Difference between revisions of "Persepolis" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Persia.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Scene from Persian mythology in [[Apadana]] Hall: [[Angra Mainyu]] kills the primeval bull, whose seed is rescued by [[Mah]], the moon, as the source for all other animals.]]
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'''Persepolis''' (Old Persian: 'Pars', New Persian: تخت جمشید, 'Takht-e Jamshid') was an ancient ceremonial capital of the second [[Iran]]ian dynasty, the [[Achaemenid Empire]], situated some 70 km northeast of modern city of [[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]]. It was built by [[Darius the Great]], beginning around 518 B.C.E. To the ancient Persians, the city was known as Parsa, meaning ''the city of Persians,'' Persepolis being the Greek interpretation of the name (Περσες (meaning Persian)+ πόλις (meaning city)). In contemporary Iran the site is known as Takht-e Jamshid (Throne of [[Jamshid]]).
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Persepolis has a long and complex history, designed to be the central city of the ever expanding [[Persia]]n empire, besieged and destroyed by [[Alexander the Great]], rebuilt and yet again left to waste, the city has produced many fascinating [[archaeology|archaeological]] finds and is a symbol of contemporary Iranian pride. Although maintained as a ruin, it is impressive, commanding a sense of awe. Visitors to this ancient site can well imagine its beauty and splendor and mourn the destruction of its majesty.
  
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'''Persepolis''' (Old Persian: 'Pars', New Persian: تخت جمشید, 'Takht-e Jamshid') was an ancient ceremonial capital of the second Iranian dynasty, the [[Achaemenid Empire]], situated some 70 km northeast of modern city of [[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]], not far from where the small river [[Pulwar]] flows into the [[Kur]] (Kyrus). To the ancient Persians, the city was known as Parsa, meaning ''the city of Persians'', Persepolis being the Greek interpretation of the name (Περσες (meaning Persian)+ πόλις (meaning city)). In contemporary Iran the site is known as Takht-e Jamshid (Throne of [[Jamshid]]).
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==History==
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The largest and most complex building in Persepolis was the audience hall, or [[Apadana]] with 72 columns, accessible by two large sets of stairs.
 
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==Construction==
 
 
[[Image:PersepolisMap.png|thumb|left|270px|Location of Persepolis]]
 
[[Image:PersepolisMap.png|thumb|left|270px|Location of Persepolis]]
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Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest remains of Persepolis date from around 518 B.C.E.
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[[Archaeology|Archaeological]] evidence suggests that the earliest remains of '''Persepolis''' date from around 518 B.C.E. It is believed that [[Darius the Great]] chose the area on a terrace at the foot of mountains to build a city in honor of the [[Ancient Persia|Persian empire]].<ref> Iranian Cultural and Information Center (1997) [http://www.persia.org/imagemap/perspolis.html"Persepolis"] Retrieved November 2, 2007 </ref> The site is marked by a large 125,000 square meter terrace, partly artificial and partly cut out of a mountain, with its east side leaning on Kuh-e Rahmet ("the Mountain of Mercy"). The other three sides are formed by a [[retaining wall]], which varies in height with the slope of the ground. From five to 13 meters on the west side there is a double stair, gently sloping, which leads to the top. To create the level terrace, any depressions that were present were filled up with soil and heavy rocks. They joined the rocks together with metal clips. Darius ordered the construction of [[Apadana|Apadana Palace]] and the Debating hall (Tripylon or the three-gated hall), the main imperial Treasury and its surroundings, which were completed at the time of the reign of his son, King [[Xerxes I]].  
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[[Andre Godard]], the [[France|French]] archaeologist who excavated Persepolis in the early 1930s, believed that it was [[Cyrus the Great]] who chose the site of Persepolis, but it was [[Darius the Great]] who built the terrace and the great palaces.
 
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Darius ordered the construction of [[Apadana|Apadana Palace]] and the Debating hall (Tripylon or the three-gated hall), the main imperial Treasury and its surroundings, which were completed at the time of the reign of his son, King [[Xerxes I]]. Further construction of the buildings at the terrace continued until the downfall of the Achaemenid dynasty.
 
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==Destruction==
 
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In about 333 B.C.E. during invasion of [[Persia]], [[Alexander of Macedonia]] sent the bulk of his army to [[Persepolis]], the Persian capital. By the [[Royal Road]], Alexander stormed and captured the [[Persian Gates]] (in the modern [[Zagros Mountains]]), then sprinted for Persepolis before its treasury could be looted. After several months Alexander allowed the troops to loot Persepolis. A fire broke out in the eastern palace of [[Xerxes]] and spread to the rest of the city. It is not clear if it was an accident during a drunken incident or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the [[Acropolis of Athens]] during the [[Greco-Persian Wars|Second Greco-Persian War]]. The ''Book of Arda Wiraz'', a Zoroastrian work composed in the 3rd or 4th century AD, also speaks of archives containing "all the [[Avesta]] and Zand, written upon prepared cow-skins, and with gold ink" that were destroyed.
 
  
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==Archaeological research==
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The designers were greatly influenced by the [[Mesopotamia]]ns in their construction, and when a significant portion of the city was completed, Darius declared it the new capital of Persia, replacing ''Pasargadae.'' However, this was largely symbolic; [[Susa]] and [[Babylon]] acted as the real centers of governance, while Persepolis was an area of palaces, treasures, and [[tomb]]s.<ref> [http://www.answers.com/topic/persepolis "Persepolis"] ''The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia,'' Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press, 2003. Answers.com 02 Nov. 2007.</ref> Festivities and rituals were performed there, but outside the care taking staff and the occasional visiting official, the city was not occupied by a large population. Further construction of the buildings at the terrace continued until the downfall of the Achaemenid dynasty.
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The first scientific excavation at Persepolis was carried out by [[Ernst Herzfeld]] in 1931, commissioned by the [[Oriental Institute]] of the [[University of Chicago]]. He believed the reason behind the construction of Persepolis was the need for a majestic atmosphere, as a symbol for their empire and to celebrate special events, especially the “[[Nowruz]],” (the Iranian New Year held on 21 March). For historical reasons and deep rooted interests it was built on the birthplace of the Achaemenid dynasty, although this was not the centre of their Empire at that time.
 
  
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The main characteristic of Persepolitan architecture is its columns, which were made of wood. Only when even the largest cedars of [[Lebanon]] or the teak trees of [[India]] did not fulfill the required sizes did the architects resort to stone. The bases and the capitals were always of stones, even on wooden shafts, but the existence of wooden capitals is probable.
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In about 333 B.C.E. during his invasion of [[Persia]], [[Alexander the Great]] sent the bulk of his army to Persepolis. By the [[Royal Road]], Alexander stormed and captured the [[Persian Gates]] (in the modern [[Zagros Mountains]]), then took Persepolis before its treasury could be looted. After several months Alexander allowed the troops to loot Persepolis.<ref> Nigel Rodgers, ''The Rise and Fall of Ancient Greece: The Military And Political History Of The Ancient Greeks From The Fall Of Troy, The Persian Wars And The Battle Of … Alexander The Great And His Conquest Of Asia.'' (London: Lorenz Books, 2007) </ref> A fire broke out in the eastern palace of [[Xerxes]] and spread to the rest of the city. This was not the end of Persepolis however.
  
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The remains including the bas-reliefs and sculptures provide an insight into hearts and beliefs of the ancient Iranians. The buildings at Persepolis are divided into three areas; military quarters, the treasury and the reception and occasional houses for the King of Kings.  These included the Great Stairway, the Gate of Nations (Xerxes), the [[Apadana palace]] of Darius, the [[Hall of a Hundred Columns]], the [[Tripylon Hall]] and [[Tachara palace]] of Darius, the [[Hadish palace]] of Xerxes, the palace of [[Artaxerxes]] III, the Imperial Treasury, the Royal Stables and the Chariot house.
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In 316 B.C.E. Persepolis was still the capital of Persia as a province of the great [[Macedon]]ian Empire. The city must have gradually declined in the course of time; but the ruins of the [[Achaemenidae]] remained as a witness to its ancient glory. It is probable that the principal town of the country, or at least of the district, was always in this neighborhood. About 200 C.E. the city Istakhr (properly Stakhr) was established on the site of Persepolis. There the foundations of the second great Persian Empire were laid, and Istakhr acquired special importance as the center of priestly wisdom and orthodoxy. The [[Sassania]]n kings covered the faces of the rocks in this neighborhood, and in part even the Achaemenian ruins, with their sculptures and inscriptions, and must themselves have built largely here, although never on the same scale of magnificence as their ancient predecessors.
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[[Image: Parsa7.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Persepolis ruins after 2500 years]]
  
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== Site ==
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At the time of the Arabian conquest Istakhr offered a desperate resistance, but the city was still a place of considerable importance in the first century of [[Islam]], although its greatness was speedily eclipsed by the new metropolis [[Shiraz]]. During the following centuries Istakhr gradually declined, until, as a city, it ceased to exist. This fruitful region, however, was covered with villages until the frightful devastations of the eighteenth century; and even now it is, comparatively speaking, well cultivated. The "castle of Istakhr" played a conspicuous part several times during the [[Muslim]] period as a strong fortress. It was the middlemost and the highest of the three steep crags which rise from the valley of the [[Kur]], at some distance to the west or north-west of ''[[Nakshi Rustam]].''<ref> Donald Whitcomb (2003) ''Archaeology and the Meanings of Persepolis'' The Oriental Institute University of Chicago </ref>
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[[Image: Persian-_Ancient_Texts.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Ancient texts found in Persepolis (Photographer: Ramin Dehdashti of iranpix.com)]]
 
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The site is marked by a large 125,000 square meter terrace, partly artificial and partly cut out of a mountain, with its east side leaning on Kuh-e Rahmet ("the Mountain of Mercy"). The other three sides are formed by a [[retaining wall]], which varies in height with the slope of the ground.  From 5 to 13 meters on the west side there is a double stair, gently sloping, which leads to the top. To create the level terrace, any depressions that were present were filled up with soil and heavy rocks. They joined the rocks together with metal clips.
 
  
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Gray [[limestone]] is the main material used in the buildings in Persepolis. To reach the top of the terrace, the construction of the broad Stairway, 20 meters above the ground, was planned to be the only main entrance. This was begun around 518 B.C.E. The dual stairway, known as the Persepolitan stairway, was built in a symmetrical manner on the western side of the Great Wall. The 111 steps were 6.9 meters wide with treads of 31 centimeters and rises of 10 centimeters, so a horseman could ride up them without difficulty.
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==Discovery==
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The first scientific excavation at Persepolis was carried out by [[Ernst Herzfeld]] in 1931, commissioned by the [[Oriental Institute]] of the [[University of Chicago]]. He believed the reason behind the construction of Persepolis was the need for a majestic atmosphere, as a symbol for their empire and to celebrate special events, especially the “[[Nowruz]],” (the Iranian New Year held on March 21). For historical reasons and deep rooted interests it was built on the birthplace of the Achaemenid dynasty, although this was not the center of their Empire at that time. For three years Hezfeld's team worked to uncover the Eastern stairwell of the Apadana, the main terrace, the stairs of the council hall and the harem of Xerxes. In 1934, Erich F. Schmidt took over the expedition and cleared out larger sections of the complex.<ref> Iran Chamber Society (2007) [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/persepolis/persepolis1.php"Parse or Persepolis"] Retrieved November 2, 2007 </ref>
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The top of the stairways led to a small yard in the northeastern side of the terrace, opposite the Gate of Nations. After the natural rock had been leveled and the depressions filled in, the terrace was prepared. Major tunnels for sewage were dug underground through the rock. A large water storage tank was built inside the rock at the eastern foot of the mountain. Professor Olmstead believed that it was constructed at the same time the construction of the towers began.
 
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The uneven plan of part of the foundation of the terrace acted like a castle whose angled walls enabled its defenders to target any section of the external front. [[Diodorus]] writes that Persepolis had three walls with ramparts, which all had towers to provide protection space for the defense personnel.  The first wall was 7 meters tall, the second, 14 meters and the third wall, which covered all four sides, was 27 meters in height, though no presence of the wall exists in modern times.
 
  
 
==Ruins==
 
==Ruins==
 
[[Image:AerialViewPersepolis.jpg|right|thumb|270px|Persepolis aerial view.]]
 
[[Image:AerialViewPersepolis.jpg|right|thumb|270px|Persepolis aerial view.]]
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On this terrace are the ruins of a number of colossal buildings, all constructed of dark-grey marble from the adjacent mountain. A few of the remaining pillars are still intact, standing in the ruins. Several of the buildings were never finished. ''F. Stolze'' has shown that in some cases even the mason's rubbish has not been removed. These ruins, for which the name ''Chehel minar'' ("the forty columns or minarets"), can be traced back to the [[13th century]], are now known as ''Takht-e Jamshid - تخت جمشید'' ("the throne of [[Jamshid]]"). That they represent the Persepolis captured and partly destroyed by [[Alexander the Great]] has been beyond dispute at least since the time of [[Pietro della Valle]].
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On the terrace are the ruins of a number of colossal buildings, all constructed of dark-grey marble from the adjacent mountain. A few of the remaining pillars are still intact, standing in the ruins. Several of the buildings were never finished. These ruins, for which the name ''Chehel minar'' ("the forty columns or minarets"), can be traced back to the [[thirteenth century]], are now known as ''Takht-e Jamshid - تخت جمشید'' ("the throne of [[Jamshid]]").  
  
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Behind ''Takht-e Jamshid'' are three sepulchres hewn out of the rock in the hillside. The facades, one of which is incomplete, are richly decorated with reliefs. About 13 km NNE, on the opposite side of the Pulwar, rises a perpendicular wall of rock, in which four similar tombs are cut, at a considerable height from the bottom of the valley. The modern Persians call this place ''[[Naqsh-e Rustam]] - نقش رستام'' or ''Nakshi Rostam'' ("the picture of [[Rostam]]"), from the Sassanian reliefs beneath the opening, which they take to be a representation of the mythical hero Rostam. That the occupants of these seven tombs were kings might be inferred from the sculptures, and one of those at ''Nakshi Rustam'' is expressly declared in its inscription to be the tomb of [[Darius Hystaspis]], concerning whom [[Ctesias]] relates that his grave was in the face of a rock, and could only be reached by the use of ropes. Ctesias mentions further, with regard to a number of Persian kings, either that their remains were brought "to the Persians," or that they died there.
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Behind ''Takht-e Jamshid'' are three sepulchers hewn out of the rock in the hillside. The facades, one of which is incomplete, are richly decorated with reliefs. About 13 km NNE, on the opposite side of the Pulwar, rises a perpendicular wall of rock, in which four similar tombs are cut, at a considerable height from the bottom of the valley. The modern Persians call this place ''[[Naqsh-e Rustam]] - نقش رستام'' or ''Nakshi Rostam'' ("the picture of [[Rostam]]"), from the Sassanian reliefs beneath the opening, which they take to be a representation of the mythical hero Rostam. That the occupants of these seven tombs were kings might be inferred from the sculptures, and one of those at ''Nakshi Rustam'' is expressly declared in its inscription to be the tomb of [[Darius Hystaspis]].<ref> Donald Newton Wilber, ''Persepolis: The Archaeology of Parsa, Seat of the Persian Kings.'' (Darwin Press, 1989. ISBN 0878500626) </ref>
  
 
===The Gate of All Nations===
 
===The Gate of All Nations===
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The Gate of all Nations, referring to subjects of the empire, consisted of a grand hall that was almost 25 square metres, with four columns and its entrance on the Western Wall. There were two more doors, one to the south which opened to the Apadana yard and the other one opened onto a long road to the east. Pivoting devices found on the inner corners of all the doors indicate that they were two-leafed doors, probably made of wood and covered with sheets of ornate metal.
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The Gate of all Nations, referring to subjects of the empire, consisted of a grand hall that was almost 25 square meters, with four columns and its entrance on the Western Wall. There were two more doors, one to the south which opened to the Apadana yard and the other one opened onto a long road to the east. Pivoting devices found on the inner corners of all the doors indicate that they were two-leafed doors, probably made of wood and covered with sheets of ornate metal. A pair of Lamassus, bulls with the head of a bearded man, stand on the western threshold, and another pair with wings and a Persian head (Gopät-Shäh) on the eastern entrance, to reflect the Empire’s power. Xerxes' name was written in three languages and carved on the entrances, informing everyone that he ordered this to be built.
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A pair of Lamassu's,which are bulls with the head of a bearded man stand on the western threshold, and another pair with wings and a Persian head (Gopät-Shäh) on the eastern entrance, to reflect the Empire’s power.
 
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Xerxes' name was written in three languages and carved on the entrances, informing everyone that he ordered this to be built.
 
  
 
===Apadana Palace===
 
===Apadana Palace===
 
[[Image:Apadana.jpg|left|thumb|270px|Ruins of Apadana Palace]]
 
[[Image:Apadana.jpg|left|thumb|270px|Ruins of Apadana Palace]]
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[[Darius the Great]] built the greatest and most glorious palace at Persepolis in the western side. This palace was named Apadana and was used for the King of Kings' official audiences. The work began in 515 B.C.E. and was completed 30 years later, by his son Xerxes I. The palace had a grand hall in the shape of a square, each side 60m long with seventy-two columns, thirteen of which still stand on the enormous platform. Each column is 19m high with a square Taurus and plinth. The columns carried the weight of the vast and heavy ceiling. The tops of the columns were made from animal sculptures such as two headed bulls, lions and eagles. The columns were joined to each other with the help of [[oak]] and [[cedar]] beams, which were brought from [[Lebanon]]. The walls were covered with a layer of mud and [[stucco]] to a depth of 5cm, which was used for bonding, and then covered with the greenish stucco which is found throughout the palaces.
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[[Darius the Great]] built the greatest and most glorious palace at Persepolis in the western side. This palace was named Apadana and was used for the King of Kings' official audiences. The work began in 515 B.C.E. and was completed 30 years later, by his son Xerxes I. The palace had a grand hall in the shape of a square, each side 60m long with seventy-two columns, thirteen of which still stand on the enormous platform. Each column is 19m high with a square Taurus and plinth. The columns carried the weight of the vast and heavy ceiling. The tops of the columns were made from animal sculptures such as two headed bulls, lions and eagles. The columns were joined to each other with the help of [[oak]] and [[cedar]] beams, which were brought from [[Lebanon]]. The walls were covered with a layer of mud and [[stucco]] to a depth of 5cm, which was used for bonding, and then covered with the greenish stucco which is found throughout the palaces.
 
[[Image:Persepolis Apadana noerdliche Treppe Detail.jpg|thumb|right|The Apadana Palace, northern stairway (detail)]]
 
[[Image:Persepolis Apadana noerdliche Treppe Detail.jpg|thumb|right|The Apadana Palace, northern stairway (detail)]]
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At the western, northern and eastern sides of the palace there was a rectangular [[veranda]] which had twelve columns in two rows of six. At the south of the grand hall a series of rooms were built for storage. Two grand Persepolitan stairways were built, symmetrical to each other and connected to the stone foundations. To avoid the roof being eroded by rain vertical drains were built through the brick walls. In the Four Corners of Apadana, facing outwards, four towers were built.
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At the western, northern and eastern sides of the palace there was a rectangular [[veranda]] which had twelve columns in two rows of six. At the south of the grand hall a series of rooms were built for storage. Two grand Persepolitan stairways were built, symmetrical to each other and connected to the stone foundations. To avoid the roof being eroded by rain vertical drains were built through the brick walls. In the Four Corners of Apadana, facing outwards, four towers were built.<ref>David Stronach and Kim Codella (2007) [http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Archaeology/Hakhamaneshian/persepolis.htm"Persepolis"] The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS) Retrieved November 2, 2007 </ref>
  
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The Walls were tiled and decorated with pictures of lions, bulls, and flowers. Darius ordered his name and the details of his empire to be written in gold and silver on plates, and to place them in covered stone boxes in the foundations under the Four Corners of the palace. Two Persepolitan style symmetrical stairways were built on the northern and eastern sides of Apadana to compensate for a difference in level. There were also two other stairways in the middle of the building. The external front views of the palace were embossed with pictures of the [[Persian Immortals|Immortals]], the Kings' elite guards. The northern stairway was completed during Darius' reign, but the other stairway was completed much later.
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The walls were tiled and decorated with pictures of lions, bulls, and flowers. Darius ordered his name and the details of his empire to be written in gold and silver on plates, and to place them in covered stone boxes in the foundations under the Four Corners of the palace. Two Persepolitan style symmetrical stairways were built on the northern and eastern sides of Apadana to compensate for a difference in level. There were also two other stairways in the middle of the building.<ref>Ibid.</ref> The external front views of the palace were embossed with pictures of the [[Persian Immortals|Immortals]], the Kings' elite guards. The northern stairway was completed during Darius' reign, but the other stairway was completed much later.
  
 
===The Throne Hall===
 
===The Throne Hall===
 
[[Image:Persepolis recreated.jpg|left|thumb|180px|Ruins of Throne Hall]]
 
[[Image:Persepolis recreated.jpg|left|thumb|180px|Ruins of Throne Hall]]
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Next to the Apadana, second largest building of the Terrace and the final edifices, is the Throne Hall or the Imperial Army's hall of honour (also called the "Hundred-Columns Palace). This 70x70 square meter hall was started by [[Xerxes]] and completed by his son [[Artaxerxes]] I by the end of the fifth century B.C.E. Its eight stone doorways are decorated on the south and north with reliefs of throne scenes and on the east and west with scenes depicting the king in combat with monsters. In addition, the northern portico of the building is flanked by two colossal stone bulls.
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Next to the Apadana, second largest building of the Terrace and the final edifices, is the Throne Hall or the Imperial Army's hall of honor (also called the "Hundred-Columns Palace). This 70x70 square meter hall was started by [[Xerxes]] and completed by his son [[Artaxerxes]] I by the end of the fifth century B.C.E. Its eight stone doorways are decorated on the south and north with reliefs of throne scenes and on the east and west with scenes depicting the king in combat with monsters. In addition, the northern portico of the building is flanked by two colossal stone bulls.
  
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In the beginning of Xerxes's reign the Throne Hall was used mainly for receptions for military commanders and representatives of all the subject nations of the empire, but later the Throne Hall served to be as an imperial museum.
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In the beginning of Xerxes's reign the Throne Hall was used mainly for receptions for military commanders and representatives of all the subject nations of the empire, but later the Throne Hall served to be as an imperial museum.<ref>Maria Brosius, ''Persians: An Introduction (Peoples of the Ancient World)'' (London: Routledge, 2006)</ref>
  
 
===Other palaces & structures===
 
===Other palaces & structures===
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There were other palaces built, these included the Tachara palace which was built under Darius I, the Imperial treasury which was started by Darius in 510 B.C.E. and finished by Xerxes in 480B.C.E. The Hadish palace by Xerxes I, which occupies the highest level of terrace and stand on the living rock. The Council Hall, the Tryplion Hall, The Palaces of D, G, H, Storerooms, Stables and quarters, Unfinished Gateway and a few Miscellaneous Structures at Persepolis near the south-east corner of the Terrace, at the foot of the mountain.
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There were other palaces built, these included the Tachara palace which was built under Darius I; the Imperial treasury which was started by Darius in 510 B.C.E. and finished by Xerxes in 480 B.C.E.; and the Hadish palace by Xerxes I, which occupies the highest level of terrace and stand on the living rock. Other structures include: the Council Hall, the Tryplion Hall, the palaces of D, G, H, storerooms, stables and quarters, unfinished gateway, and a few miscellaneous structures at Persepolis near the south-east corner of the Terrace, at the foot of the mountain.
  
 
===Tombs of King of Kings===
 
===Tombs of King of Kings===
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[[Image:Persepolis The Persian Soldiers.jpg|thumb|270px|Apadana Hall, Persian and Median soldiers]]
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[[Image:Persepolis The Persian Soldiers.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Apadana Hall, Persian and Median soldiers]]
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It is commonly accepted that [[Cyrus the Great]] was buried at [[Pasargadae]]. If there is any truth in the statement that the body of [[Cambyses II]] was brought home "to the Persians," his burying-place must be sought somewhere beside that of his father. Ctesias assumes that it was the custom for a king to prepare his own tomb during his lifetime. Hence the kings buried at ''Naghsh-e Rustam'' are probably [[Darius the Great]], [[Xerxes I]], [[Artaxerxes I]] and [[Darius II of Persia|Darius II]]. [[Xerxes II]], who reigned for a very short time, could scarcely have obtained so splendid a monument, and still less could the usurper [[Sogdianus]] (Secydianus). The two completed graves behind Takhti Jamshid would then belong to [[Artaxerxes II]] and [[Artaxerxes III]]. The unfinished one is perhaps that of [[Arses of Persia]], who reigned at the longest two years, or, if not his, then that of [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]] (Codomannus), who is one of those whose bodies are said to have been brought "to the Persians."
 
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[[Image:Persepolis Delegation Siliciens.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Persepolis, Silicians delegation]] 
 
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Another small group of ruins in the same style is found at the village of Hajjiäbäd, on the Pulwar, a good hour's walk above ''Takhti Jamshid''. These formed a single building, which was still intact 900 years ago, and was used as the [[mosque]] of the then existing city of [[Istakhr]].
 
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Since [[Cyrus the great]] was buried in [[Pasargadae]], which is mentioned by [[Ctesias]] as his own city, and since, to judge from the inscriptions, the buildings of Persepolis commenced with [[Darius I of Persia|Darius I]], it was probably under this king, with whom the sceptre passed to a new branch of the royal house, that Persepolis became the capital of [[Iran|Persia]] proper. As a residence, however, for the rulers of the empire, a remote place in a difficult alpine region was far from convenient, and the real capitals were [[Susa]], [[Babylon]] and [[Ecbatana]]. This accounts for the fact that the Greeks were not acquainted with the city until it was taken and plundered by [[Alexander the Great]].
 
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It has been universally admitted that "the palaces" or "the palace" burned down by Alexander are those now in ruins at ''Takhti Jamshid''. From Stolze's investigations it appears that at least one of these, the castle built by Xerxes, bears evident traces of having been destroyed by fire. The locality described by [[Diodorus]] after [[Cleitarchus]] corresponds in important particulars with Takhti Jamshid, for example, in being supported by the mountain on the east.
 
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==Ancient texts==
 
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The relevant passages from ancient scholars on the subject are set out below:
 
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:([[Diodorus|Diod.]] 17.70.1-73.2) '' 17.70 (1) Persepolis was the capital of the Persian kingdom. Alexander described it to the Macedonians as the most hateful of the cities of Asia, and gave it over to his soldiers to plunder, all but the palaces. (2) +It was the richest city under the sun and the private houses had been furnished with every sort of wealth over the years. The Macedonians raced into it slaughtering all the men whom they met and plundering the residences; many of the houses belonged to the common people and were abundantly supplied with furniture and wearing apparel of every kind….
 
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:72 (1) Alexander held games in honour of his victories. He performed costly sacrifices to the gods and entertained his friends bountifully. While they were feasting and the drinking was far advanced, as they began to be drunken a madness took possession of the minds of the intoxicated guests. (2) At this point one of the women present, Thais by name and Attic by origin, said that for Alexander it would be the finest of all his feats in Asia if he joined them in a triumphal procession, set fire to the palaces, and permitted women's hands in a minute to extinguish the famed accomplishments of the Persians. (3) This was said to men who were still young and giddy with wine, and so, as would be expected, someone shouted out to form up and to light torches, and urged all to take vengeance for the destruction of the [[Greek temple]]s. (4) Others took up the cry and said that this was a deed worthy of Alexander alone. When the king had caught fire at their words, all leaped up from their couches and passed the word along to form a victory procession [epinikion komon] in honour of Dionysius.
 
−
[[Image:Persepolis 1.JPG|left|thumb|250px|Persepolis (R)]]
 
−
 
 
−
:(5) Promptly many torches were gathered. Female musicians were present at the banquet, so the king led them all out for the [[komos]] to the sound of voices and flutes and pipes, Thais the courtesan leading the whole performance. (6) She was the first, after the king, to hurl her blazing torch into the palace. As the others all did the same, immediately the entire palace area was consumed, so great was the conflagration. It was most remarkable that the impious act of Xerxes, king of the Persians, against the acropolis at Athens should have been repaid in kind after many years by one woman, a citizen of the land which had suffered it, and in sport.''
 
−
 
 
−
:(Curt. 5.6.1-7.12) ''5.6 (1) On the following day the king called together the leaders of his forces and informed them that "no city was more mischievous to the Greeks than the seat of the ancient kings of Persia . . . by its destruction they ought to offer sacrifice to the spirits of their forefathers."…
 
−
 
 
−
:7 (1) But Alexander's great mental endowments, that noble disposition, in which he surpassed all kings, that intrepidity in encountering dangers, his promptness in forming and carrying out plans, his good faith towards those who submitted to him, merciful treatment of his prisoners, temperance even in lawful and usual pleasures, were sullied by an excessive love of wine. (2) At the very time when his enemy and his rival for a throne was preparing to renew the war, when those whom he had conquered were but lately subdued and were hostile to the new rule, he took part in prolonged banquets at which women were present, not indeed those whom it would be a crime to violate, but, to be sure, harlots who were accustomed to live with armed men with more licence than was fitting.
 
−
[[Image:Persepolis001.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Persepolis, April 2005.]]
 
−
 
 
−
:(3) One of these, Thais by name, herself also drunken, declared that the king would win most favour among all the Greeks, if he should order the palace of the Persians to be set on fire; that this was expected by those whose cities the barbarians had destroyed. (4) When a drunken strumpet had given her opinion on a matter of such moment, one or two, themselves also loaded with wine, agreed. The king, too, more greedy for wine than able to carry it, cried: "Why do we not, then, avenge Greece and apply torches to the city?" 5) All had become heated with wine, and so thy arose when drunk to fire the city which they had spared when armed. The king was the first to throw a firebrand upon the palace, then the guests and the servants and courtesans. The palace had been built largely of cedar, which quickly took fire and spread the conflagration widely. (6) When the army, which was encamped not far from the city, saw the fire, thinking it accidental, they rushed to bear aid. (7) But when they came to the vestibule of the palace, they saw the king himself piling on firebrands. Therefore, they left the water which they had brought, and they too began to throw dry wood upon the burning building.
 
−
 
 
−
:(8) Such was the end of the capital of the entire Orient. . . .
 
−
:(10) The Macedonians were ashamed that so renowned a city had been destroyed by their king in a drunken revel; therefore the act was taken as earnest, and they forced themselves to believe that it was right that it should be wiped out in exactly that manner.''
 
−
:(Cleitarchus, [[Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker|FGrHist]]. 137, F. 11 (= Athenaeus 13. 576d-e))
 
−
:''And did not Alexander the Great have with him Thais, the Athenian hetaira? Cleitarchus speaks of her as having been the cause for the burning of the palace at Persepolis. After Alexander's death, this same Thais was married to Ptolemy, the first king of Egypt.''
 
−
 
 
−
There is, however, one formidable difficulty. [[Diodorus]] says that the rock at the back of the palace containing the royal sepulchres is so steep that the bodies could be raised to their last resting-place only by mechanical appliances. This is not true of the graves behind ''[[Takhti Jamshid]]'', to which, as F. Stolze expressly observes, one can easily ride up; on the other hand, it is strictly true of the graves at ''[[Nakshi Rustam]]''. Stolze accordingly started the theory that the royal castle of Persepolis stood close by ''Nakshi Rustam'', and has sunk in course of time to shapeless heaps of earth, under which the remains may be concealed. The vast ruins, however, of ''Takhti Jamshid'', and the terrace constructed with so much labour, can hardly be anything else than the ruins of palaces; as for temples, the Persians had no such thing, at least in the time of Darius and Xerxes. Moreover, Persian tradition at a very remote period knew of only three architectural wonders in that region, which it attributed to the fabulous queen [[Humgi]] (Khumái)—the. grave of Cyrus at [[Pasargadae]], the building at HäjjIãbãd, and those on the great terrace.
 
−
 
 
−
It is safest therefore to identify these last with the royal palaces destroyed by Alexander. Cleitarchus, who can scarcely have visited the place himself, with his usual recklessness of statement, confounded the tombs behind the palaces with those of ''Nakshi Rustam''; indeed he appears to imagine that all the royal sepulchres were at the same place.
 
−
 
 
−
==After the fall of Ancient Persia==
 
−
[[Image:Persepolis_engraving.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Persepolis, 1878 engraving by Frederick Stacpoole ARA (1813–1907).]]
 
−
In 316 B.C.E. Persepolis was still the capital of Persia as a province of the great [[Macedon]]ian Empire (see Diod. xix, 21 seq., 46 ; probably after [[Hieronymus of Cardia]], who was living about 316). The city must have gradually declined in the course of time; but the ruins of the [[Achaemenidae]] remained as a witness to its ancient glory. It is probable that the principal town of the country, or at least of the district, was always in this neighborhood. About AD 200 we find there the city Istakhr (properly Stakhr) as the seat of the local governors. There the foundations of the second great Persian Empire were laid, and Istakhr acquired special importance as the center of priestly wisdom and orthodoxy. The [[Sassania]]n kings have covered the face of the rocks in this neighborhood, and in part even the Achaemenian ruins, with their sculptures and inscriptions, and must themselves have built largely here, although never on the same scale of magnificence as their ancient predecessors. The Romans knew as little about Istakhr as the Greeks had done about Persepolis—and this in spite of the fact that for four hundred years the Sassanians maintained relations, friendly or hostile, with the empire.
 
−
[[Image: Parsa7.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Persepolis ruins after 2500 years]]
 
−
 
 
−
At the time of the Arabian conquest Istakhr offered a desperate resistance, but the city was still a place of considerable importance in the first century of [[Islam]], although its greatness was speedily eclipsed by the new metropolis [[Shiraz]]. In the [[10th century]] Istakhr had become an utterly insignificant place, as may be seen from the descriptions of Istakhr, a native (c. 950), and of [[Mukaddasi]] (c. 985). During the following centuries Istakhr gradually declines, until, as a city, it ceased to exist. This fruitful region, however, was covered with villages till the frightful devastations of the 18th century; and even now it is, comparatively speaking, well cultivated. The "castle of Istakhr" played a conspicuous part several times during the Muslim period as a strong fortress. It was the middlemost and the highest of the three steep crags which rise from the valley of the [[Kur]], at some distance to the west or north-west of ''[[Nakshi Rustam]]''.
 
  
−
We learn from Asian writers that one of the Buyid (Buwaihid) [[sultan]]s in the 10th century of the Flight constructed the great cisterns, which may yet be seen, and have been visited, amongst others, by James Morier and E. Flandin. W. Ouseley points out that this castle was still used in the 16th century, at least as a state prison. But when Pietro della Valle was there in 1621 it was already in ruins.
+
The kings buried at ''Naghsh-e Rustam'' are probably [[Darius the Great]], [[Xerxes I]], [[Artaxerxes I]], and [[Darius II of Persia|Darius II]]. [[Xerxes II]], who reigned for a very short time, could scarcely have obtained so splendid a monument, and still less could the usurper [[Sogdianus]] (Secydianus). The two completed graves behind Takhti Jamshid would then belong to [[Artaxerxes II]] and [[Artaxerxes III]]. The unfinished one is perhaps that of [[Arses of Persia]], who reigned at the longest two years, or, if not his, then that of [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]] (Codomannus), who is one of those whose bodies are said to have been brought "to the Persians."
 +
[[Image:Persepolis Delegation Siliciens.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Persepolis, Silicians delegation]] 
 +
Another small group of ruins in the same style is found at the village of Hajjiäbäd, on the Pulwar, a good hour's walk above ''Takhti Jamshid.'' These formed a single building, which was still intact 900 years ago, and was used as the [[mosque]] of the then existing city of [[Istakhr]].
  
 
==Modern events==
 
==Modern events==
  
−
The [[UNESCO]] declared the citadel of Persepolis a [[World Heritage Site]] in 1979.
+
Modern day Iranians view the ruins of Persepolis in a fashion similar to how modern [[Egypt|Egyptians]] view the [[Pyramids of Giza|pyramids]]: symbols of national pride. In 1971, Persepolis was the main staging ground for the [[2,500 year celebration of Iran's monarchy]]. The [[UNESCO]] declared the citadel of Persepolis a [[World Heritage Site]] in 1979, acknowledging it as a site of significant historical and archaeological value. The site is maintained by the Iranian Cultural Heritage Foundation. Very little is allowed to be altered or enhanced, leaving the ruins as they are. Special permits are occasionally granted to archaeological expeditions.
−
 
 
−
Persepolis is also one of the 80 treasures featured on ''[[Around the World in 80 Treasures]]'' presented by [[Dan Cruickshank]].
 
−
 
 
−
In 1971, Persepolis was the main staging ground for the [[2,500 year celebration of Iran's monarchy]].
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
  
 +
The site continues to be one of the most popular tourist attraction in Iran, easily accessible from the closest city, Shiraz. Although it is decidedly a ruin, yet it remains impressive:
 +
<blockquote>Even today, those who step up to its gigantic terrace of 125,000 square meters and see its majestic columns are filled with a sense of awe drifting into a dream-like trance. A dream in which one tries to visualize the beauty and dazzling splendor of Persepolitan palaces before their sad destruction.<ref>Persepolis Recreated - The Movie Documentary7.</ref> </blockquote>
  
 
==Gallery==
 
==Gallery==
Line 144: Line 83:
  
 
Image:Persepolis - The Gate of Xerxes.jpg|Gate of [[Xerxes]] at Persepolis.
 
Image:Persepolis - The Gate of Xerxes.jpg|Gate of [[Xerxes]] at Persepolis.
−
Image:Darius.jpg|[[Darius I of Persia]].
 
 
Image:Flower_carving_Perspolis.jpeg|Carvings of flower on the walls of Perspolis.
 
Image:Flower_carving_Perspolis.jpeg|Carvings of flower on the walls of Perspolis.
 
Image:Lots of Pictures 049 resize.jpg|Entry to Persepolis
 
Image:Lots of Pictures 049 resize.jpg|Entry to Persepolis
Line 150: Line 88:
 
Image:Lots_of_Pictures_048_resize.jpg|A view of the wall of Perspolis Palace
 
Image:Lots_of_Pictures_048_resize.jpg|A view of the wall of Perspolis Palace
 
Image:Lots_of_Pictures_082_resize.jpg|Persepolis museum within the confines of the palace.
 
Image:Lots_of_Pictures_082_resize.jpg|Persepolis museum within the confines of the palace.
−
Image:Persepolis Tent City.jpg|Aerial view Persepolis and the Tent City, during the 2,500-year anniversary of the foundation of the Persian Empire in (1971).
+
Image:Persepolis 1.JPG|Persepolis
 +
Image:Persepolis001.jpg|Persepolis
 +
Image:Lots of Pictures 063 resize.jpg|Homa (Griffin) in Persepolis
 +
Image:Ardeshir1.jpg|Relief of Ardeshir I, Naghsh-e-Rostam, near Persepolis
 +
Image:Persepolis Lamassus.jpg|Lamassus, gate of all nations, Persepolis
 
</gallery>
 
</gallery>
 
</center>
 
</center>
 +
 +
==Notes==
 +
<References/>
 +
 +
==References==
 +
 +
* Brosius, Maria. 2006. ''Persians: An Introduction (Peoples of the Ancient World.'' London: Routledge. ISBN 0415320909
 +
* Burkert, Walter. 2007 ''Babylon, Memphis, Persepolis: Eastern Contexts of Greek Culture.'' Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674023994
 +
* Curtis, J. and N. Tallis, (eds). 2005. ''Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia.'' Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520247310.
 +
* Rich, Claudis James. 2002. ''Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan, and on the Site of Ancient Nineveh: With journal of a voyage down the Tigris to Bagdad and an account of a visit … Persepolis.'' Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 1402192878
 +
* Rodgers, Nigel. 2007. ''The Rise and Fall of Ancient Greece: The Military And Political History Of The Ancient Greeks From The Fall Of Troy, The Persian Wars And The Battle Of … Alexander The Great And His Conquest Of Asia.'' London: Lorenz Books, Anness Press. ISBN 0754817334
 +
* Wilber, Donald Newton. 1989. ''Persepolis: The Archaeology of Parsa, Seat of the Persian Kings.'' Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press. ISBN 0878500626.
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
* [http://www.persepolis.ir/ Persepolis] official site
+
All links retrieved November 23, 2022.
−
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&q=persepolis,+iran&ie=UTF8&z=17&ll=29.934947,52.890544&spn=0.004844,0.01075&t=k&om=0 Persepolis Satelite view @ Google Maps]
+
 
 +
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&q=persepolis,+iran&ie=UTF8&z=17&ll=29.934947,52.890544&spn=0.004844,0.01075&t=k&om=0 Persepolis Satellite view @ Google Maps]
 
* [http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Archaeology/Hakhamaneshian/persepolis.htm  Persepolis]
 
* [http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Archaeology/Hakhamaneshian/persepolis.htm  Persepolis]
−
* Iran's hidden treasures [http://channel4news.typepad.com/news_from_iran/2006/03/irans_hidden_tr.html (Channel 4 News)]
+
* [http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/PA/IRAN/PAAI/PAAI.html Persepolis Photographs] and [http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects/per/ Introduction to the Persian Expedition], Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
−
* [http://www.iraninfo.dk/iranske-dokumentar-film-iranian-documentaries/persepolis-recreated-filmen-om-genskabelse-af-perse.html Persepolis Recreated - Documentary Movie - Reconstruction of Persepolis]
 
−
* [http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/PA/IRAN/PAAI/PAAI.html Persepolis Photographs] and [http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects/per/ Introduction to the Persian Expedition], [[Oriental Institute]] of the [[University of Chicago]].
 
 
*[http://landofaryan.atspace.com/persepolis.htm Persepolis]
 
*[http://landofaryan.atspace.com/persepolis.htm Persepolis]
−
*[http://www.livius.org/pen-pg/persepolis/persepolis.html Photos and a map of Persepolis]
 
−
*[http://www.livius.org/a/iran/persepolis/persepolis.html Picture archive of Persepolis]
 
−
*[http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Archaeology/Hakhamaneshian/persepolis.htm Persepolis in Details]
 
 
*[http://www.persepolis3d.com 3D reconstructed pictures and movies of Persepolis]
 
*[http://www.persepolis3d.com 3D reconstructed pictures and movies of Persepolis]
−
* [http://www.chn.ir/en/news/?section=2&id=6166 Secret of staircase of G-Palace in Persepolis revealed], [[Cultural Heritage News Agency]], February 13, 2006.
 
−
*[http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/DEPT/PUB/SRC/OIP/117/OIP117.html ''Seals on the Persepolis Fortification Tablets''] - by Mark B. Garrison and Margaret C. Root, at the [http://oi.uchicago.edu Oriental Institute webpage]
 
 
*[http://persepolistablets.blogspot.com/ Persepolis Fortification Archive Project]
 
*[http://persepolistablets.blogspot.com/ Persepolis Fortification Archive Project]
−
 
−
==References==
 
−
{{1911}}
 
−
 
−
 
−
* Curtis, J. and Tallis, N. (eds). (2005). ''Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia.'' University of California Press. ISBN 0520247310.
 
−
* Wilber, Donald Newton. (1989). ''Persepolis: The Archaeology of Parsa, Seat of the Persian Kings''. Darwin Press. Revised edition ISBN 0878500626.
 
−
 
−
 
  
 
{{Credits|Persepolis|119592519|}}
 
{{Credits|Persepolis|119592519|}}

Latest revision as of 17:58, 26 March 2023


Persepolis*
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Persian guards
State Party Flag of Iran.svg Iran
Type Cultural
Criteria i, iii, vi
Reference 114
Region** Asia-Pacific
Inscription history
Inscription 1979  (3rd Session)
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List.
** Region as classified by UNESCO.

Persepolis (Old Persian: 'Pars', New Persian: تخت جمشید, 'Takht-e Jamshid') was an ancient ceremonial capital of the second Iranian dynasty, the Achaemenid Empire, situated some 70 km northeast of modern city of Shiraz. It was built by Darius the Great, beginning around 518 B.C.E. To the ancient Persians, the city was known as Parsa, meaning the city of Persians, Persepolis being the Greek interpretation of the name (Περσες (meaning Persian)+ πόλις (meaning city)). In contemporary Iran the site is known as Takht-e Jamshid (Throne of Jamshid).

Persepolis has a long and complex history, designed to be the central city of the ever expanding Persian empire, besieged and destroyed by Alexander the Great, rebuilt and yet again left to waste, the city has produced many fascinating archaeological finds and is a symbol of contemporary Iranian pride. Although maintained as a ruin, it is impressive, commanding a sense of awe. Visitors to this ancient site can well imagine its beauty and splendor and mourn the destruction of its majesty.

History

Location of Persepolis

Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest remains of Persepolis date from around 518 B.C.E. It is believed that Darius the Great chose the area on a terrace at the foot of mountains to build a city in honor of the Persian empire.[1] The site is marked by a large 125,000 square meter terrace, partly artificial and partly cut out of a mountain, with its east side leaning on Kuh-e Rahmet ("the Mountain of Mercy"). The other three sides are formed by a retaining wall, which varies in height with the slope of the ground. From five to 13 meters on the west side there is a double stair, gently sloping, which leads to the top. To create the level terrace, any depressions that were present were filled up with soil and heavy rocks. They joined the rocks together with metal clips. Darius ordered the construction of Apadana Palace and the Debating hall (Tripylon or the three-gated hall), the main imperial Treasury and its surroundings, which were completed at the time of the reign of his son, King Xerxes I.

The designers were greatly influenced by the Mesopotamians in their construction, and when a significant portion of the city was completed, Darius declared it the new capital of Persia, replacing Pasargadae. However, this was largely symbolic; Susa and Babylon acted as the real centers of governance, while Persepolis was an area of palaces, treasures, and tombs.[2] Festivities and rituals were performed there, but outside the care taking staff and the occasional visiting official, the city was not occupied by a large population. Further construction of the buildings at the terrace continued until the downfall of the Achaemenid dynasty.

In about 333 B.C.E. during his invasion of Persia, Alexander the Great sent the bulk of his army to Persepolis. By the Royal Road, Alexander stormed and captured the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros Mountains), then took Persepolis before its treasury could be looted. After several months Alexander allowed the troops to loot Persepolis.[3] A fire broke out in the eastern palace of Xerxes and spread to the rest of the city. This was not the end of Persepolis however.

In 316 B.C.E. Persepolis was still the capital of Persia as a province of the great Macedonian Empire. The city must have gradually declined in the course of time; but the ruins of the Achaemenidae remained as a witness to its ancient glory. It is probable that the principal town of the country, or at least of the district, was always in this neighborhood. About 200 C.E. the city Istakhr (properly Stakhr) was established on the site of Persepolis. There the foundations of the second great Persian Empire were laid, and Istakhr acquired special importance as the center of priestly wisdom and orthodoxy. The Sassanian kings covered the faces of the rocks in this neighborhood, and in part even the Achaemenian ruins, with their sculptures and inscriptions, and must themselves have built largely here, although never on the same scale of magnificence as their ancient predecessors.

Persepolis ruins after 2500 years

At the time of the Arabian conquest Istakhr offered a desperate resistance, but the city was still a place of considerable importance in the first century of Islam, although its greatness was speedily eclipsed by the new metropolis Shiraz. During the following centuries Istakhr gradually declined, until, as a city, it ceased to exist. This fruitful region, however, was covered with villages until the frightful devastations of the eighteenth century; and even now it is, comparatively speaking, well cultivated. The "castle of Istakhr" played a conspicuous part several times during the Muslim period as a strong fortress. It was the middlemost and the highest of the three steep crags which rise from the valley of the Kur, at some distance to the west or north-west of Nakshi Rustam.[4]

Discovery

The first scientific excavation at Persepolis was carried out by Ernst Herzfeld in 1931, commissioned by the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. He believed the reason behind the construction of Persepolis was the need for a majestic atmosphere, as a symbol for their empire and to celebrate special events, especially the “Nowruz,” (the Iranian New Year held on March 21). For historical reasons and deep rooted interests it was built on the birthplace of the Achaemenid dynasty, although this was not the center of their Empire at that time. For three years Hezfeld's team worked to uncover the Eastern stairwell of the Apadana, the main terrace, the stairs of the council hall and the harem of Xerxes. In 1934, Erich F. Schmidt took over the expedition and cleared out larger sections of the complex.[5]

Ruins

Persepolis aerial view.

On the terrace are the ruins of a number of colossal buildings, all constructed of dark-grey marble from the adjacent mountain. A few of the remaining pillars are still intact, standing in the ruins. Several of the buildings were never finished. These ruins, for which the name Chehel minar ("the forty columns or minarets"), can be traced back to the thirteenth century, are now known as Takht-e Jamshid - تخت جمشید ("the throne of Jamshid").

Behind Takht-e Jamshid are three sepulchers hewn out of the rock in the hillside. The facades, one of which is incomplete, are richly decorated with reliefs. About 13 km NNE, on the opposite side of the Pulwar, rises a perpendicular wall of rock, in which four similar tombs are cut, at a considerable height from the bottom of the valley. The modern Persians call this place Naqsh-e Rustam - نقش رستام or Nakshi Rostam ("the picture of Rostam"), from the Sassanian reliefs beneath the opening, which they take to be a representation of the mythical hero Rostam. That the occupants of these seven tombs were kings might be inferred from the sculptures, and one of those at Nakshi Rustam is expressly declared in its inscription to be the tomb of Darius Hystaspis.[6]

The Gate of All Nations

The Gate of all Nations, referring to subjects of the empire, consisted of a grand hall that was almost 25 square meters, with four columns and its entrance on the Western Wall. There were two more doors, one to the south which opened to the Apadana yard and the other one opened onto a long road to the east. Pivoting devices found on the inner corners of all the doors indicate that they were two-leafed doors, probably made of wood and covered with sheets of ornate metal. A pair of Lamassus, bulls with the head of a bearded man, stand on the western threshold, and another pair with wings and a Persian head (Gopät-Shäh) on the eastern entrance, to reflect the Empire’s power. Xerxes' name was written in three languages and carved on the entrances, informing everyone that he ordered this to be built.

Apadana Palace

Ruins of Apadana Palace

Darius the Great built the greatest and most glorious palace at Persepolis in the western side. This palace was named Apadana and was used for the King of Kings' official audiences. The work began in 515 B.C.E. and was completed 30 years later, by his son Xerxes I. The palace had a grand hall in the shape of a square, each side 60m long with seventy-two columns, thirteen of which still stand on the enormous platform. Each column is 19m high with a square Taurus and plinth. The columns carried the weight of the vast and heavy ceiling. The tops of the columns were made from animal sculptures such as two headed bulls, lions and eagles. The columns were joined to each other with the help of oak and cedar beams, which were brought from Lebanon. The walls were covered with a layer of mud and stucco to a depth of 5cm, which was used for bonding, and then covered with the greenish stucco which is found throughout the palaces.

The Apadana Palace, northern stairway (detail)

At the western, northern and eastern sides of the palace there was a rectangular veranda which had twelve columns in two rows of six. At the south of the grand hall a series of rooms were built for storage. Two grand Persepolitan stairways were built, symmetrical to each other and connected to the stone foundations. To avoid the roof being eroded by rain vertical drains were built through the brick walls. In the Four Corners of Apadana, facing outwards, four towers were built.[7]

The walls were tiled and decorated with pictures of lions, bulls, and flowers. Darius ordered his name and the details of his empire to be written in gold and silver on plates, and to place them in covered stone boxes in the foundations under the Four Corners of the palace. Two Persepolitan style symmetrical stairways were built on the northern and eastern sides of Apadana to compensate for a difference in level. There were also two other stairways in the middle of the building.[8] The external front views of the palace were embossed with pictures of the Immortals, the Kings' elite guards. The northern stairway was completed during Darius' reign, but the other stairway was completed much later.

The Throne Hall

Ruins of Throne Hall

Next to the Apadana, second largest building of the Terrace and the final edifices, is the Throne Hall or the Imperial Army's hall of honor (also called the "Hundred-Columns Palace). This 70x70 square meter hall was started by Xerxes and completed by his son Artaxerxes I by the end of the fifth century B.C.E. Its eight stone doorways are decorated on the south and north with reliefs of throne scenes and on the east and west with scenes depicting the king in combat with monsters. In addition, the northern portico of the building is flanked by two colossal stone bulls.

In the beginning of Xerxes's reign the Throne Hall was used mainly for receptions for military commanders and representatives of all the subject nations of the empire, but later the Throne Hall served to be as an imperial museum.[9]

Other palaces & structures

There were other palaces built, these included the Tachara palace which was built under Darius I; the Imperial treasury which was started by Darius in 510 B.C.E. and finished by Xerxes in 480 B.C.E.; and the Hadish palace by Xerxes I, which occupies the highest level of terrace and stand on the living rock. Other structures include: the Council Hall, the Tryplion Hall, the palaces of D, G, H, storerooms, stables and quarters, unfinished gateway, and a few miscellaneous structures at Persepolis near the south-east corner of the Terrace, at the foot of the mountain.

Tombs of King of Kings

Apadana Hall, Persian and Median soldiers

The kings buried at Naghsh-e Rustam are probably Darius the Great, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II. Xerxes II, who reigned for a very short time, could scarcely have obtained so splendid a monument, and still less could the usurper Sogdianus (Secydianus). The two completed graves behind Takhti Jamshid would then belong to Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III. The unfinished one is perhaps that of Arses of Persia, who reigned at the longest two years, or, if not his, then that of Darius III (Codomannus), who is one of those whose bodies are said to have been brought "to the Persians."

Persepolis, Silicians delegation

Another small group of ruins in the same style is found at the village of Hajjiäbäd, on the Pulwar, a good hour's walk above Takhti Jamshid. These formed a single building, which was still intact 900 years ago, and was used as the mosque of the then existing city of Istakhr.

Modern events

Modern day Iranians view the ruins of Persepolis in a fashion similar to how modern Egyptians view the pyramids: symbols of national pride. In 1971, Persepolis was the main staging ground for the 2,500 year celebration of Iran's monarchy. The UNESCO declared the citadel of Persepolis a World Heritage Site in 1979, acknowledging it as a site of significant historical and archaeological value. The site is maintained by the Iranian Cultural Heritage Foundation. Very little is allowed to be altered or enhanced, leaving the ruins as they are. Special permits are occasionally granted to archaeological expeditions.

The site continues to be one of the most popular tourist attraction in Iran, easily accessible from the closest city, Shiraz. Although it is decidedly a ruin, yet it remains impressive:

Even today, those who step up to its gigantic terrace of 125,000 square meters and see its majestic columns are filled with a sense of awe drifting into a dream-like trance. A dream in which one tries to visualize the beauty and dazzling splendor of Persepolitan palaces before their sad destruction.[10]

Gallery

  • Gate of Xerxes at Persepolis.

  • Carvings of flower on the walls of Perspolis.

  • Entry to Persepolis

  • view of Xerxes Gate (Gate of All Nations).

  • A view of the wall of Perspolis Palace

  • Persepolis museum within the confines of the palace.

  • Persepolis

  • Persepolis

  • Homa (Griffin) in Persepolis

  • Relief of Ardeshir I, Naghsh-e-Rostam, near Persepolis

  • Lamassus, gate of all nations, Persepolis

Notes

  1. ↑ Iranian Cultural and Information Center (1997) "Persepolis" Retrieved November 2, 2007
  2. ↑ "Persepolis" The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press, 2003. Answers.com 02 Nov. 2007.
  3. ↑ Nigel Rodgers, The Rise and Fall of Ancient Greece: The Military And Political History Of The Ancient Greeks From The Fall Of Troy, The Persian Wars And The Battle Of … Alexander The Great And His Conquest Of Asia. (London: Lorenz Books, 2007)
  4. ↑ Donald Whitcomb (2003) Archaeology and the Meanings of Persepolis The Oriental Institute University of Chicago
  5. ↑ Iran Chamber Society (2007) "Parse or Persepolis" Retrieved November 2, 2007
  6. ↑ Donald Newton Wilber, Persepolis: The Archaeology of Parsa, Seat of the Persian Kings. (Darwin Press, 1989. ISBN 0878500626)
  7. ↑ David Stronach and Kim Codella (2007) "Persepolis" The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS) Retrieved November 2, 2007
  8. ↑ Ibid.
  9. ↑ Maria Brosius, Persians: An Introduction (Peoples of the Ancient World) (London: Routledge, 2006)
  10. ↑ Persepolis Recreated - The Movie Documentary7.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Brosius, Maria. 2006. Persians: An Introduction (Peoples of the Ancient World. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415320909
  • Burkert, Walter. 2007 Babylon, Memphis, Persepolis: Eastern Contexts of Greek Culture. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674023994
  • Curtis, J. and N. Tallis, (eds). 2005. Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520247310.
  • Rich, Claudis James. 2002. Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan, and on the Site of Ancient Nineveh: With journal of a voyage down the Tigris to Bagdad and an account of a visit … Persepolis. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 1402192878
  • Rodgers, Nigel. 2007. The Rise and Fall of Ancient Greece: The Military And Political History Of The Ancient Greeks From The Fall Of Troy, The Persian Wars And The Battle Of … Alexander The Great And His Conquest Of Asia. London: Lorenz Books, Anness Press. ISBN 0754817334
  • Wilber, Donald Newton. 1989. Persepolis: The Archaeology of Parsa, Seat of the Persian Kings. Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press. ISBN 0878500626.

External links

All links retrieved November 23, 2022.

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