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| − | [[Image:Max Muller.jpg|thumb|right|Max Müller as a young man]]
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| − | '''Friedrich Max Müller''' (December 6, 1823 – October 28, 1900), more commonly known as '''Max Müller''', was a [[German Confederation|German]] [[philologist]], [[mythographer]], and [[Orientalist]] who virtually created the discipline of [[comparative religion]]. He was also one of the founders of the Western academic field of [[Indology|Indian studies]] and wrote both scholarly and popular works on the subject of Indology. The ''[[Sacred Books of the East]]'' was a massive, 50-volume set of English translations prepared under his direction that stands as an enduring monument to Victorian scholarship.
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| − | Müller's use of [[comparative linguistics]] in his research [[methodology]] and focus on natural phenomena are no longer accepted by mythologists today. Nevertheless, Müller is an early pioneer of mythology and a notable scholar who made non-Christian religions such as [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and others accessible to scholars in the West.
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| − | ==Life and work==
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| − | He was born in [[Dessau]], the son of the [[Romantic poet]] [[Wilhelm Müller]], whose verse [[Franz Schubert]] had set to music in his song-cycles ''[[Die schöne Müllerin]]'' and ''[[Winterreise]]''. Max Müller's mother, Adelheide Müller, was the eldest daughter of a chief minister of Anhalt-Dessau. Müller knew [[Felix Mendelssohn]] and had [[Carl Maria von Weber]] as a [[godparent|godfather]].
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| − | In 1841 he entered [[Leipzig University]], where he left his early interest in [[music]] and [[poetry]] in favour of [[philosophy]]. Müller received his [[Ph.D.]] in 1843 for a dissertation on [[Spinoza]]'s ''Ethics''.<ref>[http://www.giffordlectures.org/Author.asp?AuthorID=127 Müller biography at Gifford Lectures website]. Retrieved September 19, 2008.</ref> He also displayed an aptitude for languages, learning the Classical languages [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] and [[Latin]], as well as [[Arabic]], [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Sanskrit]]. In 1844 Müller went to [[Berlin]] to study with [[Friedrich Schelling]]. He began to translate the [[Upanishads]] for Schelling, and continued to research Sanskrit under [[Franz Bopp]], the first systematic scholar of the [[Indo-European languages]]. Schelling led Müller to relate the history of language to the history of [[religion]]. At this time, Müller published his first book, a German translation of the ''Hitopadesa'', a collection of [[India]]n [[fable]]s.
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| − | In 1845, Müller moved to [[Paris]] to study Sanskrit under [[Eugène Burnouf]]. It was Burnouf who encouraged him to translate the complete [[Rig Veda]], using manuscripts available in England.
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| − | Müller moved to England in 1846 in order to study [[Sanskrit]] texts in the collection of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]]. He supported himself at first with creative writing, his [[novel]] ''German Love'' being popular in its day. Müller's connections with the East India Company and with Sanskritists based at [[Oxford University]] led to a career in Britain, where he eventually became the leading intellectual commentator on the [[culture of India]], which Britain controlled as part of its Empire. This led to complex exchanges between [[India]]n and British intellectual culture, especially through Müller's links with the [[Brahmo Samaj]]. He became a member of [[Christ Church, Oxford]] in 1851, when he gave his first series of lectures on comparative philology. He gained appointments as Taylorian Professor of Modern European Languages in 1854 and as Professor of Comparative Philology at Oxford. Defeated in the 1860 competition for the tenured Chair of Sanskrit, he later became Oxford's first Professor of [[Comparative Theology]] (1868 – 1875), at All Souls College.
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| − | Müller attempted to formulate a [[philosophy of religion]] that addressed the crisis of [[faith]] engendered by the historical and critical study of religion by German scholars on the one hand, and by the [[Darwinism|Darwinian revolution]] on the other. Müller was wary of Darwin's work on human [[evolution]], and attacked his view of the development of human faculties. His work was taken up by cultural commentators such as his friend [[John Ruskin]], who saw it as a productive response to the crisis of the age (compare [[Matthew Arnold]]'s "[[Dover Beach]]"). He analyzed [[mythology|mythologies]] as rationalizations of natural phenomena, primitive beginnings that we might denominate "[[protoscience]]" within a cultural evolution; Müller's "anti-Darwinian" concepts of the evolution of human cultures are among his least lasting achievements.
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| − | [[Image:Friedrich Max Müller, 1898.jpg|left|thumb|Müller circa 1898.]]
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| − | Müller shared many of the ideas associated with [[Romanticism]], which colored his account of ancient religions, in particular his emphasis on the formative influence on early religion of emotional communion with natural forces.
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| − | Müller's Sanskrit studies came at a time when scholars had started to see language development in relation to [[culture|cultural]] development. The recent discovery of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] (IE) language group had started to lead to much speculation about the relationship between [[Classical antiquity|Greco-Roman]] cultures and those of more ancient peoples. In particular the [[Vedas|Vedic]] culture of [[India]] was thought to have been the ancestor of European Classical cultures, and scholars sought to compare the genetically related European and Asian languages in order to reconstruct the earliest form of the root-language. The Vedic language, [[Sanskrit]], was thought to be the oldest of the IE languages. Müller therefore devoted himself to the study of this language, becoming one of the major Sanskrit scholars of his day. Müller believed that the earliest documents of Vedic culture should be studied in order to provide the key to the development of [[Paganism|pagan]] European religions, and of religious belief in general. To this end, Müller sought to understand the most ancient of Vedic scriptures, the [[Rig-Veda]].<ref>Müller, F. Max, ''Rig-Veda-Samhita: The Sacred Hymns of the Brahmans.''</ref>
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| − | Müller was greatly impressed by [[Ramakrishna Paramhansa]], his contemporary and proponent of [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] philosophy, and authored several essays and books on him.
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| − | An 1907 study of Müller's inaugural [[Hibbert Lecture]] of 1878 was made by one of his contemporaries, D. Menant.<ref>Menant M D, (1907) "Influence of Max Muller’s Hibbert Lectures in India," ''The American Journal of Theology'', vol. 11, no. 2, p. 293-307, available to [[jstor]] subscribers.</ref> It argued that a crucial role was played by Müller and social reformer [[Behramji Malabari]] in initiating debate on child marriage and widow remarriage questions in India.
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| − | For Müller, the study of the language had to relate to the study of the culture in which it had been used. He came to the view that the development of languages should be tied to that of belief-systems. At that time the Vedic scriptures were little-known in the [[Western world|West]], though there was increasing interest in the philosophy of the [[Upanishads]]. Müller believed that the sophisticated Upanishadic philosophy could be linked to the primitive [[henotheism]] of early Vedic [[Brahmanism]] from which it evolved. He had to travel to [[London]] in order to look at documents held in the collection of the [[British East India Company]]. While there he persuaded the company to allow him to undertake a critical edition of the Rig-Veda, a task he pursued doggedly over many years (1849 - 1874), and which resulted in the critical edition for which he is most remembered.
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| − | For Müller, the culture of the Vedic peoples represented a form of [[nature worship]], an idea clearly influenced by [[Romanticism]]. He saw the gods of the Rig-Veda as active forces of nature, only partly personified as imagined [[supernatural]] persons. From this claim Müller derived his theory that [[mythology]] is 'a disease of language'. By this he meant that myth transforms concepts into beings and stories. In Müller's view 'gods' began as words constructed in order to express abstract ideas, but were transformed into imagined personalities. Thus the Indo-European father-god appears under various names: [[Zeus]], [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]], [[Dyaus Pita]]. For Müller all these names can be traced to the word 'Dyaus', which he understands to imply 'shining' or 'radiance'. This leads to the terms 'deva', 'deus', 'theos' as generic terms for a god, and to the names 'Zeus' and 'Jupiter' (derived from deus-pater). In this way a [[metaphor]] becomes personified and ossified. This aspect of Müller's thinking closely resembled the later ideas of [[Nietzsche]].
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| − | Nevertheless Müller's work contributed to the developing interest in [[Aryan]] culture which set Indo-European ('Aryan') traditions in opposition to [[Semitic]] religions. He was deeply saddened by the fact that these later came to be expressed in [[racism|racist]] terms. This was far from Müller's own intention. For Müller the discovery of a common Indian and European ancestry was a powerful argument against racism.
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| − | In 1881, he published a translation of the first edition of [[Kant]]'s ''Critique of Pure Reason''. He agreed with [[Schopenhauer]] that this edition was the most direct and honest expression of Kant's thought. His translation corrected several errors that were committed by previous translators. Müller wrote, "The materials are now accessible, and the English-speaking race, the race of the future, will have in Kant's Critique another [[Aryan]] heirloom, as precious as the Veda—a work that may be criticised, but can never be ignored."
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| − | His wife, Georgina Adelaide (died 1916) had his papers and correspondence carefully bound; they are at the [[Bodleian Library]], Oxford.<ref>[http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/dept/scwmss/wmss/online/1500-1900/muller/maxmuller.html Bodleian Müller archive]. Retrieved September 19, 2008.</ref> The [[Goethe Institute]]s in India are named [[Max Müller Bhavan]] in his honour. Müller's son [[Wilhelm Max Müller]] was also an important scholar.
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| − | ==Response==
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| − | [[Image:MaxMulleorld.jpg|frame|The elderly Max Müller]]
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| − | Müller's [[comparative religion]] was criticized as subversive of the [[Christianity|Christian]] faith. According to Monsignor Munro, the Roman Catholic bishop of [[St. Andrew's Cathedral, Glasgow|St Andrew's Cathedral]] in Glasgow, his 1888 [[Gifford Lectures]] on the "science of religion" represented nothing less than "a crusade against divine [[revelation]], against [[Jesus Christ]] and Christianity".<ref>[http://faculty.deanza.edu/lesliewallis/stories/storyReader$158 Myth/Folklore Scholar Reports]. Retrieved September 19, 2008.</ref> Similar accusations had already led to Müller's exclusion from the Boden chair in Sanskrit in favour of the uncontroversial [[Monier Monier-Williams]]. By the 1880s Müller was being courted by [[Charles Godfrey Leland]], [[Helena Blavatsky]] and other writers who were seeking to assert the merits of "[[Paganism|Pagan]]" religious traditions over Christianity. The designer [[Mary Fraser Tytler]] stated that Müller's book ''Chips from a German Workshop'' (a collection of his essays) was her "Bible," which helped her to create a multi-cultural sacred imagery.
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| − | Müller distanced himself from these developments, and remained within the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] [[faith]] in which he had been brought up. He several times expressed the view that a "reformation" within [[Hinduism]] needed to occur comparable to the [[Christian Reformation]].<ref>Menant M D, (1907) "Influence of Max Muller’s Hibbert Lectures in India," ''The American Journal of Theology'', vol. 11, no. 2, p. 293-307</ref> In his view, "if there is one thing which a comparative study of religions places in the clearest light, it is the inevitable decay to which every religion is exposed.... Whenever we can trace back a religion to its first beginnings, we find it free from many blemishes that affected it in its later states." He used his links with the [[Brahmo Samaj]] in order to encourage such a reformation on the lines pioneered by [[Ram Mohan Roy]].
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| − | In a letter to his wife, he said:
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| − | :The translation of the [[Veda]] will hereafter tell to a great extent on the fate of [[India]] and on the growth of millions of souls in that country. It is the root of their [[religion]], and to show them what the root is, I feel sure, is the only way of uprooting all that has sprung from it during the last 3000 years.<ref>Müller, Georgina, ''The Life and Letters of Right Honorable Friedrich Max Müller'', 2 vols. London: Longman, 1902.</ref>
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| − | Munro had argued conversely that Müller's theories "uprooted our idea of [[God]], for it repudiated the idea of a personal God." He made "divine [[revelation]] simply impossible, because it [his theory] reduced God to mere nature, and did away with the body and soul as we know them." Müller remained profoundly influenced by the [[Kant]]ian [[transcendentalism|Transcendentalist]] model of [[spirituality]], and was opposed to [[Darwinism|Darwinian]] ideas of human development, arguing that "language forms an impassable barrier between man and beast."<ref>Müller, F. Max. ''Three Lectures on the Science of Language, etc., with a Supplement, My Predecessors''. 3rd ed. Chicago, 1899, p. 5.
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| − | </ref> Though he took the view that [[Christian]] ''[[morality]]'' was superior to Vedic traditions, his Gifford lectures rejected the concept of direct divine [[revelation]] in favour of a trancendental model of spiritual insight, which, in his view, was perfected in the [[Vedanta]]. However, at the very end of his life he embarrassed some members of the Brahmo Samaj when he wrote to them asking them to declare that their version of Hinduism was now a form of Christianity, and that they had become Christians.<ref>Müller, Georgina, ''The Life and Letters of Right Honorable Friedrich Max Müller'', 2 vols. London: Longman, 1902.</ref>
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| − | Some controversy has arisen in certain quarters in [[Hindu nationalism]] over Müller's interpretation of Vedic culture. In recent years he has been accused of using his scholarship to undermine Hinduism and encourage Christian missionary work.<ref> Brahm Datt Bharti, ''Max Muller, a lifelong masquerade: The inside story of a secular Christian missionary who masqueraded all his lifetime from behind the mask of literature ... intellect, and scholarship to wreck Hinduism'', Erabooks, 1992.</ref>
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| − | ==Müller's [[mythology]]==
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| − | Müller was a pioneer in [[mythology]] who used [[comparative linguistics]] in his research [[methodology]] and primarily examined natural phenomena. Soon after Müller, mythologists such as [[James George Frazer]] adopted [[cultural anthropology]] in their methodology and examined cultural phenomena instead. During the twentieth century, mythological studies expanded its focus to include broader, social phenomena and shifted their methodology from a focus on cultural anthropology to [[structural linguistics]]. [[Claude Gustave Lévi-Strauss]], who established the [[structuralism|structuralist]] approach, and [[Georges Dumézil]] were key transitional figures in this [[paradigm]] shift. Mythological studies further changed its focus to include [[psychology|psychological]] phenomena and adopted [[psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] methodologies.
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| − | Müller's approach to mythology, in its methodology and framework, is no longer accepted by scholars today. Nevertheless, Müller's pioneering efforts were an important step for the establishment of mythology as an academic discipline. Furthermore, his works on Asian religions opened up the rich intellectual and spiritual resources of these non-Christian religious traditions to the West.
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| − | ==''Sacred Books of the East''==
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| − | The [http://www.sacred-texts.com/sbe/ ''Sacred Books of the East''] is a monumental 50-volume set of English translations of Asian religious writings, edited by Max Müller and published by the [[Oxford University Press]] between 1879 and 1910. It incorporates the essential sacred texts of [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Islam]].
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| − | All of the books are in the public domain in the United States, and most or all are in the public domain in many other countries.
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| − | {| border="1" cellpadding="2"
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| − | |+Volumes of the Sacred Books of the East
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| − | ! Vol. !! Group !! Published !! Translator !! Title and contents
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| − | ! 1
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1879 || [[Max Müller]] || The [[Upanishads]], Part 1 of 2. [[Chandogya]] Upanishad. [[Talavakara]] (Kena) Upanishad. [[Aitareya]] Upanishad. [[Kausitaki]] Upanishad. [[Vajasaneyi]] (Isa) Upanishad.
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| − | ! 2
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1879 || [[Georg Bühler]] || The Sacred Laws of the [[Arya]]s, vol. 1 of 2. The sacred laws of the Aryas as taught in the school of [[Apastamba]], [[Gautama]], [[Vâsishtha]], and [[Baudhayana|Baudhâyana]]. pt. I. Apastamba and Gautama. (The Dharma Sutras).
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| − | ! 3
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| − | |China
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| − | |1879 || [[James Legge]] || The Sacred Books of China, vol. 1 of 6. Part I of The Texts of [[Confucianism]]. The Shû king. The religions portions of the Shih king. The Hsiâo king.
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| − | ! 4
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| − | |1880 || [[James Darmesteter]] || The ''[[Avesta|Zend-Avesta]]'', vol. 1 of 3. The Vendîdâd.
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| − | ! 5
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| − | |Zor
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| − | |1880 || [[E. W. West]] || [[Pahlavi]] Texts, vol. 1 of 5. The Bundahis, Bahman Yast, and Shayast La-Shayast.
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| − | ! 6
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| − | |Islam
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| − | |1880 || [[E. H. Palmer]] || The [[Qur'an]], vol. 1 of 2.
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| − | ! 7
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1880 || [[Julius Jolly]] || The Institutes of [[Visnu]].
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| − | ! 8
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1882 || [[Kâshinâth Trimbak Telang]] || The [[Bhagavadgita]] With the [[Sanatsugâtiya]] and the [[The Anugita|Anugitâ]].
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| − | ! 9
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| − | |Islam
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| − | |1880 || [[E. H. Palmer]] || The Qur'an, vol. 2 of 2.
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| − | ! 10
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| − | |Bud
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| − | |1881 || F. [[Max Müller]] (Dhammapada) [[Viggo Fausböll]] (Sutta-Nipata) || The [[Dhammapada]] and The Sutta-Nipâta, a collection of discourses; being one of the canonical books of the [[Buddhist]]s, translated from [[Pāli]]; and The Dhammapada, a collection of verses, translated from Pāli.
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| − | ! 11
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| − | |Bud
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| − | |1881 || [[T. W. Rhys Davids]] || Buddhist Suttas. The Mahâ-parinibbâna Suttanta, The Dhamma-kakka-ppavattana Sutta, The Tevigga Suttanta, The Âkankheyya Sutta, The Ketokhila Sutta, The Mahâ-Sudassana Suttanta, The Sabbâsava Sutta.
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| − | ! 12
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1882 || [[Julius Eggeling]] || The [[Satapatha Brahmana]] according to the text of the Mâdhyandina school, vol. 1 of 5.
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| − | ! 13
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| − | |Bud
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| − | |1881 || [[T. W. Rhys Davids]] and [[Hermann Oldenberg]] || [[Vinaya]] Texts, vol. 1 of 3. The Patimokkha. The Mahavagga, I-IV.
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| − | ! 14
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1882 || [[Georg Bühler]] || The Sacred Laws of the Aryas, vol. 2 of 2. The sacred laws of the Aryas as taught in the school of Apastamba, Gautama, Vâsishtha, and Baudhâyana. pt. II. Vâsishtha and Baudhâyana.
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| − | ! 15
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1884 || [[Max Müller]] || The [[Upanishads]], part 2 of 2. Katha Upanishad. [[Mundaka]] Upanishad. [[Taittiriya]] Upanishad. [[Brhadaranyaka]] Upanishad. [[Svetasvatara]] Upanishad. [[Prasña]] Upanishad. [[Maitrayani]] Upanishad.
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| − | |China
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| − | |1882 || [[James Legge]] || The Sacred Books of China, vol. 2 of 6. Part II of The Texts of [[Confucianism]]. The Yi King: ([[I Ching]]).
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| − | ! 17
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| − | |Bud
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| − | |1882 || [[T. W. Rhys Davids]] and [[Hermann Oldenberg]] || [[Vinaya]] Texts, vol. 2 of 3. The Mahavagga, V-X, the Kullavagga I-II.
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| − | |1882 || [[E. W. West]] || [[Pahlavi]] Texts, vol. 2 of 5. The Dâdistân-î Dinik and the Epistles of Mânûskîhar.
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| − | ! 19
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| − | |Bud
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| − | |1883 || [[Samuel Beal]] || The Fo-sho-hing-tsan-king, a life of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], by [[Ashvaghosha]], [[Bodhisattva]]; translated from [[Sanskrit]] into Chinese by [[Dharmaraksha]], A. D. 420.
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| − | ! 20
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| − | |Bud
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| − | |1885 || [[T. W. Rhys Davids]] and [[Hermann Oldenberg]] || [[Vinaya]] Texts, vol. 3 of 3. The Kullavagga, IV-XII.
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| − | ! 21
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| − | |Bud
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| − | |1884 || [[H. Kern]] || The Saddharma-Pundarika or The Lotus of the True Law.
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| − | ! 22
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| − | |Jain
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| − | |1884 || [[Hermann Jacobi]] || Gaina Sûtras, vol. 1 of 2, translated from the [[Prâkrit]]. The Âkârânga sûtra. The [[Kalpasutra|Kalpa sûtra]].
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| − | ! 23
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| − | |Zor
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| − | |1883 || [[James Darmesteter]] || The [[Avesta|Zend-Avesta]], vol. 2 of 3. The Sîrôzahs, Yasts, and Nyâyis.
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| − | ! 24
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| − | |Zor
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| − | |1884 || [[E. W. West]] || [[Pahlavi]] Texts, vol. 3 of 5. Dinai Mainög-i khirad, Sikand-Gümanik Vigar, [[Sad Dar]].
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| − | ! 25
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1886 || [[Georg Bühler]] || The [[Laws of Manu]]. Translated, with extracts from seven commentaries.
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| − | ! 26
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| − | |Jain
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| − | |1885 || [[Julius Eggeling]] || The [[Satapatha Brahmana]] according to the text of the Mâdhyandina school, vol. 2 of 5, Books III-IV
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| − | ! 27
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| − | |China
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| − | |1885 || [[James Legge]] || The Sacred Books of China, vol. 3 of 6. Part III of the texts of [[Confucianism]]. The Lî Kî, part 1 of 2.
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| − | ! 28
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| − | |China
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| − | |1885 || [[James Legge]] || The Sacred Books of China, vol. 4 of 6. Part IV of the texts of [[Confucianism]]. The Lî Kî, part 2 of 2.
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| − | ! 29
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1886 || [[Hermann Oldenberg]] || The Grihya-sutras; rules of [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] domestic ceremonies. vol. 1 of 2. Sankhyayana-Grihya-sutra. Asvalayana-Grihya-sutra. Paraskara-Grihya-sutra. Khadia-Grihya-sutra.
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| − | ! 30
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1892 || [[Hermann Oldenberg]], [[Max Müller]] || The Grihya-sutras; rules of Vedic domestic ceremonies. vol. 2 of 2. Gobhila, Hiranyakesin, Apastamba (Olderberg); Yajña Paribhashasutras (Müller).
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| − | ! 31
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| − | |Zor
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| − | |1887 || [[Lawrence Heyworth Mills]] || The [[Avesta|Zend-Avesta]], vol. 3 of 3. The Yasna, Visparad, Afrînagân, Gâhs, and miscellaneous fragments.
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| − | ! 32
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1891 || [[Max Müller]] || Vedic Hymns, vol. 1 of 2. Hymns to the [[Marut]]s, [[Rudra]], [[Vâyu]], and [[Vâta]]., with a bibliographical list of the more important publications on the Rig-veda.
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| − | ! 33
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1889 || [[Julius Jolly]] || The Minor Law-Books: [[Brihaspati]]. (Part 1 of 1).
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| − | |-
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| − | ! 34
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1890 || [[George Thibaut]] || The Vedanta-Sutras, vol. 1 of 3. Commentary by [[Sankaracharya]], part 1 of 2. Adhyâya I-II (Pâda I-II).
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| − | ! 35
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| − | |Bud
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| − | |1890 || [[T. W. Rhys Davids]] || The Questions of King [[Milinda]], vol. 1 of 2. [[Milindapañha]].
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| − | ! 36
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| − | |Bud
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| − | |1894 || [[T. W. Rhys Davids]] || The Questions of King [[Milinda]], vol. 2 of 2. [[Milindapañha]].
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| − | ! 37
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| − | |Zor
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| − | |1892 || [[E. W. West]] || [[Pahlavi]] Texts, vol. 4 of 5. Contents of the Nasks.
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| − | |-
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| − | ! 38
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1896 || [[George Thibaut]] || The [[Vedanta]]-Sutras, vol. 2 of 3, commentary by [[Sankaracharya]], part 1 of 2. Adhyâya II (Pâda III-IV) -IV.
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| − | |-
| |
| − | ! 39
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| − | |China
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| − | |1891 || [[James Legge]] || The Texts of [[Taoism]], Part 1 of 2. The Sacred Books of China, vol. 5 of 6. Also: The Tâo the king ([[Tao te Ching]]): The writings of [[Zhuangzi|Kwang-tze]], books I-XVII.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! 40
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| − | |China
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| − | |1891 || [[James Legge]] || The Texts of [[Taoism]], Part 2 of 2. Includes The Writings of [[Zhuangzi|Kwang Tse]], books XVII-XXXIII, The Thâi-shang tractate of actions and their retributions, other Taoist texts, and the Index to vols. 39 and 40.
| |
| − | |-
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| − | ! 41
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| − | |Hindu
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| − | |1894 || [[Julius Eggeling]] || The [[Satapatha Brahmana]] according to the text of the Mâdhyandina school, vol. 3 of 5. Books V, VI, VII.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! 42
| |
| − | |Hindu
| |
| − | |1897 || [[Maurice Bloomfield]] || Hymns of the [[Atharvaveda]], Together With Extracts From the Ritual Books and the Commentaries.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! 43
| |
| − | |Hindu
| |
| − | |1897 || [[Julius Eggeling]] || The [[Satapatha Brahmana]] according to the text of the Mâdhyandina school, vol. 4 of 5, Books VII, IX, X.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! 44
| |
| − | |Hindu
| |
| − | |1900 || [[Julius Eggeling]] || The [[Satapatha Brahmana]] according to the text of the Mâdhyandina school, vol. 5 of 5, Books XI, XII, XIII, XIV.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! 45
| |
| − | |Jain
| |
| − | |1895 || [[Hermann Jacobi]] || Gaina Sûtras, vol. 2 of 2, translated from [[Prâkrit]]. The Uttarâdhyayana Sûtra, The Sûtrakritânga Sûtra.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! 46
| |
| − | |Hindu
| |
| − | |1897 || [[Hermann Oldenberg]] || Vedic Hymns, vol. 2 of 2. Hymns to [[Agni]] (Mandalas I-V).
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! 47
| |
| − | |Zor
| |
| − | |1897 || [[E. W. West]] || [[Pahlavi]] Texts, vol. 5 of 5. Marvels of [[Zoroastrianism]].
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! 48
| |
| − | |Hindu
| |
| − | |1904 || [[George Thibaut]] || The Vedanta-Sutras, vol. 3 of 3, with the commentary of [[Râmânuja]].
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! 49
| |
| − | |Bud
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| − | |1894 || [[Edward Byles Cowell]], F. [[Max Müller]] and [[Takakusu Junjiro]] || [[Buddhist]] [[Mahâyâna]] Texts. Part 1. The Buddha-karita of Asvaghosha, translated from the [[Sanskrit]] by E. B. Cowell. Part 2. The larger Sukhâvatî-vyûha, the smaller Sukhâvatî-vyûha, the Vagrakkedikâ, the larger Pragñâ-pâramitâ-hridaya-sûtra, the smaller Pragñâ-pâramitâ-hridaya-sûtra, translated by F. Max Müller. The Amitâyur dhyâna-sûtra, translated by J. Takakusu.
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! 50
| |
| − | |index
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| − | |1910 || [[Moriz Winternitz]], with a preface by [[Arthur Anthony Macdonell]] || General index to the names and subject-matter of the sacred books of the East.
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ==Publications==
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| − | Müller’s scholarly works, published separately as well as an 18-volume ''Collected Works'', include:
| |
| − | *[http://books.google.com/books?id=6xUAAAAAYAAJ ''A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature So Far As It Illustrates the Primitive Religion of the Brahmans''] (1859),
| |
| − | *[http://books.google.com/books?id=7zYLAAAAQAAJ ''Lectures on the Science of Language''] (1864, 1866 2 vols.),
| |
| − | *''Chips from a German Workshop (1867-75, 4 vols.)
| |
| − | *''Introduction to the Science of Religion (1873)
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| − | *''India, What can it Teach Us? (1883)
| |
| − | *''Biographical Essays (1884)
| |
| − | *''The Science of Thought (1887)
| |
| − | *''Six Systems of Hindu Philosophy (1899)
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| − | *[[Gifford Lectures]] of 1888–92 (Collected Works, vols. 1-4)
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| − | **[http://www.giffordlectures.org/Browse.asp?PubID=TPNATR&Volume=0&Issue=0&TOC=TRUE ''Natural Religion'' (1889), Vol. 1], [http://www.giffordlectures.org/Browse.asp?PubID=TPNATS&Volume=0&Issue=0&TOC=TRUE Vol. 2]
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| − | **[http://www.giffordlectures.org/Browse.asp?PubID=TPPHYR&Cover=TRUE ''Physical Religion''] (1891)
| |
| − | **[http://www.giffordlectures.org/Browse.asp?PubID=TPANRE&Volume=0&Issue=0&TOC=TRUE ''Anthropological Religion''](1892),
| |
| − | **[http://www.giffordlectures.org/Browse.asp?PubID=TPTOPR&Volume=0&Issue=0&TOC=TRUE ''Theosophy, or Psychological Religion''] (1893).
| |
| − | *''Auld Lang Syne'' (1898), a memoir
| |
| − | *''My Autobiography: A Fragment'' (1901)
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| − | *''The Life and Letters of the Right Honourable Friedrich Max Müller'' (1902, 2 vols.)
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| − |
| |
| − | == See also ==
| |
| − | *[[British East India Company]]
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| − | *[[Mythology]]
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| − | *[[Upanishads]]
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| − | *[[Veda]]
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| − | *[[Vedanta]]
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| − |
| |
| − | ==Notes==
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| − | <references/>
| |
| − | ==References==
| |
| − | '''Primary sources'''
| |
| − |
| |
| − | *Müller, F. Max, and Jon R. Stone. ''The Essential Max Müller: On Language, Mythology, and Religion.'' New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2002.
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| − | *Müller, F. Max, and Sāyaṇa.'' Rig-Veda-Samhitâ: the sacred hymns of the Brâhmans : together with the commentary of Sâyanâkârya.'' London: H. Frowde, 1890.
| |
| − | *Müller, F. Max. ''Anthropological Religion; The Gifford Lectures Delivered Before the University of Glasgow in 1891.'' London: Longmans, Green, and co, 1892.
| |
| − | *Müller, F. Max. ''Buddhist Texts from Japan.'' New York: AMS Press, 1976.
| |
| − | *Müller, F. Max. ''Comparative Mythology. International folklore.'' New York: Arno Press, 1977.
| |
| − | *Müller, F. Max. ''Last Essays, Second Series: Essays on the Science of Religion.'' New York: AMS Press, 1978.
| |
| − | *Müller, F. Max. ''Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion As Illustrated by the Religions of India. Delivered in the Chapter House, Westminster Abbey, in April, May, and June, 1878.'' New York: Scribner, 1879.
| |
| − | *Müller, F. Max. ''Natural Religion; The Gifford Lectures Delivered Before the University of Glasgow in 1888.'' London: Longmans, Green, and Co, 1889.
| |
| − | *Müller, F. Max. ''Ramakrishna Paramhansa: The Rational Mystic.'' Delhi: Vijay Goel, 2007.
| |
| − | *Müller, F. Max. ''The Dhammapada A Collection of Verses.'' Champaign, Ill: Project Gutenberg, 1990s.
| |
| − | *Müller, F. Max. ''The Dhammapada, A Collection of Verses; Being One of the Canonical Books of the Buddhists. The Sacred books of the East, vol. 10, pt. 1.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1881.
| |
| − | *Müller, F. Max. ''The Sacred Books of the East.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879.
| |
| − | *Müller, F. Max. ''The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy.'' New York [etc.]: Longmans, Green, 1899.
| |
| − | *Müller, F. Max. ''The Upaniṣads.'' New York: Dover Publications, 1962.
| |
| − | *Müller, F. Max. ''Theosophy: Or, Psychological Religion.'' New York: AMS Press, 1975.
| |
| − | *Müller, Friedrich Max.'' Theosophy or Psychological Religion.'' Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller, 2007.
| |
| − | *Cowell, Edward B., F. Max Müller, Junjirō Takakusu, and Aśvaghoṣa. ''Buddhist Mahâyâna texts.'' New York: Dover Publications, 1969.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | '''Secondary sources'''
| |
| − |
| |
| − | *Bharti, Brahm Datt. ''Max Muller, a Lifelong Masquerade: The Inside Story of a Secular Christian Missionary Who Masqueraded All His Lifetime from Behind the Mask of Literature and Philology and Mortgaged His Pen, Intellect, and Scholarship to Wreck Hinduism.'' India: Erabooks, 1992.
| |
| − | *Capps, Walter H. ''Ways of Understanding Religion.'' New York: Macmillan, 1971.
| |
| − | *Gupta, Upendra Krishna.Max Muller on Ramakrishna and Keshub. Allahabad: Printed at the Indian Press, 1930.
| |
| − | *Jon R. Stone (ed.), ''The Essential Max Müller: On Language, Mythology, and Religion,'' New York: Palgrave, 2002. Collection of 19 essays; also includes an intellectual biography.
| |
| − | *Lourens P. van den Bosch, ''Friedrich Max Müller: A Life Devoted to the Humanities,'' 2002. Recent biography sets him in the context of Victorian intellectual culture.
| |
| − | *Masuzawa, Tomoko. ''In Search of Dreamtime: The Quest for the Origin of Religion. Religion and postmodernism.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
| |
| − | *Neufeldt, Ronald W. ''F. Max Müller and the Ṛg-Veda: A Study of Its Role in His Work and Thought.'' Calcutta: Minerva, 1980.
| |
| − | *Oldenberg, Hermann, and F. Max Müller. ''The Grihya-Sutras, Rules of Vedic Domestic Ceremonies.'' Sacred books of the East, v. 29, 30. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1886.
| |
| − | *Smart, Ninian. ''Nineteenth Century Religious Thought in the West.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
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| − |
| |
| − | ==External links==
| |
| − | All links retrieved September 19, 2008.
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| − | {{wikiquote}}
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| − | *{{gutenberg author|id=Friedrich_Max_Müller|name=Friedrich Max Müller}}
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| − | *[http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php&person=4417 Online Library of Liberty - Friedrich Max Müller]
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| − | *[http://www.giffordlectures.org/Author.asp?AuthorID=127 Gifford Lecture Series - Biography - Friedrich Müller]
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| − | *[http://www.here-now4u.de/eng/theosophy_or_pantheism__friedr.htm Lourens P. van den Bosch,"Theosophy or Pantheism?: Friedrich Max Müller's Gifford Lectures on Natural Religion"]: full text of the article
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| − | *[http://san.beck.org/EC7-Vedas.html Vedas and Upanishads]
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| − | *[http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/writings_prose/on_professor_max_muller.htm Vivekananda on Max Müller]
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| − | *[http://www.sacred-texts.com/sbe/ Sacred Books of the East, at sacred-texts.com]
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| − | [[Category:philosophy and religion]]
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| − | [[Category:religion]]
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| − | [[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
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| − | {{credits|Max_Muller|225910726|Sacred_Books_of_the_East|223946014}}
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