wrote to the Cardinal [[Guy le Gros de Foulques]], who became interested in his ideas and asked him to produce a comprehensive [[treatise]]. Bacon, being constrained by a rule of the Franciscan order against publishing works out of the order without special permission, initially hesitated. The cardinal became [[Pope Clement IV]] and urged Bacon to ignore the prohibition and write the book in secret. Bacon complied and sent his work, the ''[[Opus Majus]]'', a treatise on the sciences (grammar, logic, mathematics, physics, and philosophy), to the pope in [[1267]]. It was followed in the same year by the ''Opus Minus'' (also known as ''Opus Secundum''), a summary of the main thoughts from the first work. In [[1268]], he sent a third work, the ''Opus Tertium'' to the pope, who died the same year, apparently before even seeing the ''Opus Majus'' although it is known that the work reached Rome.
-Some claim that Bacon fell out of favor, and was later imprisoned by the Franciscan order in [[1278]] in [[Ancona]] as his dissemination of Arab [[alchemy]], and his protests against the ignorance and immorality of the clergy, roused accusations of [[witchcraft]]. He supposedly stayed imprisoned for over ten years, until intercession of English noblemen secured his release. About this episode, the historian of science [[David C. Lindberg]], quoted by [[James Hannam]], says that "his imprisonment, if it occurred at all probably resulted with his sympathies for the radical 'poverty' wing of the Franciscans (a wholly theological matter) rather than from any scientific novelties which he may have proposed." [http://www.bede.org.uk/conflict.htm] Bacon died without important followers, was quickly forgotten, and remained so for a long time.
-In his writings, Bacon calls for a reform of theological study. Less emphasis should be placed on minor philosophical distinctions as in [[scholasticism]], but instead the Bible itself should return to the center of attention and theologians should thoroughly study the languages in which their original sources were composed. He was fluent in several languages and lamented the corruption of the holy texts and the works of the Greek philosophers by numerous mistranslations and misinterpretations. Furthermore, he urged all theologians to study all sciences closely, and to add them to the normal university curriculum.
+Bacon wrote to the Cardinal [[Guy le Gros de Foulques]], who became interested in his ideas and asked him to produce a comprehensive treatise. Bacon, being constrained by a rule of the Franciscan order against publishing works out of the order without special permission, initially hesitated. The cardinal later became [[Pope Clement IV]] and urged Bacon to ignore the prohibition and write the book in secret. Bacon complied and sent his work, the ''Opus Majus'', a treatise on the sciences (grammar, logic, mathematics, physics, and philosophy), to the pope in 1267. It was followed in the same year by the ''Opus Minus'' (also known as ''Opus Secundum''), a summary of the main thoughts from the first work. In 1268 he sent a third work, the ''Opus Tertium'' to the pope, who died the same year, apparently before even seeing the ''Opus Majus'', although it is known that the work reached Rome.
-He possessed one of the most commanding intellects of his age, or perhaps of any, and, notwithstanding all the disadvantages and discouragements to which he was subjected, made many discoveries, and came near to many others.  He rejected the blind following of prior authorities, both in theological and scientific study. His ''Opus Majus'' contains treatments of [[mathematics]] and [[optics]], [[alchemy]] and the manufacture of [[gunpowder]], the positions and sizes of the [[celestial bodies]], and anticipates later inventions such as [[microscope]]s, [[telescope]]s, spectacles, flying machines and steam ships. Bacon studied [[astrology]] and believed that the celestial bodies had an influence on the fate and mind of humans. He also wrote a criticism of the [[Julian calendar]] which was then still in use.  He first recognized the [[visible spectrum]] in a glass of water, centuries before Sir [[Isaac Newton]] discovered that prisms could disassemble and reassemble white light.
+Some claim that Bacon fell out of favor, and was later imprisoned by the Franciscan order in 1278 in Ancona for his dissemination of Arab [[alchemy]] which roused accusations of [[witchcraft]], and his protests against the ignorance and immorality of the clergy. He supposedly stayed imprisoned for over ten years, until intercession of English noblemen secured his release. About this episode, the historian of science David C. Lindberg, quoted by James Hannam, says that "his imprisonment, if it occurred at all probably resulted with his sympathies for the radical 'poverty' wing of the Franciscans (a wholly theological matter) rather than from any scientific novelties which he may have proposed." [http://www.bede.org.uk/conflict.htm] Bacon died without important followers, was quickly forgotten, and remained so for a long time.
-Roger Bacon is considered by some to be the author of the [[Voynich Manuscript]], because of his studies in the fields of [[alchemy]], [[astrology]], and languages. Bacon is also the ascribed author of the alchemical manual ''Speculum Alchemiae'', which was translated into English as ''The Mirror of Alchimy'' in 1597.
+In his writings, Bacon calls for a reform of theological study. He emphasizes that less emphasis should be placed on minor philosophical distinctions as in [[scholasticism]], but instead the Bible itself should return to the center of attention and theologians should thoroughly study the languages in which their original sources were composed. He was fluent in several languages and lamented the corruption of the holy texts and the works of the Greek philosophers by numerous mistranslations and misinterpretations. Furthermore, he urged all theologians to study all sciences closely, and to add them to the normal university curriculum.
-He was an enthusiastic proponent and practitioner of the experimental method of acquiring knowledge about the world. He planned to publish a comprehensive [[encyclopedia]], but only fragments ever appeared.
+He possessed one of the most commanding intellects of his age, or perhaps of any, and, notwithstanding all the disadvantages and discouragements to which he was subjected, made many discoveries, and came near to many others. He rejected the blind following of prior authorities, both in theological and scientific study. His ''Opus Majus'' contains treatments of [[mathematics]] and [[optics]], [[alchemy]] and the manufacture of [[gunpowder]], the positions and sizes of the [[celestial bodies]], and anticipates later inventions such as [[microscope]]s, [[telescope]]s, spectacles, flying machines and steam ships. Bacon studied [[astrology]] and believed that the celestial bodies had an influence on the fate and mind of humans. He also wrote a criticism of the [[Julian calendar]], which was then still in use. He first recognized the [[Light#Visible_spectrum|visible spectrum]] in a glass of water, centuries before Sir [[Isaac Newton]] discovered that prisms could disassemble and reassemble white light.
-==In fiction==
+Roger Bacon is considered by some to be the author of the ''Voynich Manuscript'', because of his studies in the fields of [[alchemy]], [[astrology]], and languages. Bacon is also the ascribed author of the alchemical manual ''Speculum Alchemiae'', which was translated into English as ''The Mirror of Alchimy'' in 1597.
-Many writers of earlier times have been attracted to Roger Bacon as the epitome of a wise and subtle possessor of forbidden knowledge, similar to [[Faustus]]. A succession of legends and unverifiable stories has grown up about him, for example, that he created a brazen talking head which could answer any question. This has a central role in the play ''Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay'' written by [[Robert Greene]] in about 1589.
+He was an enthusiastic proponent and practitioner of the experimental method of acquiring knowledge about the world. He planned to publish a comprehensive encyclopedia, but only fragments ever appeared.
-Many references to Roger Bacon occur in the novel ''[[The Name of the Rose]]'' by Italian author and professor of [[semiotics]], [[Umberto Eco]]. In the text the main protagonist, the fictional monk William of Baskerville, refers to Bacon as his 'master'. He also alludes to many of his discoveries, including those in [[optics]].
-Probably the most comprehensive and accessible description of Roger Bacon's life and times is contained in the book ''Doctor Mirabilis'', written in 1964 by the science fiction writer [[James Blish]]. This is the second book in Blish's quasi-religious trilogy ''After Such Knowledge'', and is a complete, at times [[biography|biographical]] recounting of Bacon's life and struggle to develop a 'Universal Science'. Though thoroughly academically researched, with a host of accurate references, including extensive use of Bacon's own writings, the book is written in the style of a novel, and Blish himself referred to it as 'fiction' or 'a vision'.
-{{spoiler}}
-A greatly fictionalised version of Roger Bacon appears in the [[console role-playing game|role-playing]] [[Computer and video games|video game]] series ''[[Shadow Hearts]]'', wherein Bacon is portrayed as an insane (but harmless, and well-meaning) thousand-year-old hermit living in pre-World War I Europe. A villainous character claiming to be Roger Bacon appears earlier in the story but proves to be an imposter, and eventually the "real" Bacon assists the game's protagonists in disposing of the pretender.  Roger Bacon has also appeared in the game's sequels and prequel, [[Koudelka]].
-{{endspoiler}}
-The children's paranormal author [[John Bellairs]] had characters refer to Roger Bacon when quoting esoteric knowledge. There was also a character named Roger Bacon in Bellairs' book ''The Face in the Frost,'' though this character , a wizard, has little or no connection to the historical figure.
-Bacon also features in Staton Rabin's children's adventure ''Black Powder''. In this time travel story, a 21st century youth travels back to attempt to stop the development of gunpowder in the West.
 ==See also==
-* [[Roger Bacon High School]]
+* [[Scientific Method]]
-* [[Oxford Franciscan school]]
+* [[History of science]]
-* [[History of the scientific method]]
-* [[History of science in the Middle Ages]]
 == References ==
 * {{1911}}
-* {{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}
+* Bacon, R. 1267. ''Opus maius''. Edited by J. H. Bridges, ''The 'Opus Maius' of Roger Bacon''. Oxford, 1879-90, 3 vols., reprinted 1964; Part III, ''De signis'' (On Signs), ed. K.M. Fredborg, L. Nielsen and J. Pinborg, 'An Unedited Part of Roger Bacon's "''Opus Maius: De Signis''",' ''Traditio'' 34: 75-136, 1978.
-* {{cite book | first=Brian | last=Clegg | year=2003 | title=The First Scientist: A Life of Roger Bacon | publisher=Constable & Robinson | id=ISBN 0786713585 }}
+* Clegg, Brian. 2003. ''The First Scientist: A Life of Roger Bacon''. Constable & Robinson. ISBN 0786713585
+* Easton, S. 1952. ''Roger Bacon and His Search for a Universal Science''. Oxford University Press.
+* Pinborg, J. 1981. "Roger Baon on Signs: A Newly Recovered Part of the Opus Maius." ''Miscellanea Mediaevalis'' 13: 403-12.
 ==External links==
-*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13111b.htm Roger Bacon] entry at the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]
+All links retrieved December 15, 2022.
-*[http://www.popularscience.co.uk/features/feat14.htm Feynman got it wrong] article on Roger Bacon's place in the history of science
+*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13111b.htm Roger Bacon] ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''
+===General Philosophy Sources===
-[[Category:1214 births|Bacon, Roger]]
+*[http://plato.stanford.edu/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
-[[Category:1294 deaths|Bacon, Roger]]
+*[http://www.bu.edu/wcp/PaidArch.html Paideia Project Online]
-[[Category:British scientists|Bacon, Roger]]
+*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/ The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
-[[Category:English philosophers|Bacon, Roger]]
+*[http://www.gutenberg.org/ Project Gutenberg]
-[[Category:Franciscans|Bacon, Roger]]
-[[Category:Scholastic philosophers|Bacon, Roger]]
-[[Category:Medieval philosophers|Bacon, Roger]]
-[[Category:Roman Catholic philosophers|Bacon, Roger]]
-[[Category:Roman Catholic scientists|Bacon, Roger]]
-[[Category:Alchemists|Bacon, Roger]]
-[[Category:English occultists|Bacon, Roger]]
-[[Category:Natives of Somerset|Bacon, Roger]]
-[[Category:Astrologers]]
-[[Category:British astrologers|Bacon, Roger]]
-[[Category:History of science|Bacon, Roger ]]
-[[Category:Roman Catholicism and Science]]
-[[ca:Roger Bacon]]
+[[Category:Biography]]
-[[de:Roger Bacon]]
+[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]
-[[et:Roger Bacon]]
-[[es:Roger Bacon]]
-[[fa:راجر بیکن]]
-[[fr:Roger Bacon]]
-[[gl:Roger Bacon]]
-[[it:Ruggero Bacone]]
-[[he:רוג'ר בייקון]]
-[[nl:Roger Bacon]]
-[[ja:ロジャー・ベーコン]]
-[[no:Roger Bacon]]
-[[pl:Roger Bacon]]
-[[pt:Roger Bacon]]
-[[ru:Бэкон, Роджер]]
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-[[uk:Бекон Роджер]]
-[[ZH:罗吉尔·培根]]
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