Difference between revisions of "Pompeii" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
(Claimed)
 
(17 intermediate revisions by 9 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
−
{{Claimed}}
+
{{Copyedited}}{{Paid}}{{approved}}{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}
−
[[Image:Pompeii the last day 1.jpg|thumb|A computer-generated depiction of the eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79 which buried Pompeii, from the BBC's ''[[Pompeii: The Last Day]]''.]]
 
−
:''Pompeii is not to be confused with the Roman general Pompey. For the song, see Pompeii (song) and for the Italian commune, see Pompei.''
 
  
−
'''Pompeii''' is a ruined Roman Empire|Roman city near modern Naples in the Italy|Italian region of Campania, in the territory of the commune of Pompei. It was destroyed during a catastrophic volcano|eruption of the volcano Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. The volcano buried the city under many feet of ash and it was lost for 1,600 years before its accidental rediscovery. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire. Today, it is one of Italy's leading tourist attractions and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
+
[[Image:Pompeii the last day 1.jpg|thumb|250px|A computer-generated depiction of the eruption of [[Mount Vesuvius]] in 79 C.E. which buried '''Pompeii''', from the Discovery Channel's ''Pompeii: The Last Day'']]
 +
'''Pompeii''' is a ruined [[city]] of [[Roman Empire]] near modern [[Naples]] in the [[Italy|Italian]] region of Campania, in the territory of the commune of Pompeii. It was destroyed during a catastrophic eruption of the [[volcano]] [[Mount Vesuvius]] in 79 C.E. The volcano buried the city under many feet of ash and it was lost for 1,600 years before its accidental rediscovery. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire. Today, it is one of Italy's leading [[tourism|tourist]] attractions and is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].
 +
{{toc}}
 +
Evidence of the promiscuity and [[ethics|ethically]] lax lives of many of the city's inhabitants, suggested by erotic art discovered there, has led to some commentators describing the volcanic eruption as divine punishment. This explanation will not appeal to everyone but history does tend to show that societies that lose their moral virtue do not survive but either implode from within or suffer defeat from external forces.
  
 
==Location==
 
==Location==
 
[[Image:Roman campania pompeii.png|250px|right|thumb|Pompeii and Roman Campania]]
 
[[Image:Roman campania pompeii.png|250px|right|thumb|Pompeii and Roman Campania]]
−
The ruins of Pompeii are situated at coordinates {{coor dms|40|45|00|N|14|29|10|E|type:city(30000)_region:IT}}, near the modern suburban town of Pompei. It stands on a spur formed by a lava flow to the north of the mouth of the Sarno River (known in ancient times as the Sarnus). Today it is some distance inland, but in ancient times it would have been nearer the coast.
+
The ruins of Pompeii are situated near the modern suburban town of Pompei. It stands on a spur formed by a [[lava]] flow to the north of the mouth of the Sarno River (known in ancient times as the Sarnus). Today it is some distance inland, but in ancient times it would have been nearer the coast.
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
 
===Early history===
 
===Early history===
−
Although most of the archeological digs at the site only extend down to the street level of the 79 AD volcanic event, deeper digs in older parts of Pompeii and core samples of nearby drillings have exposed layers of jumbled sediment that suggest that the city had suffered from the volcano and other seismic events before then. Three sheets of sediment have been found on top of the lava bedrock that lies below the city and, mixed in with the sediment, archeologists have found bits of animal bone, Sherd|pottery shards and bits of plants. Using carbon dating, the oldest layer has been placed as 8th-6th century BC, about the time that the city was founded. The other two layers are separated from the other layers by well developed soil layers or Roman pavement and were laid down in the 4th century BC and 2nd century BC. The theory behind the layers of jumbled sediment is large landslides, perhaps triggered by extended rainfall. (Senatore, ''et al.'', 2004)
+
Although most of the archaeological digs at the site only extend down to the street level of the 79 C.E. volcanic event, deeper digs in older parts of Pompeii and core samples of nearby drilling have exposed layers of jumbled sediment that suggest that the city had suffered from the volcano and other seismic events before then. Three sheets of sediment have been found on top of the lava bedrock that lies below the city and, mixed in with the sediment, archaeologists have found bits of animal bone, pottery shards and bits of plants. Using carbon dating, the oldest layer has been placed as in the eighth to sixth century B.C.E., about the time that the city was founded. The other two layers are separated from the other layers by well developed soil layers or Roman pavement and were laid down in the fourth century B.C.E. and second century B.C.E. The theory behind the layers of jumbled sediment is large landslides, perhaps triggered by extended rainfall.<ref name=senatore>M. R. Senatore, J.-D. Stanley, and T. S. Pescatore, "Avalanche-associated mass flows damaged Pompeii several times before the Vesuvius catastrophic eruption in the 79 <small>C.E.</small>," (''Geological Society of America Meeting'', November 7-10, 2004), [http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004AM/finalprogram/abstract_77814.htm abstract available online.] Retrieved July 31, 2007.</ref>
  
−
The town was founded around the 6th century BC by the Osci or Oscans, a people of central Italy. It had already been used as a safe port by Greece|Greek and Phoenician sailors. When the Etruscan civilization|Etruscans threatened an attack, Pompeii allied with the Greeks, who then dominated the Gulf of Naples. In the 5th century BC, the Samnites conquered it (and all the other towns of Campania); the new rulers imposed their architecture and enlarged the town. It has been supposed that during the Samnites' domination, Rome conquered Pompeii for a while, but these theories have not been verified.
+
The town was founded around the sixth century B.C.E. by the Osci or Oscans, a people of central Italy. It had already been used as a safe port by Greek and Phoenician sailors. When the Etruscans threatened an attack, Pompeii allied with the Greeks, who then dominated the Gulf of Naples. In the fifth century B.C.E., the Samnites conquered it (and all the other towns of Campania); the new rulers imposed their architecture and enlarged the town. It has been supposed that during the Samnites' domination, Rome conquered Pompeii for a while, but these theories have not been verified.
  
−
Pompeii took part in the war that the towns of Campania initiated against Rome, but in 89 BC it was besieged by Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla. Although the troops of the Social League, headed by Lucius Cluentius, helped in resisting the Romans, in 80 BC Pompeii was forced to surrender after the conquest of Nola. It became a Roman colony with the name of ''Colonia Cornelius (gens)|Cornelia Venus (mythology)|Veneria Pompeianorum''. The town became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or Southern Italy along the nearby Appian Way.
+
Pompeii took part in the war that the towns of Campania initiated against Rome, but in 89 B.C.E. it was besieged by Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Although the troops of the Social League, headed by Lucius Cluentius, helped in resisting the Romans, in 80 B.C.E. Pompeii was forced to surrender after the conquest of Nola. It became a Roman colony with the name of ''Veneria Pompeianorum''. The town became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or Southern Italy along the nearby Appian Way.
  
−
===1st century BC===
+
===First century B.C.E.===
−
[[Image:Pompeii.jpg|right|thumb|The Forum.]]
+
[[Image:Pompeii.jpg|right|thumb|The Forum]]
−
[[Image:PompeiiStreet.jpg|right|thumb|A quiet street in Pompeii.]]
+
[[Image:PompeiiStreet.jpg|right|thumb|A quiet street in Pompeii]]
−
[[Image:JMG242.jpg|thumb|Fresco on the wall of a Pompeii house.]]
+
[[Image:JMG242.jpg|thumb|Fresco on the wall of a Pompeii house]]
−
[[Image:Pompeiiamphitheatre.jpg|thumb|right|Teatro Grande with a large audience capacity, next to Teatro Piccolo.]]
+
[[Image:Pompeiiamphitheatre.jpg|thumb|right|Teatro Grande with a large audience capacity, next to Teatro Piccolo]]
−
[[Image:Palestra, Pompeii.jpg|thumb|right|Pompeii [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]] seen from the top of the stadium wall.]]
+
[[Image:Palestra, Pompeii.jpg|thumb|right|Pompeii gymnasium seen from the top of the stadium wall]]
−
The excavated town offers a snapshot of Roman life in the 1st century, frozen at the moment it was buried in AD 79. Forum_(Roman)|The Forum, the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the Villa of the Mysteries remain surprisingly well preserved.  
+
The excavated town offers a snapshot of Roman life in the first century, frozen at the moment it was buried in 79 C.E. The Forum, the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the "Villa of the Mysteries" remain surprisingly well preserved.  
  
−
Pompeii was a lively place, and evidence abounds of literally the smallest details of everyday life. For example, on the floor of one of the houses (Sirico's), a famous inscription ''Salve, lucru'' (Welcome, money), perhaps humorously intended, shows us a trading company owned by two partners, Sirico and Nummianus (but this could be a nickname, since ''nummus'' means coin, money). In other houses, details abound concerning professions and categories, such as for the "laundry" workers (''Fullones''). Wine jars have been found bearing what is apparently the world's earliest known marketing pun, ''Vesuvinum'' (combining Vesuvius and the Latin for wine, vinum). Graffiti carved on the walls shows us real street Latin. In 89 B.C.E., after the final occupation of the city by Roman General Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Pompeii was finally annexed to the Roman Republic. Under this period Pompeii underwent a vast period of development, largely new infrastructure, most of which was built during the augustan period. Worth noting are an amphitheater, a Palaestra with a central cella natatoriua or swimming pool, and aqueduct which covered 
+
Pompeii was a lively place, and evidence abounds of literally the smallest details of everyday life. For example, on the floor of one of the houses (Sirico's), a famous inscription ''Salve, lucru'' (Welcome, money), perhaps humorously intended, shows us a trading company owned by two partners, Sirico and Nummianus (but this could be a nickname, since ''nummus'' means "coin" or "money"). In other houses, details abound concerning professions and categories, such as for the "laundry" workers (''Fullones''). Wine jars have been found bearing what is apparently the world's earliest known marketing pun, ''Vesuvinum'' (combining Vesuvius and the Latin for wine, vinum). Graffiti carved on the walls shows us real street Latin.
−
more than 25 street fountains, more than 4 public baths (the largest of which remained unfinished after the eruption) , and a large number of private houses (domus) and businesses.  The aqueduct branched out through 3 main pipes from the Castelum Aquae, where the waters were collected before being distributed to the city, although it did much more than distribute the waters, it did so with the prerequisite that in the case of gradually extreme drought, the water supply would first fail to reach the Public Baths (least vital service), then private houses and businesses, and when there would be no water flow at all, the system would then at last fail to supply the public fountains (most vital service) in the streets of Pompeii.  
 
  
−
The large number of well-preserved frescoes throw a great light on everyday life and have been a major advance in art history of the ancient world, with the innovation of Pompeian Styles the First/Second/Third Style demarcation.
+
In 89 B.C.E., after the final occupation of the city by Roman General [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]], Pompeii was finally annexed to the Roman Republic. Under this period Pompeii underwent a vast period of development, largely new infrastructure, most of which was built during the Augustan period. Worth noting are an amphitheater, a Palaestra with a central ''cella natatoriua'' (swimming pool), an [[aqueduct]] which covered more than 25 street fountains, more than four public baths (the largest of which remained unfinished after the eruption), and a large number of private houses (''domus'') and businesses. The aqueduct branched out through three main pipes from the Castelum Aquae, where the waters were collected before being distributed to the city, although it did much more than distribute the waters, it did so with the prerequisite that in the case of gradually extreme drought, the water supply would first fail to reach the public baths (least vital service), then private houses and businesses, and when there would be no water flow at all, the system would then at last fail to supply the public fountains (most vital service) in the streets of Pompeii.  
  
−
At the time of the eruption, the town could have had some 20,000 inhabitants, and was located in an area in which Romans had their vacation villas. Prof. William Abbott explains "At the time of the eruption, Pompeii had reached its high point in society as many Romans frequently visited Pompeii on vacations". It is the only ancient town of which the whole topographic structure is known precisely as it was, with no later modifications or additions.  It was not distributed on a regular plan as we are used to seeing in Roman towns, due to the difficult terrain. But its streets are straight and laid out in a grid, in the purest Roman tradition; they are laid with polygonal stones, and have houses and shops on both sides of the street. It followed its Decumanus Maximus|decumanus and its Cardus Maximus|cardus, centred on the forum.
+
The large number of well-preserved [[fresco]]es throw a great light on everyday life and have been a major advance in art history of the ancient world, with the innovation of Pompeian Styles the First/Second/Third Style demarcation.
  
−
Besides the forum, many other services were found: the ''Macellum'' (great food market), the ''Pistrinum'' (mill), the ''Thermopolium'' (sort of bar that served cold and hot beverages), and ''cauporioe'' (small restaurants). An amphitheatre and 2 theatres have been found, along with a palaestra or gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium. A hotel (of 1,000 square meters) was found a short distance from the town; it is now nicknamed the "Grand Hotel Murecine".
+
At the time of the eruption, the town could have had some 20,000 inhabitants, and was located in an area in which Romans had their vacation villas. William Abbott explains, "At the time of the eruption, Pompeii had reached its high point in society as many Romans frequently visited Pompeii on vacations." It is the only ancient town of which the whole topographic structure is known precisely as it was, with no later modifications or additions. It was not distributed on a regular plan as we are used to seeing in Roman towns, due to the difficult terrain. But its streets are straight and laid out in a grid, in the purest Roman tradition; they are laid with polygonal stones, and have houses and shops on both sides of the street. It followed its ''decumanus'' and its ''cardus'', centered on the forum.
  
−
In 2002 another important discovery at the mouth of Sarno river revealed that the port also was populated and that people lived in palafittes, within a system of channels that suggested a likeness to Venice to some scientists. These studies are just beginning to produce results.
+
Besides the forum, many other services were found: the ''Macellum'' (great food market), the ''Pistrinum'' (mill), the ''Thermopolium'' (sort of bar that served cold and hot beverages), and ''cauporioe'' (small restaurants). An amphitheater and two theaters have been found, along with a palaestra or gymnasium. A hotel (of 1,000 square meters) was found a short distance from the town; it is now nicknamed the "Grand Hotel Murecine."
  
−
===62-79===
+
In 2002 another important discovery at the mouth of [[Sarno]] River revealed that the port also was populated and that people lived in ''palafittes'', within a system of channels that suggested a likeness to Venice to some scientists. These studies are just beginning to produce results.
−
{{Main|Mount Vesuvius#Foreshocks}}
 
−
The inhabitants of Pompeii, as those of the area today, had long been used to minor tremors (indeed, the writer Pliny the Younger wrote that earth tremors "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania"), but on 5 February, 62[http://www.iath.virginia.edu/struct/pompeii/patterns/sec-02.html] there was a severe earthquake which did considerable damage around the bay and particularly to Pompeii. In the time between 62 and the eruption in 79 C.E., some rebuilding was done, but some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption [http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa4/pompeii/eruption.htm].  
 
  
−
An important current field of research concerns structures that were being restored at the time of the eruption (presumably damaged during the earthquake of 62). Some of the older, damaged, paintings could have been covered with newer ones, and modern instruments are being used to catch a glimpse of the long hidden frescoes. The probable reason why these structures were still being repaired 10 years after the earthquake was the increasing frequency of smaller quakes that led up to the eruption.
+
===62-79 <small>C.E.</small>===
 +
The inhabitants of Pompeii, as those of the area today, had long been used to minor tremors (indeed, the writer [[Pliny the Younger]] wrote that earth tremors "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania"), but on February 5, 62<ref>[http://www.iath.virginia.edu/struct/pompeii/patterns/sec-02.html "Patterns of Reconstruction at Pompeii,"] IATH, University of Virginia. Retrieved July 31, 2007.</ref> there was a severe earthquake which did considerable damage around the bay and particularly to Pompeii. In the time between 62 and the eruption in 79 C.E., some rebuilding was done, but some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption.<ref>[http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa4/pompeii/eruption.htm "Visiting Pompei,"] ''Current Archeology''. Retrieved July 31, 2007.</ref>
 +
 
 +
An important current field of research concerns structures that were being restored at the time of the eruption (presumably damaged during the earthquake of 62). Some of the older, damaged, paintings could have been covered with newer ones, and modern instruments are being used to catch a glimpse of the long hidden frescoes. The probable reason why these structures were still being repaired ten years after the earthquake was the increasing frequency of smaller quakes that led up to the eruption.
  
 
===Vesuvius eruption===
 
===Vesuvius eruption===
−
{{Main|Mount Vesuvius#Eruption of 79}}
+
By the first century C.E., Pompeii was only one of a number of towns located around the base of [[Mount Vesuvius]]. The area had a substantial population which grew prosperous from the region's renowned agricultural fertility. Many of Pompeii's neighboring communities, most famously Herculaneum, also suffered damage or destruction during the 79 C.E. eruption.
−
By the 1st century AD, Pompeii was only one of a number of towns located around the base of Mount Vesuvius. The area had a substantial population which grew prosperous from the region's renowned agricultural fertility. Many of Pompeii's neighboring communities, most famously Herculaneum, also suffered damage or destruction during the 79 AD eruption.
 
  
 
===Rediscovery===
 
===Rediscovery===
−
[[Image:Pompeii Garden of the Fugitives 02.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Plaster casts of victims of the eruption.]]
+
[[Image:Pompeii Garden of the Fugitives 02.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Plaster casts of victims of the eruption]]
−
Thick layers of ash having covered the two towns, they were abandoned and eventually their names and locations were forgotten. Then Herculaneum was rediscovered in 1738, and Pompeii in 1748. These towns have since been excavated to reveal many intact buildings and wall paintings. The towns were actually found in 1599 by an architect named Fontana, who was digging a new course for the river Sarno, but it took more than 150 years before a serious campaign was started to unearth them. The king Charles III of Spain|Charles VII of Two Sicilies took great interest in findings even after becoming king of Spain.
+
Thick layers of ash having covered the two towns, they were abandoned and eventually their names and locations were forgotten. Then Herculaneum was rediscovered in 1738, and Pompeii in 1748. These towns have since been excavated to reveal many intact buildings and wall paintings. The towns were actually found in 1599 by an architect named Fontana, who was digging a new course for the Sarno, but it took more than 150 years before a serious campaign was started to unearth them. The king Charles VII of Two Sicilies took great interest in findings even after becoming the king [[Charles III of Spain]].
  
−
Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the excavations in 1860. During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. It was Fiorelli who realised these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies and so devised the technique of injecting plaster into them to perfectly recreate the forms of Vesuvius's victims. What resulted were highly accurate and eerie forms of the doomed ''Pompeiani'' who failed to escape, in their last moment of life, with the expression of terror often quite clearly visible (see [http://www.marketplace.it/pompeiruins/orto.htm], [http://www.marketplace.it/pompeiruins/orto2.htm], [http://www.marketplace.it/pompeiruins/orto3.htm])
+
Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the excavations in 1860. During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. It was Fiorelli who realized these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies and so devised the technique of injecting plaster into them to perfectly recreate the forms of Vesuvius's victims. What resulted were highly accurate and eerie forms of the doomed ''Pompeiani'' who failed to escape, in their last moment of life, with the expression of terror often quite clearly visible.<ref>Pompeii Ruins Photo Gallery: [http://www.pompeionline.net/pompeii/archeo/pages/cal1.htm Garden of the fugitives (Photo 1)], [http://www.pompeionline.net/pompeii/archeo/pages/cal2.htm (Photo 2)] and [http://www.pompeionline.net/pompeii/archeo/pages/cal3.htm (Photo 3).] PompeiOnline.net. Retrieved July 31, 2007.</ref>
  
−
Some have theorized, without proof, that Fontana initially found some of the famous erotic frescoes and, due to the strict modesty prevalent during his time, reburied them in an attempt at archaeology|archaeological censorship. This view is bolstered by reports of later excavators who felt that sites they were working on had already been visited and reburied. A detailed discussion of the erotic art of Pompeii, with pictures, can be found in a Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum|separate article.
+
Some have theorized, without proof, that Fontana initially found some of the famous erotic frescoes and, due to the strict modesty prevalent during his time, reburied them in an attempt at archaeological censorship. This view is bolstered by reports of later excavators who felt that sites they were working on had already been visited and reburied.
 +
<br clear="all">
  
−
==Pompeii in popular culture==
+
==Notes==
−
[[Image:LastdayofPompeii.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Famous painting by the Russian-born [[Karl Brullov]] entitled ''[[The Last Day of Pompeii]]'' (1830-33).]]
 
−
===Novels===
 
−
Pompeii served as the background for the historic novels ''The Last Days of Pompeii'' (since adapted for film and TV) and ''Pompeii (novel)|Pompeii'', as well as appearing in Shadows in Bronze and other novels in the Marcus Didius Falco series.
 
  
−
===TV===
+
<references/>
−
====Fiction====
 
−
It was the setting for the Great Britain|British comedy television series ''Up Pompeii'', and the film of the series.
 
−
 
 
−
====Documentaries====
 
−
More recently,
 
−
*an hour-long drama produced for the BBC entitled'' Pompeii: The Last Day ''portrayed  several characters (with historically attested names, but fictional life-stories) living in Pompeii, Herculaneum and around the Bay of Naples, and their last hours, including a fuller and his wife, two gladiators, and Pliny the Elder. It also portrays the facts of the eruption.
 
−
*Pompeii Live, [[Channel 5]], 28th June 2006, 8pm, live archaeological dig [http://www.five.tv/programmes/revealed/pompeii/]
 
−
 
 
−
===Music===
 
−
In October of 1971, the famous band Pink Floyd performed at the vacant 2,000-year-old amphitheater in Pompeii, to an audience composed of film crew including camera operators. This performance, including some exterior shots of the ruins, was released as part of a movie entitled "Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii|Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii."
 
−
 
 
−
''Last Days of Pompeii'' is the 1991 rock opera by alternative rock band Nova Mob.
 
−
 
 
−
Pompeii am Götterdämmerung is the name of a song by the popular band, The Flaming Lips, on their album "At War With the Mystics".
 
−
 
 
−
"Pompeii" is the title of a song written by Seattle-based progressive rock band Gatsbys American Dream.  It is the second track of their 2005 release, "Volcano" - based loosely around the story of Pompeii.
 
−
 
 
−
A musical track of the same name is also produced by E.S. Posthumus and has been used in films like Planet of The Apes and many others, under the Unearthed album. This music is said to be the favorite among the listeners who have the mentioned album due to the dramatic and imposing tempo.
 
−
 
 
−
===Other===
 
−
The theme park Busch Gardens Williamsburg features an attraction entitled "Escape from Pompeii," which carries riders through the city as flaming ruins toppled around them, ending in a fifty-foot plunge.
 
−
 
 
−
Rexford (Rex) Phillips, a.k.a. “Rexino Mondo,” wrote, sang, narrated and produced a 210-minute “audio book” entitled ''Messenger From Pei''. It tells of his tour of duty in the United States Army|U.S. Army’s 10th Special Service Company in Korean War|Korea, where he encountered, befriended and eventually discovered strong bonds with actress Debbie Reynolds. Unexplainable cross-currents take them on a journey into a past lifetime, and in particular their escape from “decadent Pei,” just prior to that city’s complete destruction, the same as the final days of its corrupted daughter-to-be “Pompeii.” The work was produced in 1992, and had limited circulation.
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
Siouxsie and The Banshees single 'Cities in Dust'(1985) was also inpired by the destruction of Pompeii.
 
−
 
 
−
==See also==
 
−
{{Commons|Pompei}}
 
−
*[[Pompei]], the modern town
 
−
*[[Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum]]
 
−
*[[Gallery of Pompeii and Herculaneum]]
 
−
*[[Pompeii: The Last Day]]
 
−
*[[House of the Vettii]]
 
−
*[[Mount Vesuvius]]
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
* Ellis, Steven J.R., 'The distribution of bars at Pompeii: archaeological, spatial and viewshed analyses' in: ''Journal of Roman Archaeology'' 17, 2004, 371-384.
+
* Ellis, Steven J. R. “The distribution of bars at Pompeii: archaeological, spatial and viewshed analyses.” ''Journal of Roman Archaeology'' 17 (2004): 371-384.  
−
* Senatore, M.R., J.-D. Stanley, and T.S. Pescatore. 2004. Avalanche-associated mass flows damaged Pompeii several times before the Vesuvius catastrophic eruption in the 79 C.E. ''Geological Society of America meeting.'' Nov. 7-10. Denver. [http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004AM/finalprogram/abstract_77814.htm Abstract].
+
* Senatore, M. R., J.-D. Stanley, and T. S. Pescatore. "Avalanche-associated mass flows damaged Pompeii several times before the Vesuvius catastrophic eruption in the 79 C.E." ''Geological Society of America Meeting'' (November 7-10, 2004). Abstract [http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004AM/finalprogram/abstract_77814.htm available online.] Retrieved July 31, 2007.
−
* Maiuri, Amedeo, ''Pompeii'', pp, 78-85, in Scientific American, ''Special Issue: Ancient Cities'', c. 1994.
+
* Maiuri, Amedeo. "Pompeii." ''Scientific American'' (Special Issue: Ancient Cities) (1994): 78-85.
−
* {{cite journal
+
* Cioni, R., L. Gurioli, R. Lanza and E. Zanella. [http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2004/2002JB002251.shtml "Temperatures of the A.D. 79 pyroclastic density current deposits (Vesuvius, Italy)."] ''Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth'' 109 (2004). Retrieved July 31, 2007.
−
| author=Cioni, R.; Gurioli, L.; Lanza, R.; Zanella, E.
 
−
| title=Temperatures of the A.D. 79 pyroclastic density current deposits (Vesuvius, Italy)
 
−
| journal=Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth
 
−
| volume=109 | issue= | year=2004
 
−
| url = http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2004/2002JB002251.shtml
 
−
}}
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
{{sisterlinks|Pompeii}}
+
All links retrieved November 24, 2022.
−
{{commons|Pompeii}}
 
−
* {{wikitravel}}
 
−
*[http://www2.pompeiisites.org/ Pompeii official web site]
 
−
*[http://www.stanford.edu/group/pompeii/ Pompeii Archaeological Research Project: Porta Stabia]
 
−
*[http://www.auav46.dsl.pipex.com/p99.htm Herculaneum/Pompeii/Stabiae Website]
 
−
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3954659.stm Digitizing Pompeii]
 
−
*[http://www.italianvisits.com/campania/pompeii/ ItalianVisits.com]
 
−
*[http://www.pompeiithemusical.com Pompeii: The Musical]
 
−
*[http://www.iath.virginia.edu/struct/pompeii/patterns/ Patterns of reconstruction at Pompeii]
 
−
*[http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa4/pompeii/eruption.htm Current Archaeology article, Visiting  Pompeii]
 
−
*
 
−
* [http://www.areavesuvio.org Area Vesuvio]
 
−
[http://benfieldhrc.com/VolcAlert/Website/Root/Publications/DeNatale_etal_VesuviusSeismicity.pdf Three decades of Seismic Activity at Mt. Vesuvius 1972-2000]
 
−
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#20 Biography of Nero, by Suetonius]
 
−
*[http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/tacitus/TacitusAnnals15.html The Annals by Publius Cornelius Tacitus]
 
−
*[http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/pompeii.htm Translation of Pliny's letters to Tacitus]
 
−
*[http://volcanology.geol.ucsb.edu/pliny.htm Another translation, and comments on Pliny the Elder's death, at UCSB's The Volcano Information Center website]
 
−
*[http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/europe/pompeii.html Pompeii at University of Minnesota's Emuseum]
 
−
*[http://fornobravo.com/pompeii_oven/pompeii_photos/ventarch.html Photo Journal of Pompeii's Excavated Brick Ovens]
 
−
*[http://romans.etrusia.co.uk/roman_pompeii.php Pompeii - The Buried City] - an overview
 
−
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etextdirs/17290 The Wonders of Pompeii], by Marc Monnier, 1871, from [[Project Gutenberg]]
 
−
*[http://www.servius.org/Pompeii/ Extensive Pompeii photo library at servius.org]
 
−
<br>
 
−
{{World Heritage Sites in Italy}}
 
  
 +
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3954659.stm Pompeii gets digital make-over] &ndash; BBC News (October 31, 2004)
 +
*[http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/tacitus/TacitusAnnals15.html ''The Annals'' by Publius Cornelius Tacitus] &ndash; Translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb
 +
*[http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/pompeii.htm Translation of Pliny's letters to Tacitus] &ndash; EyeWitness to History.com
 +
*[http://volcanology.geol.ucsb.edu/pliny.htm Another translation, and comments on Pliny the Elder's death] &ndash; UCSB's Volcano Information Center
 +
*[http://romans.etrusia.co.uk/roman_pompeii.php Etrusia - Roman History - Pompeii - The Buried City] by Heather Wake
  
−
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Italy]]
 
−
[[Category:Roman sites of Campania]]
 
−
[[Category:Destroyed cities]]
 
−
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Italy]]
 
−
[[Category:Roman Empire paintings]]
 
−
[[Category:Eruption of Vesuvius, AD79]]
 
−
 
−
{{coor title d|40.750833|N|14.487083|E|}}
 
−
 
−
{{Link FA|de}}
 
−
{{Link FA|fi}}
 
−
 
−
[[ar:بومبي]]
 
−
[[bg:Помпей]]
 
−
[[cs:Pompeje]]
 
−
[[da:Pompeji]]
 
−
[[de:Pompeji]]
 
−
[[et:Pompei]]
 
−
[[es:Pompeya]]
 
−
[[eo:Pompejo (urbo)]]
 
−
[[fr:Pompéi]]
 
−
[[gl:Pompeia]]
 
−
[[id:Pompeii]]
 
−
[[is:Pompei]]
 
−
[[it:Pompei]]
 
−
[[he:פומפיי]]
 
−
[[la:Pompeii]]
 
−
[[lv:Pompeji]]
 
−
[[lb:Pompeji]]
 
−
[[lt:Pompėja]]
 
−
[[nl:Pompeii]]
 
−
[[ja:ポンペイ]]
 
−
[[nap:Pompei]]
 
−
[[no:Pompeii]]
 
−
[[nn:Pompeii]]
 
−
[[pl:Pompeje]]
 
−
[[pt:Pompéia]]
 
−
[[ru:Помпеи]]
 
−
[[sk:Pompeje]]
 
−
[[sl:Pompeji]]
 
−
[[su:Pompeii]]
 
−
[[fi:Pompeji]]
 
−
[[sv:Pompeji]]
 
−
[[zh:庞培城]]
 
  
 +
{{Credit|67501538}}
  
−
[[Category:History and biography]]
+
[[Category:History]]
−
{{Credit|67501538}}
 

Latest revision as of 08:49, 24 November 2022


A computer-generated depiction of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 C.E. which buried Pompeii, from the Discovery Channel's Pompeii: The Last Day

Pompeii is a ruined city of Roman Empire near modern Naples in the Italian region of Campania, in the territory of the commune of Pompeii. It was destroyed during a catastrophic eruption of the volcano Mount Vesuvius in 79 C.E. The volcano buried the city under many feet of ash and it was lost for 1,600 years before its accidental rediscovery. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire. Today, it is one of Italy's leading tourist attractions and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Evidence of the promiscuity and ethically lax lives of many of the city's inhabitants, suggested by erotic art discovered there, has led to some commentators describing the volcanic eruption as divine punishment. This explanation will not appeal to everyone but history does tend to show that societies that lose their moral virtue do not survive but either implode from within or suffer defeat from external forces.

Location

Pompeii and Roman Campania

The ruins of Pompeii are situated near the modern suburban town of Pompei. It stands on a spur formed by a lava flow to the north of the mouth of the Sarno River (known in ancient times as the Sarnus). Today it is some distance inland, but in ancient times it would have been nearer the coast.

History

Early history

Although most of the archaeological digs at the site only extend down to the street level of the 79 C.E. volcanic event, deeper digs in older parts of Pompeii and core samples of nearby drilling have exposed layers of jumbled sediment that suggest that the city had suffered from the volcano and other seismic events before then. Three sheets of sediment have been found on top of the lava bedrock that lies below the city and, mixed in with the sediment, archaeologists have found bits of animal bone, pottery shards and bits of plants. Using carbon dating, the oldest layer has been placed as in the eighth to sixth century B.C.E., about the time that the city was founded. The other two layers are separated from the other layers by well developed soil layers or Roman pavement and were laid down in the fourth century B.C.E. and second century B.C.E. The theory behind the layers of jumbled sediment is large landslides, perhaps triggered by extended rainfall.[1]

The town was founded around the sixth century B.C.E. by the Osci or Oscans, a people of central Italy. It had already been used as a safe port by Greek and Phoenician sailors. When the Etruscans threatened an attack, Pompeii allied with the Greeks, who then dominated the Gulf of Naples. In the fifth century B.C.E., the Samnites conquered it (and all the other towns of Campania); the new rulers imposed their architecture and enlarged the town. It has been supposed that during the Samnites' domination, Rome conquered Pompeii for a while, but these theories have not been verified.

Pompeii took part in the war that the towns of Campania initiated against Rome, but in 89 B.C.E. it was besieged by Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Although the troops of the Social League, headed by Lucius Cluentius, helped in resisting the Romans, in 80 B.C.E. Pompeii was forced to surrender after the conquest of Nola. It became a Roman colony with the name of Veneria Pompeianorum. The town became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or Southern Italy along the nearby Appian Way.

First century B.C.E.

The Forum
A quiet street in Pompeii
Fresco on the wall of a Pompeii house
Teatro Grande with a large audience capacity, next to Teatro Piccolo
Pompeii gymnasium seen from the top of the stadium wall

The excavated town offers a snapshot of Roman life in the first century, frozen at the moment it was buried in 79 C.E. The Forum, the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the "Villa of the Mysteries" remain surprisingly well preserved.

Pompeii was a lively place, and evidence abounds of literally the smallest details of everyday life. For example, on the floor of one of the houses (Sirico's), a famous inscription Salve, lucru (Welcome, money), perhaps humorously intended, shows us a trading company owned by two partners, Sirico and Nummianus (but this could be a nickname, since nummus means "coin" or "money"). In other houses, details abound concerning professions and categories, such as for the "laundry" workers (Fullones). Wine jars have been found bearing what is apparently the world's earliest known marketing pun, Vesuvinum (combining Vesuvius and the Latin for wine, vinum). Graffiti carved on the walls shows us real street Latin.

In 89 B.C.E., after the final occupation of the city by Roman General Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Pompeii was finally annexed to the Roman Republic. Under this period Pompeii underwent a vast period of development, largely new infrastructure, most of which was built during the Augustan period. Worth noting are an amphitheater, a Palaestra with a central cella natatoriua (swimming pool), an aqueduct which covered more than 25 street fountains, more than four public baths (the largest of which remained unfinished after the eruption), and a large number of private houses (domus) and businesses. The aqueduct branched out through three main pipes from the Castelum Aquae, where the waters were collected before being distributed to the city, although it did much more than distribute the waters, it did so with the prerequisite that in the case of gradually extreme drought, the water supply would first fail to reach the public baths (least vital service), then private houses and businesses, and when there would be no water flow at all, the system would then at last fail to supply the public fountains (most vital service) in the streets of Pompeii.

The large number of well-preserved frescoes throw a great light on everyday life and have been a major advance in art history of the ancient world, with the innovation of Pompeian Styles the First/Second/Third Style demarcation.

At the time of the eruption, the town could have had some 20,000 inhabitants, and was located in an area in which Romans had their vacation villas. William Abbott explains, "At the time of the eruption, Pompeii had reached its high point in society as many Romans frequently visited Pompeii on vacations." It is the only ancient town of which the whole topographic structure is known precisely as it was, with no later modifications or additions. It was not distributed on a regular plan as we are used to seeing in Roman towns, due to the difficult terrain. But its streets are straight and laid out in a grid, in the purest Roman tradition; they are laid with polygonal stones, and have houses and shops on both sides of the street. It followed its decumanus and its cardus, centered on the forum.

Besides the forum, many other services were found: the Macellum (great food market), the Pistrinum (mill), the Thermopolium (sort of bar that served cold and hot beverages), and cauporioe (small restaurants). An amphitheater and two theaters have been found, along with a palaestra or gymnasium. A hotel (of 1,000 square meters) was found a short distance from the town; it is now nicknamed the "Grand Hotel Murecine."

In 2002 another important discovery at the mouth of Sarno River revealed that the port also was populated and that people lived in palafittes, within a system of channels that suggested a likeness to Venice to some scientists. These studies are just beginning to produce results.

62-79 C.E.

The inhabitants of Pompeii, as those of the area today, had long been used to minor tremors (indeed, the writer Pliny the Younger wrote that earth tremors "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania"), but on February 5, 62[2] there was a severe earthquake which did considerable damage around the bay and particularly to Pompeii. In the time between 62 and the eruption in 79 C.E., some rebuilding was done, but some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption.[3]

An important current field of research concerns structures that were being restored at the time of the eruption (presumably damaged during the earthquake of 62). Some of the older, damaged, paintings could have been covered with newer ones, and modern instruments are being used to catch a glimpse of the long hidden frescoes. The probable reason why these structures were still being repaired ten years after the earthquake was the increasing frequency of smaller quakes that led up to the eruption.

Vesuvius eruption

By the first century C.E., Pompeii was only one of a number of towns located around the base of Mount Vesuvius. The area had a substantial population which grew prosperous from the region's renowned agricultural fertility. Many of Pompeii's neighboring communities, most famously Herculaneum, also suffered damage or destruction during the 79 C.E. eruption.

Rediscovery

Plaster casts of victims of the eruption

Thick layers of ash having covered the two towns, they were abandoned and eventually their names and locations were forgotten. Then Herculaneum was rediscovered in 1738, and Pompeii in 1748. These towns have since been excavated to reveal many intact buildings and wall paintings. The towns were actually found in 1599 by an architect named Fontana, who was digging a new course for the Sarno, but it took more than 150 years before a serious campaign was started to unearth them. The king Charles VII of Two Sicilies took great interest in findings even after becoming the king Charles III of Spain.

Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the excavations in 1860. During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. It was Fiorelli who realized these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies and so devised the technique of injecting plaster into them to perfectly recreate the forms of Vesuvius's victims. What resulted were highly accurate and eerie forms of the doomed Pompeiani who failed to escape, in their last moment of life, with the expression of terror often quite clearly visible.[4]

Some have theorized, without proof, that Fontana initially found some of the famous erotic frescoes and, due to the strict modesty prevalent during his time, reburied them in an attempt at archaeological censorship. This view is bolstered by reports of later excavators who felt that sites they were working on had already been visited and reburied.

Notes

  1. ↑ M. R. Senatore, J.-D. Stanley, and T. S. Pescatore, "Avalanche-associated mass flows damaged Pompeii several times before the Vesuvius catastrophic eruption in the 79 C.E.," (Geological Society of America Meeting, November 7-10, 2004), abstract available online. Retrieved July 31, 2007.
  2. ↑ "Patterns of Reconstruction at Pompeii," IATH, University of Virginia. Retrieved July 31, 2007.
  3. ↑ "Visiting Pompei," Current Archeology. Retrieved July 31, 2007.
  4. ↑ Pompeii Ruins Photo Gallery: Garden of the fugitives (Photo 1), (Photo 2) and (Photo 3). PompeiOnline.net. Retrieved July 31, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Ellis, Steven J. R. “The distribution of bars at Pompeii: archaeological, spatial and viewshed analyses.” Journal of Roman Archaeology 17 (2004): 371-384.
  • Senatore, M. R., J.-D. Stanley, and T. S. Pescatore. "Avalanche-associated mass flows damaged Pompeii several times before the Vesuvius catastrophic eruption in the 79 C.E." Geological Society of America Meeting (November 7-10, 2004). Abstract available online. Retrieved July 31, 2007.
  • Maiuri, Amedeo. "Pompeii." Scientific American (Special Issue: Ancient Cities) (1994): 78-85.
  • Cioni, R., L. Gurioli, R. Lanza and E. Zanella. "Temperatures of the A.D. 79 pyroclastic density current deposits (Vesuvius, Italy)." Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth 109 (2004). Retrieved July 31, 2007.

External links

All links retrieved November 24, 2022.


Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Pompeii&oldid=1089093

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki