Difference between revisions of "Indo-Greek Kingdom" - New World Encyclopedia

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{| class="infobox" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; float: right; width: 250px; border-collapse: collapse;"
 
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|+ <big>'''Indo-Greek Kingdom'''</big>
 
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| colspan="2" style="font-size: x-small; text-align: center; font-style: italic;" |[[Image:IndoGreekCompromiseMap.jpg|300px]]<br/>Territories and expansion of the Indo-Greeks.<ref>Sources for the map: "Historical Atlas of Peninsular India" Oxford University Press (dark blue, continuous line), A.K. Narain "The coins of the Indo-Greek kings" (dark blue, dotted line), Westermans "Atlas der Welt Gesishte" (light blue, dotted line).</ref>
 
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|-
 
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! [[Language]]s
 
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| [[Greek language|Greek]] ([[Greek alphabet]])<br/>[[Pali]] ([[Kharoshthi]] script)<br/> [[Sanskrit]], [[Prakrit]] ([[Brahmi]] script)<br/>Possibly [[Aramaic]]
 
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|-
 
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! [[Religions]]
 
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| [[Buddhism]]<br/>[[Ancient Greek religion]]<br/>[[Hinduism]]<br/>[[Zoroastrianism]]
 
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|-
 
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! [[Capitals]]
 
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| [[Alexandria in the Caucasus]]<br/>[[Sirkap]]/[[Taxila]]<br/>[[Sagala]]/[[Sialkot]]<br/>[[Pushkalavati]]/[[Peucela]]
 
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|-
 
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! [[Area]]
 
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| Northwestern Indian subcontinent
 
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|-
 
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! [[List of extinct states|Existed]]
 
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| 180 B.C.E.–10 C.E.
 
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|}
 
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{{Indo-Greek articles}}
 
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The '''Indo-Greek Kingdom''' (or sometimes '''Graeco-Indian Kingdom'''<!--<ref>As in other compounds such as "Franco-Canadian," "African-American," "Indo-European" etc..., the area of origin usually comes first, and the area of arrival comes second, so that "Greco-Indian" normally denotes a more accurate nomenclature than "Indo-Greek." The latter however has become the general usage, especially since the publication of Narain's book "The Indo-Greeks".</ref>—>) covered various parts of the northwest and northern [[Indian subcontinent]] from 180 B.C.E. to around 10 C.E., ruled by a succession of more than thirty [[Hellenic]] and [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] kings,<ref><!--[[Euthydemus I]], according to Polybius—>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.34 11.34]<!--, had been a [[Magnesia]]n [[Greek people|Greek]]. His son, [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I]], founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom, had Greek ethnic roots at least from his father. Demetrius also married a daughter of the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] ruler [[Antiochus III]] (who had some [[Persian people|Persian]] descent) according to the same Polybius {{Failed verification|date=October 2007}}[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.34 11.34]. The ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers proves more difficult to trace.—>([http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0075-4269(1902)22%3C268%3ANOHIBA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J "Notes on Hellenism in Bactria and India".] W. W. Tarn. ''Journal of Hellenic Studies'', Vol. 22 (1902), pages 268–293). <!--For example, [[Artemidoros]] (80 B.C.E.) may have been of [[Indo-Scythian]] ascendency. Some level of inter-marriage may also have occurred, as exemplified by [[Alexander the Great|Alexander III]] [[Macedon|of Macedon]] (who married [[Roxana]] [[Bactria|of Bactria]]) or [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]] (who married [[Apama]]).—></ref> often in conflict with each other. The kingdom began when the [[Greco-Bactrian]] king [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius]] invaded India in 180 B.C.E., ultimately creating an entity which seceded from the powerful [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] centered in Bactria (today's northern [[Afghanistan]]). Since the term "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities, it had numerous cities, such as [[Taxila]]<ref>Mortimer Wheeler ''Flames over Persepolis'' (London, 1968). pp. 112 ''ff.''<!--Doubt remains whether the Hellenistic street plan found by Sir John Marshall's excavations dates from the Indo-Greeks or from the Kushans, who would have encountered it in Bactria; Tarn (1951, pp. 137, 179) ascribes the initial move of Taxila to the hill of Sirkap to Demetrius I, but sees that as "not a Greek city but an Indian one"; not a ''polis'' or with a Hippodamian plan.—></ref> in the easternmost part of the Pakistani [[Punjab]], or [[Pushkalavati]] and [[Sagala]].<ref><!--"Menander had his capital in Sagala" Bopearachchi, "Monnaies," p.83. McEvilley supports Tarn on both points, citing Woodcock: "Menander was a Bactrian Greek king of the Euthydemid dysnasty. His capital (was) at Sagala (Sialkot) in the Punjab, "in the country of the Yonakas (Greeks)"." McEvilley, p.377. However, "Even if Sagala proves to be Sialkot, it does not seem to be Menander's capital for the Milindapanha states that Menander came down to Sagala to meet Nagasena, just as the Ganges flows to the sea."—></ref> Those cities would house a number of dynasties in their times, and based on [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Geographia (Ptolemy)|Geographia]]'' and the nomenclature of later kings, a certain Theophila in the south also probably held a satrapal or royal seat at some point.
 
  
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During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek kings combined the Greek and Indian languages and symbols, as seen on their coins, and blended [[ancient Greek]], [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] religious practices, as seen in the archaeological remains of their cities and in the indications of their support of Buddhism. The Indo-Greek kings seem to have achieved a very high level of cultural [[syncretism]], the consequences of which are still felt today, particularly through the diffusion and influence of [[Greco-Buddhist art]].
 
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The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 C.E. following the invasions of the [[Indo-Scythian]]s, although pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent rule of the [[Indo-Parthian]]s and [[Kushans]].
 
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== Background ==
 
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=== Preliminary Greek presence in India ===
 
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In 326 B.C.E. Alexander III conquered the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent as far as the [[Beas River|Hyphasis River]], and established [[satrapies]] as well as several cities, such as [[Bucephala]], until his troops refused to go further east. The Indian satrapies of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] ruled [[Porus]] and [[Taxiles]], confirmed again at the [[Treaty of Triparadisus]] in 321 B.C.E. and remaining Greek troops in those satrapies remained under the command of general [[Eudemus (general)|Eudemus]]. Sometime after 321 Eudemus toppled Taxiles, until he left India in 316 B.C.E. Another general also ruled over the Greek colonies of the Indus: [[Peithon, son of Agenor]],<ref><!--:"To the colonies settled in India, Python, the son of Agenor, was sent."—>[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans13.html Justin XIII.4]</ref> until his departure for [[Babylon]] in 316 B.C.E., and a last one, [[Sophytes]], may have ruled in northern Punjab until around 294 B.C.E.
 
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[[Image:PatnaSofaCapital.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Sculpture of Ancient Greece|Greek Late Archaic]] style [[Capital (architecture)|capital]] from [[Patna]] ([[Pataliputra]]), [[3rd century B.C.E.]], [[Patna Museum]] (click image for references)]]
 
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According to Indian sources, Greek ("[[Yavana]]") troops seem to have assisted [[Chandragupta Maurya]] in toppling the [[Nanda Dynasty]] and founding the [[Mauryan Empire]].<ref><!--On the participation of the Yavanas to Chandragupta's campaigns: "[[Pataliputra|Kusumapura]] was besieged from every direction by the forces of [[Porus|Parvata]] and Chandragupta: Shakas, Yavanas, Kiratas, Kambojas, Parasikas, Bahlikas and others, assembled on the advice of [[Chanakya]]" [[Mudrarakshasa]] 2. Sanskrit original: "asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika parbhutibhih Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama." From the French translation, in—>"Le Ministre et la marque de l'anneau," ISBN 2-7475-5135-0</ref> By around 312 B.C.E. Chandragupta had established his rule in large parts of the northwestern Indian territories.
 
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In 303 B.C.E., [[Seleucus I]] led an army to the Indus, where he encountered Chandragupta. The confrontation ended with a peace treaty, and "an intermarriage agreement" ([[Epigamia]], Greek: Επιγαμια), meaning either a dynastic marriage or an agreement for intermarriage between Indians and Greeks. Accordingly, Seleucus ceded to Chandragupta his northwestern territories, possibly as far as [[Arachosia]] and received 500 war elephants (which played a key role in the victory of Seleucus at the [[Battle of Ipsus]]):
 
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{{quote|"The Indians occupy [in part] some of the countries situated along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived the Ariani of them, and established there settlements of his own.  But [[Seleucus Nicator]] gave them to [[Sandrocottus]] in consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return five hundred elephants."|[[Strabo]] 15.2.1(9) <ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D%23120 Strabo 15.2.1(9)]</ref>}}
 
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Also several Greeks, such as the historian [[Megasthenes]] followed by [[Deimachus]] and [[Dionysius (ambassador)|Dionysius]], went to reside at the Mauryan court. The two rulers continued to exchange presents.<ref><!--Classical sources have recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various [[aphrodisiac]]s to Seleucus: "And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people more amourous].  And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love"—>[[Athenaeus of Naucratis]], "[[The deipnosophists]]" Book I, chapter 32 [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=turn&entity=Literature000701860036&isize=M&pview=hide Ath. Deip. I.32]</ref>
 
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[[Image:AsokaKandahar.jpg|thumb|250px|Bilingual edict ([[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Aramaic]]) by king Ashoka, from [[Kandahar]]. [[Kabul]] Museum (click image for translation).]]
 
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On those occasions, Greek populations apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Mauryan rule. Chandragupta's grandson [[Ashoka]], who had converted to the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] faith declared in the [[Edicts of Ashoka]], set in stone, some of them written in Greek, that Greek populations within his realm also had converted to Buddhism:
 
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{{quote|"Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the [[Kambojas]], the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the [[Andhra]]s and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in [[Dharma]]."|[[Edicts of Ashoka|Rock Edict Nb13]] (S. Dhammika).}}
 
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In his edicts, Ashoka claims he sent Buddhist emissaries to Greek rulers as far as the Mediterranean ([[Edicts of Ashoka|Edict No13]]), and that he developed [[herbal medicine]] in their territories, for the welfare of humans and animals (Edict No2).
 
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The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as [[Dharmaraksita]], described in [[Pali]] sources as leading Greek ("[[Yona]]") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the [[Mahavamsa]], XII<ref>Full text of the Mahavamsa [http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chapters.html Click chapter XII]</ref>). Greeks may have contributed to the sculptural work of the [[Pillars of Ashoka]],<ref><!--"The finest of the pillars were executed by Greek or Perso-Greek sculptors; others by local craftsmen, with or without foreign supervision"—> Marshall, "The Buddhist art of Gandhara," p.4</ref><!-- and more generally to the blossomming of Mauryan art.<ref>"A number of foreign artisans, such as the Persians or even the Greeks, worked alongside the local craftsmen, and some of their skills were copied with avidity"—> Burjor Avari, "India, The ancient past," p118</ref>
 
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Again in 206 B.C.E., the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] emperor [[Antiochus III the Great|Antiochus]] led an army into India, where he received war elephants and presents from the king [[Sophagasenus]]:
 
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{{quote|"He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus ([[Hindu Kush]]) and descended into India; renewed his friendship with [[Sophagasenus]] the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving [[Androsthenes of Cyzicus]] the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him."|[[Polybius]] 11.39 <ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0234&query=head%3D%23717 Polybius 11.39]</ref>}}
 
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=== Greek rule in Bactria ===
 
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[[Image:PhilosopherBust.jpg|thumb|220px|Greco-Bactrian statue of an old man or philosopher, [[Ai Khanoum]], [[Bactria]], 2nd century B.C.E.]]
 
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{{main|Greco-Bactrian Kingdom}}
 
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Alexander also had established in neighbouring Bactria several cities ([[Ai-Khanoum]], [[Bagram|Begram]]) and an administration that lasted more than two centuries under the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]] and the [[Greco-Bactrians]], all the time in direct contact with Indian territory.
 
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The [[Greco-Bactrians]] maintained a strong Hellenistic culture at the door of India during the rule of the [[Mauryan empire]] in India, as exemplified by the archaeological site of [[Ai-Khanoum]]. when the [[Sunga Empire|Sungas]] toppled the Mauryan empire around 185 B.C.E., the Greco-Bactrians expanded into India, where they established the [[Indo-Greek]] kingdom.
 
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===Rise of the Sungas (185 B.C.E.)===
 
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{{main|Sunga Empire}}
 
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In India, the overthrow of Maurya Dynasty occured around 185 B.C.E. when [[Pusyamitra Sunga]], the commander-in-chief of Mauryan Imperial forces and a [[Brahmin]], assassinated the last of the Mauryan emperors [[Brhadrata]].<!--<ref>Pushyamitra is described as a "senapati" (Commander-in-chief) of Brhadrata in the [[Puranas]]</ref>—> Pusyamitra Sunga then ascended the throne and established the [[Sunga Empire]], which extended its control as far west as the [[Punjab region|Punjab]].
 
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Buddhist sources, such as the ''[[Asokavadana]]'', mention that Pusyamitra took a hostile stance towards Buddhists and allegedly persecuted the [[Buddhism|Buddhist faith]]. The dynasty allegedly converted a large number of Buddhist monasteries ([[vihara]]s) to [[Hindu]] temples in such places as [[Nalanda]], [[Bodhgaya]], [[Sarnath]] or [[Mathura]]. Secular sources establish that [[Hinduism]] and Buddhism competed during that time, with the Sungas preferring the former to the latter. Historians such as [[Etienne Lamotte]]<ref>E. Lamotte: History of Indian Buddhism, Institut Orientaliste, Louvain-la-Neuve 1988 (1958), p. 109.</ref> and [[Romila Thapar]]<ref>Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press,
 
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1960 P200</ref> argue that Buddhists largely exaggerated accounts of persecution by Sungas.
 
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==History of the Indo-Greek kingdom==
 
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{{Main|History of the Indo-Greek Kingdom}}
 
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[[Image:AgathoklesCoinOfDemetriusAniketos.JPG|thumb|The founder of the Indo-Greek Kingdom [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I "the Invincible"]] (205–171 B.C.E.), wearing the scalp of an elephant, symbol of his conquests in India ("Pedigree" coin minted by [[Agathocles]]).]]
 
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The invasion of northern India, and the establishment of the "Indo-Greek kingdom," started around 180 B.C.E. when [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I]], son of the Greco-Bactrian king [[Euthydemus I]], led his troops across the [[Hindu Kush]].<ref><!--"The Greek conquest of the North-West Punjab was probably effected towards the latter end of the reign of Euthydemos, or during the early carreer of his son Demetrios."—> Whitehead, p.5</ref><ref><!--"Demetrios is known as the first king of Bactria and of India, that is to say, he held sway both in Bactria proper, and also in Gandhara"—> Whitehead, p.5</ref><ref><!--"In that year (180 B.C.E.) Greek forces based in Bactria reconquered much of what Candragupta had taken upon the departure of Alexander's army a century and a half earlier,"—> McEvilley, p.362.</ref> Bopearachchi dates the reign of Demetrius twenty years earlier, 200-190 B.C.E. .<ref>Bopearachchi, p.49</ref> Some debate has occured as to the exact extent of the conquests of Demetrius: [[Bopearachchi]] believes that Demetrius received the title of "King of India" following his victories south of the Hindu Kush.<ref><!--"We think that the conquests of these regions south of the Hindu Kush brought to Demetrius I the title of "King of India" given to him by [[Apollodorus of Artemita]]."—> Bopearachchi, p.52</ref> Mitchener considers that  the Greeks probably raided [[Pataliputra]] during the time of Demetrius.<ref>Mitchener, ''The Yuga Purana'', 2000, p.65<!--: "In line with the above discussion, therefore, we may infer that such an event (the incursions to Pataliputra) took place, after the reign of Salisuka Maurya (c.200 B.C.E.) and before that of Pusyamitra Sunga (187 B.C.E.). This would accordingly place the Yavana incursions during the reign of the Indo-Greek kings Euthydemus (c.230-190 B.C.E.) or Demetrios (c.205-190 as co-regent, and 190-171 B.C.E. as supreme ruler".—></ref> Narain considers those conquests made by a later [[Demetrius II]].<ref><!--"This we have little evidence to support the theory of extensive conquests in India by Demetrius I, the son of Euthydemus. It is also probable that the credit for having conquered the Paropamisadae and Gandhara has been unjustifiably transfered from [[Demetrius II]] to the homonymous son of Euthydemus.,"—> Narain, ''The Indo-Greeks'', p.50</ref> Demetrius I received the posthumous title ''ανικητος'' ("Anicetus," lit. ''Invincible'') after these victories, a title never assumed to any king before.<ref><!--"No king anywhere before him had assumed this title,"—> Tarn, p.132</ref><ref>Senior, ''Indo-Scythian coins'', p.xii</ref><ref><!--No undisputed coins of Demetrius I himself use this title, but it is employed on one of the [[pedigree]] coins issued by [[Agathocles of Bactria|Agathocles]], which bear on the reverse the classical profile of Demetrius crowned by the elephant scalp, with the legend DEMETRIOS ANIKETOS, and on the reverse Herakles crowning himself, with the legend "Of king Agathocles"—>Boppearachchi, "Monnaies," p.179 and Pl 8.—> <!--Coins of [[Demetrius III]] also use the title "Invincible," and therefore are attributed by some to the same Demetrius (Whitehead, Senior)—></ref>
 
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According to Tarn, [[Apollodotus I|Apollodotus]], seemingly a relative of Demetrius, led the invasion to the south, while [[Menander I|Menander]], led the invasion to the east.<ref>Tarn, ''The Greeks in Bactria and India'', Chap IV.</ref><ref><!--"Menander became the ruler of a kingdom extending along the coast of western India, including the whole of Saurashtra and the harbour Barukaccha. His territory also included Mathura, the Punjab, Gandhara and the Kabul Valley,"—> Bussagli, p. 101</ref> Possibly at a later period, the Greeks advanced to the [[Ganges]], apparently as far as the capital [[Pataliputra]], under the orders of Menander. <ref><!--"Menander, the probable conqueror of Pataliputra,"—> McEvilley, p.375</ref><ref><!--"Pataliputra fut occupée par les forces coalisées Grecques pendant presque huit ans" ("Pataliputra was occupied by the Greek coalition for about eight years"), Mario Bussagli,—> "L'Art du Gandhara," p. 100</ref> Only Tarn, of the writers on Indo-Greek history, ascribe Menander's campaign to the reign of Demetrius I; both Narain and Bopearachchi place him much later than this Demetrius, and ascribe the campaign to his own independent reign.  <ref><!--"Menander undertook a bloody conquest of the Ganges valley.(...) He had to interrupt his conquest of the Ganges valley to face his aggressor ([[Eucratides I]])."—> Bopearachchi, "Monnaies," p.85</ref><ref><!--"There is certainly some truth in Apollodorus and Strabo when they attribute to Menander the advances made by the Greeks of Bactria beyond the Hypanis and even as far as the Ganges and Palibothra (...) That the Yavanas advanced even beyond in the east, to the Ganges-Jamuna valley, about the middle of the second century B.C.E. is supported by the cumulative evidence provided by Indian sources,"—> Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" p.267.</ref> Tarn says that Menander took Pataliputra as Demetrius's general,<ref>Tarn (1951; p. 146 and Chapter IV, ''passim'')</ref> and Narain agrees that Menander raided Pataliputra,<ref>Narain, (1957; pp.75-6, 83.)</ref><ref><!--"Narain reedits and retranslated the Yuga Purana passage to get the Greeks out of Pataliputra. Still, he allows Greek soldiers to lay siege to the city, which is the minimum that the text can be construed to say"—> McEvilley, p.371</ref> but places him a generation later, and denies any direct connection between Menander and Demetrius I. Historians and numismats generally divided on the dates and position of Menander.<ref><!--For Menander, Bopearachchi says: ''"Numismats and historians are very divided on the chronology of his reign and on this territories. For A.Cunningham he would have reigned between 160 and 140 B.C.E., whether A. von Gutschmid suggests a very low date, from 125 to 95. According to E.J.Rapson, followed by Tarn, Menander would be contemporaneous with Eucratides, whether A.K.Narain considers him as his immediate successor. More recently A.D.H. Bivar proposed to see in him a successor of Apollodotus I and of Antiamachos Nicephoros, and considers him as a contemporary of Eucratides I. In the analysis we did of the numismatic and archeological data, we developped the hypothese of Bihar, and showed that Eucratides I and Menander were contemporary"''—> Bopearachchi, "Monnaies," p.77</ref>
 
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Written evidence of the initial Greek invasion survives in the writings of [[Strabo]] and [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]], and in [[Sanskrit]] in the records of [[Patanjali]], [[Kalidasa|Kālidāsa]], and in the ''[[Yuga Purana]]'',<ref>The most recent study of the Yuga Purana is by Mitchener, ''The Yuga Purana'', 2000</ref> among others. Coins and architectural evidence also attest to the extent of the initial Greek campaign.
 
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===Evidence of the initial invasion===
 
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====Greco-Roman sources====
 
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[[Image:IndoGreekNeptune.JPG|thumb|250px|An Indo-Greek [[stone palette]] showing [[Poseidon]] with attendants. He wears a [[Chiton (costume)|chiton]] tunic, a [[chlamys]] cape, and boots. 2nd-1st century B.C.E., [[Gandhara]], [[Ancient Orient Museum]].]]
 
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The Greco-Bactrians went over the [[Hindu Kush]] and first started to re-occupy the area of [[Arachosia]], where Greek populations had been living since before the acquisition of the territory by [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]] from [[Seleucus I|Seleucus]]. [[Isidore of Charax]] describes Greek cities there, one of them called Demetrias, probably in honour of the conqueror [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius]].<ref><!--In the 1st century B.C.E., the geographer [[Isidorus of Charax]] mentions [[Parthians]] ruling over Greek populations and cities in [[Arachosia]]: "Beyond is Arachosia. And the Parthians call this White India; there are the city of Biyt and the city of Pharsana and the city of Chorochoad and the city of Demetrias; then Alexandropolis, the metropolis of Arachosia; it is Greek, and by it flows the river Arachotus. As far as this place the land is under the rule of the Parthians." "Parthians stations," 1st century B.C.E. Mentioned in—> Bopearachchi, "Monnaies Greco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques," p52. Original text in paragraph 19 of [http://www.parthia.com/parthian_stations.htm#PARTHIAN_STATIONS Parthian stations]</ref>
 
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According to [[Strabo]], Greek advances temporarily went as far as the Sunga capital [[Pataliputra]] (today [[Patna, India|Patna]]) in eastern India. Senior considers that those conquests can only refer to Menander:<ref><!--"When Strabo mentions that "Those who after Alexander advanced beyond the Hypanis to the Ganges and Polibothra (Pataliputra)" this can only refer to the conquests of Menander.,"—> Senior, ''Indo-Scythian coins and history'', p. xiv</ref>
 
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{{quote|"Of the eastern parts of India, then, there have become known to us all those parts which lie this side of the [[Hypanis]], and also any parts beyond the Hypanis of which an account has been added by those who, after Alexander, advanced beyond the Hypanis, to the [[Ganges]] and [[Pataliputra]]."|[[Strabo]], 15-1-27<ref><!--The word for "advance" means "going forward"; this  can, but need not, imply a military expedition.—> See [[LSJ]], ''sub'' προέρχομαι. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D%23118 Strabo 15-1-27]</ref>}}
 
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Greek and Indian sources tend to indicate that the Greeks campaigned as far as Pataliputra until a coup staged by [[Eucratides]] forced them to retreat following the back in Bactria circa 170 B.C.E., suggesting an occupation period of about eight years.<ref><!--"Pataliputra fut occupée par les forces coalisées Grecques pendant presque huit ans" ("Pataliputra was occupied by the Greek coalition for about eight years"),—> Mario Bussagli, "L'Art du Gandhara," p. 100</ref> Alternatively, Menander may merely have joined a raid led by Indian Kings down the [[Ganges River|Ganga]],<ref>A.K. Narain and Keay 2000</ref> as Indo-Greek territory has only been confirmed from the [[Kabul]] Valley to the [[Punjab region|Punjab]].
 
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To the south, the Greeks may have occupied the areas of the [[Sindh]] and [[Gujarat]] down to the region of [[Surat District|Surat]] (Greek: ''[[Saraostus]]'') near [[Mumbai]] (Bombay), including the strategic harbour of Barygaza ([[Bharuch]]),<ref><!--"Menander became the ruler of a kingdom extending along the coast of western India, including the whole of [[Saraostus|Saurashtra]] and the harbour [[Bharuch|Barukaccha]]. His territory also included Mathura, the Punjab, Gandhara and the Kabul Valley,"—> Bussagli, p. 101)</ref> conquests also attested by coins dating from the Indo-Greek ruler [[King Apollodotus I|Apollodotus I]] and by several ancient writers (Strabo 11; [[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]], Chap. 41/47):<ref>Tarn, p.147-149</ref>
 
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{{quote|"The Greeks... took possession, not only of [[Patalene|Patalena]], but also, on the rest of the coast, of what is called the kingdom of [[Saraostus]] and [[Sigerdis]]." |Strabo 11.11.1<ref><!--Strabo on the extent of the conquests of the Greco-Bactrians/Indo-Greeks: "They took possession, not only of [[Patalene|Patalena]], but also, on the rest of the coast, of what is called the kingdom of [[Saraostus]] and [[Sigerdis]]. In short, Apollodorus says that Bactriana is the ornament of [[Ariana]] as a whole; and, more than that, they extended their empire even as far as the [[Seres]] and the [[Phryni]]."—> Strabo 11.11.1 ([http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Strab.+11.11.1 Strabo 11.11.1])</ref>}}
 
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Narain dismisses the account of the Periplus as "just a sailor's story," and holds that coin finds inconclusive indicators of occupation.<ref><!--"the account of the Periplus is just a sailor's story,"—>Narain (pp. 118-119)</ref> Coin hoards suggest that in Central India, the area of [[Malwa]] may also have been conquered.<ref><!--"A distinctive series of Indo-Greek coins has been found at several places in central India: including at Dewas, some 22 miles to the east of [[Ujjain]]. These therefore add further definite support to the likelihood of an Indo-Greek presence in Malwa"—> Mitchener, "The Yuga Purana," p.64</ref>
 
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====Indian sources====
 
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Various Indian records describe ''[[Yavana]]'' attacks on [[Mathura]], [[Panchala]], [[Saketa]], and [[Pataliputra]]. The term ''Yavana'' may be a transliteration of "Ionians," designating Hellenistic Greeks (starting with the [[Edicts of Ashoka]], where [[Ashoka]] writes about "the ''Yavana'' king [[Antiochus II Theos|Antiochus]]"),<ref> <!--"Because the Ionians were either the first of the most dominant group among the Greeks with whom people in the east came in contact, the Persians called all of them ''Yauna'', and the Indians used ''Yona'' and ''Yavana'' for them,"—> Narain, ''The Indo-Greeks'', p. 249</ref> but may have sometimes referred to other foreigners as well after the 1st century CE.<ref><!--"The term (Yavana) had a precise meaning until well into the Christian era, when gradually its original meaning was lost and, like the word Mleccha, it degenerated into a general term for a foreigner"—>Narain, p. 18</ref>
 
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[[Patanjali]], a grammarian and commentator on [[Panini (grammarian)|Panini]] around 150 B.C.E., describes in the ''[[Mahābhāṣya|Mahābhāsya]]'', the invasion in two examples using the imperfect tense of [[Sanskrit]], denoting a recent event:<ref><!--"Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in the Smithsonian institution,"—>[[Bopearachchi]], p. 16.</ref><ref>Tarn, p.145-146</ref>
 
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* "''Arunad Yavanah Sāketam''" ("The [[Yavana]]s (Greeks) were besieging Saketa")
 
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* "''Arunad Yavano Madhyamikām''" ("The Yavanas were besieging Madhyamika" (the "Middle country")).
 
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Also the Brahmanical text of the ''[[Yuga Purana]]'', describing Indian historical events in the form of a prophecy,<ref><!--"But the real story of the Indo-Greek invasion becomes clear only on the analysis of the material contained in the historical section of the Gargi Samhita, the Yuga Purana"—> Narain, p. 110,<!--''The Indo-Greeks''. Also "The text of the Yuga Purana, as we have shown, gives an explicit clue to the period and nature of the invasion of Pataliputra in which the Indo-Greeks took part, for it says that the Pancalas and the Mathuras were the other powers who attacked Saketa and destroyed Pataliputra," Narain,—> p. 112</ref><ref><!--"For any scholar engaged in the study of the presence of the Indo-Greeks or Indo-Scythians before the Christian Era, the ''Yuga Purana'' is an important source material"—> Dilip Coomer Ghose, General Secretary, [[Asiatic Society|The Asiatic Society]], [[Kolkata]], 2002—></ref><ref><!--"..further weight to the likelihood that this account of a Yavana incursion to Saketa and Pataliputra-in alliance with the Pancalas and the Mathuras- is indeed historical"—>Mitchener, ''The Yuga Purana'', p. 65</ref>relates the attack of the Indo-Greeks on the capital Pataliputra,<ref><!--"The advance of the Greek to Pataliputra is recorded from the Indian side in the Yuga-purana,"—> Tarn, p. 145</ref> a magnificent fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates according to [[Megasthenes]],<ref> <!--"The greatest city in India is that which is called Palimbothra, in the dominions of the Prasians [...] Megasthenes informs us that this city stretched in the inhabited quarters to an extreme length on each side of eighty stadia, and that its breadth was fifteen stadia, and that a ditch encompassed it all round, which was six hundred feet in breadth and thirty cubits in depth, and that the wall was crowned with 570 towers and had four-and-sixty gates." —> Arr. Ind. 10. <!--"Of Pataliputra and the Manners of the Indians.," quoting —> Megasthenes [http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/Megasthenes-Indika.htm Text]</ref> and describes the ultimate destruction of the city's walls:<ref><!--"The text of the Yuga Purana, as we have shown, gives an explicit clue to the period and nature of the invasion of Pataliputra in which the Indo-Greeks took part, for it says that the Pancalas and the Mathuras were the other powers who attacked Saketa and destroyed Pataliputra,"—> Narain, ''The Indo-Greeks'', p.112</ref>
 
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{{quote|"Then, after having approached [[Saketa]] together with the [[Panchala]]s and the [[Mathura]]s, the Yavanas, valiant in battle, will reach Kusumadhvaja ("The town of the flower-standard," [[Pataliputra]]). Then, once Puspapura (another name of Pataliputra) has been reached and its celebrated mud[-walls] cast down, all the realm will be in disorder."|''Yuga Purana'', Paragraph 47–48, quoted in Mitchener, ''The Yuga Purana'', 2002 edition}}
 
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According to Mitchener, the [[Hathigumpha inscription]] indicates the presence of the Greeks led by a "Demetrius" in eastern India ([[Magadha]]) sometime during the 1st century B.C.E.,<ref><!--"The name Dimita is almost certainly an adaptation of "Demetrios," and the inscription thus indicates a Yavana presence in Magadha, probably around the middle of the 1st century B.C.E."—> Mitchener, ''The Yuga Purana'', p.65</ref>, although Narain previously disputed that interpretation.<ref><!--"The Hathigumpha inscription seems to have nothing to do with the history of the Indo-Greeks; certainly it has nothing to do with Demetrius I,"—> Narain, ''The Indo-Greeks'', p.50</ref> A pillar discovered at Reh, 350km south-east of Mathura, which also bears the name of Menander, serves as another confirmation of those conquests.<ref><!--"A pillar discovered in 1979 at Reh, some 350km south-east of Mathura, bearing the name of Menander,"—> Senior, ''Indo-Scythians coins'', p. xiv, <!--"The discovery in 1979 of an inscription at Reh, some 350 km southeast of Mathura (almost 1,500 km from Menander's western border) giving his name and titles, is confirmation of these conquests," Senior, ''Indo-Scythian coins'',—>xlvi</ref>
 
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===Consolidation===
 
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====Retreat from eastern regions====
 
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[[Image:EucratidesStatere.jpg|thumb|[[Eucratides I]] toppled the [[Greco-Bactrian]] [[Euthydemus|Euthydemid]] dynasty, and attacked the Indo-Greeks from the west.]]
 
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Back in Bactria however, around 170 B.C.E., an usurper named [[Eucratides]] managed to topple the Euthydemid dynasty.<ref>Whitehead, p.4</ref> He took for himself the title of king and started a civil war by invading the Indo-Greek territory, forcing the Indo-Greeks to abandon their easternmost possessions and establish their new oriental frontier at [[Mathura]], to confront this new threat<ref>Bopearachchi, p.85</ref> The Indo-Greeks retreated and consolidated in northwestern India:
 
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{{quote|"The Yavanas, infatuated by war, will not remain in Madhadesa (the [[Madhya Pradesh|Middle Country]]). There will be mutual agreement among them to leave, due to a terrible and very dreadful war having broken out in their own realm."|''Yuga Purana'', paragraphs 56–57, 2002 edition.}}
 
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Demetrius, as "King of the Indians," seems to have confronted Eucratides in a four month siege, reported by Justin, but he ultimately lost.<ref><!--"Justin refers to an incident in which Eucratides with a small force of 300 was besieged for four months by "Demetrius, king of the Indians" with a large army of 60,000. The numbers are obviously an exageration. Eucratides managed to break out and went on to conquer India.," "(Demetrius I) was probably the Demetrius who besieged Eucratides for four months,"—> D.W. Mac Dowall, pp. 201-202, ''Afghanistan, ancien carrefour entre l'est et l'ouest''.</ref> In any case, Eucratides seems to have occupied territory as far as the [[Indus river|Indus]], between ca 170 B.C.E. and 150 B.C.E.<ref>Bopearachchi, p. 72</ref> His advances were ultimately checked by the Indo-Greek king [[Menander I]],<!--<ref>"As Bopearachchi has shown, Menander was able to regroup and drive Eucratides I back out of his domain (1991, pp. 84-6). Bopearachchi demonstrates that the transition in Menander's coin designs were in response to changes introduced by Eucratides," J.Cribb, "The Greek kingdom of Bactria," in ''Afghanistan, ancient carrefour entre l'est et l'ouest'', p.210</ref>—> who asserted himself in the Indian part of the empire, apparently conquered Bactria as indicated by his issue of coins in the Greco-Bactrian style, and even began the last expansions eastwards.
 
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====Consolidation and rise of Menander I====
 
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[[Image:MenandrosCoin.jpg|thumb|[[Menander I]] became the most important of the Indo-Greek rulers.<ref><!--"Numismats and historians all consider that Menander was one of the greatest, if not the greatest, and the most illustrious of the Indo-Greek kings,"—> Bopearachchi, "Monnaies," p. 76</ref>]]
 
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The majority of historians consider Menander the most successful Indo-Greek king, and the conqueror of the greatest territory.<ref><!--"Numismats and historians are unanimous in considering that Menander was one of the greatest, if not the greatest, and the most famous of the Indo-Greek kings. The coins to the name of Menander are incomparably more abundant than those of any other Indo-Greek king"—> [[Bopearachchi]], "Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques," p. 76.</ref> Archeologists have discovered more of his coins, through a more wide spread area, than any of the Indo-Greek kings. Buddhist literature presents Menander as Milinda, described in the [[Milinda Panha]] as a convert to [[Buddhism]]: he became an [[arhat]] with relics enshrined in a manner reminiscent of the Buddha. He also introduced a new coin type, with [[Athena]] Alkidemos ("Protector of the people") on the reverse, adopted by most of his successors in the East.<ref>Bopearachchi, "Monnaies," p.86</ref> King [[Menander I]] most likely made the conquests east of the [[Punjab region]] during the second half of the century.
 
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Following Menander's reign, about twenty Indo-Greek kings ruled in succession in the eastern parts of the Indo-Greek territory. Upon his death, [[Agathokleia]], Menander's queen,  succeeded him for some time acted as regent to their son [[Strato I]].<ref>Tarn</ref>
 
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====Greco-Bactrian encroachments====
 
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From 130 B.C.E., the [[Indo-Scythians|Scythians]] and then the [[Yuezhi]], following a long migration from the border of China, started to invade Bactria from the north.<ref><!--"By about 130 B.C.E. nomadic people from the Jaxartes region had overrun the northern boundary of Bactria itself,"—> McEvilley, p.372</ref> Around 125 B.C.E. the Greco-Bactrian king [[Heliocles]], son of [[Eucratides]], probably killed during the invasion, ending the Greco-Bactrian kingdom proper.<ref><!--"Heliocles abandonned Bactria and moved his capital to the Kabul Valley, thence to tule his Indian holdings."—> McEvilley, p.372</ref> Heliocles may have been survived by his relative [[Eucratides II]], who ruled south of the [[Hindu Kush]], in areas untouched by the invasion. Other Indo-Greek kings like [[Zoilos I]], [[King Lysias|Lysias]] and [[Antialcidas]] may possible have been relatives of either the Eucratid or the Euthydemid dynasties; they struck both Greek and bilingual coins and established a kingdom of their own.
 
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A stabilizing alliance with the Yuezhi then seems to have followed, as hinted on the coins of [[Zoilos I]], who minted coins showing Heracles' club together with a [[steppe]]-type [[recurve bow]] inside a victory [[wreath]].<ref><!--"It is curious that on his copper [[Zoilos]] used a Bow and quiver as a type. A quiver was a badge used by the Parthians (Scythians) and had been used previously by Diodotos, who we know had made a treaty with them. Did Zoilos use Scythian mercenaries in his quest against Menander perhaps?"—> Senior, ''Indo-Scythian coins'', p.xxvii</ref>
 
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The Indo-Greeks thus suffered encroachments by the Greco-Bactrians in their western territories. The Indo-Greek territory was divided into two realms: the house of Menander retreated to their territories east of the [[Jhelum River]] as far as [[Mathura]], whereas the Western kings ruled a larger kingdom of [[Paropamisadae]], western [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[Arachosia]] to the south.
 
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===Later History===
 
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Throughout the 1st century B.C.E., the Indo-Greeks progressively lost ground to the Indians in the east, and the [[Scythian]]s, the [[Yuezhi]], and the [[Parthians]] in the West. About 19 Indo-Greek king are known during this period, down to the last known Indo-Greek king [[Strato II]], who ruled in the [[Punjab region]] until around 10 C.E.
 
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====Loss of Mathura and eastern territories (circa 100 B.C.E.)====
 
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[[Image:YaudheyaCoin.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Coin of the [[Yaudheya]]s.]]
 
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[[Image:PhiloxenusCoin2.JPG|thumb|150px|Coin of [[King Philoxenus|Philoxenus]], unarmed, making a blessing gesture with the right hand.]]
 
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The Indo-Greeks may have ruled as far as the area of [[Mathura]] until sometime in the 1st century B.C.E.: the Maghera inscription, from a village near Mathura, records the dedication of a well "in the one hundred and sixteenth year of the reign of the Yavanas," which could be as late as 70 B.C.E.<ref><!--The Sanskrit inscription reads "Yavanarajyasya sodasuttare varsasate 100 10 6."—> R. Salomon, "The Indo-Greek era of 186/5 B.C.E. in a Buddhist reliquary inscription," in "Afghanistan, ancien carrefour entre l'est et l'ouest," p. 373</ref> Soon Indian kings recovered the area of Mathura and south-eastern Punjab, west of the [[Yamuna River]], and started to mint their own coins. The [[Arjunayana]]s (area of Mathura) and [[Yaudheya]]s mention military victories on their coins ("Victory of the Arjunayanas," "Victory of the Yaudheyas"). During the 1st century B.C.E., the Trigartas, [[Audumbaras]]<ref><!--"The coinage of the former (the Audumbaras) to whom their trade was of importance, starts somewhere in the first century B.C.E.; they ocasionally imitate the types of Demetrius and Apollodotus I,"—> Tarn, p.325</ref> and finally the [[Kuninda]]s (closest to Punjab)<ref><!--"The Kunindas (...) must have been included in the Greek empire, not only because of their geographical position, but because they started coining at the time which saw the end of Greek rule and the establishment of their independence,"—> Tarn, p.238</ref> also started to mint their own coins, usually in a style highly reminiscent of Indo-Greek coinage.<ref><!--"Further evidence of the commercial success of the Greek drachms is seen in the fact that they influenced the coinage of the Audumbaras and the Kunindas,"—> Narain ''The Indo-Greeks'', p.114</ref><ref><!--"The wealthy Audumbaras (...) some of their coins after Greek rule ended imitated Greek types,"—> Tarn, pp. 239, 324-325.</ref><!--<ref>"Most of the people east of the Ravi already noticed as within Menander's empire -Audumbaras, Trigartas, Kunindas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas- began to coins in the first century B.C.E., which means that they had become independent kingdoms or republics.," Tarn, p.324</ref><ref>"Later, in the first century a ruler of the Kunindas, Amogabhuti, issued a silver coinage "which would compete in the market with the later Indo-Greek silver"," Tarn, p.325</ref>—>
 
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The Western king [[Philoxenios|Philoxenus]] briefly occupied the whole remaining Greek territory from the Paropamisadae to Western Punjab between 100 to 95 B.C.E., after what the territories fragmented again. The western kings regained their territory as far west as [[Arachosia]], and eastern kings continued to rule on and off until the beginning of our era.
 
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====Scythian invasions (80 B.C.E.-20 C.E.)====
 
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{{main|Indo-Scythians}}
 
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[[Image:Hippostratos.jpg|thumb|Tetradrachm of [[Hippostratos]], reigned circa 65-55 B.C.E.]]
 
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[[Image:AzesIIFineCoin.jpg|thumb|Silver coin of the [[Indo-Scythian]] king [[Azes II]] (r.c. 35-12 B.C.E.).]]
 
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Around 80 B.C.E., an [[Indo-Scythian]] king named [[Maues]], possibly a general in the service of the Indo-Greeks, ruled for a few years in northwestern India before the Indo-Greeks again took control. He seems to have been married to an Indo-Greek princess.<ref><!--"Maues himself issued joint coins with Machene, (...) probably a daughter of one of the Indo-Greek houses"—> Senior, ''Indo-Scythians'', p. xxxvi</ref> King [[Hippostratos]] (65-55 B.C.E.) seems to have been one of the most successful subsequent Indo-Greek kings until he lost to the Indo-Scythian [[Azes I]], who established an Indo-Scythian dynasty.<ref><!--G.K. Jenkins, using overstrikes and monograms, showed that, contrary to what Narai would write two years later, Apoloodotus II and Hippostratus were posterior, by far, to Maues. (...) He reveals an overstike if Azes I over Hippostratus. (...) Apollodotus and Hippostratus are thus posterior to Maues and anterior to Azes I, whose era we now starts in 57 B.C.E."—> Bopearachchi, p.126-127.</ref> Various coins seem to suggest that some sort of alliance may have taken place between the Indo-Greeks and the Scythians.<ref><!--"It is curious that on his copper [[Zoilos]] used a Bow and quiver as a type. A quiver was a badge used by the Parthians (Scythians) and had been used previously by Diodotos, who we know had made a treaty with them. Did Zoilos use Scythian mercenaries in his quest against Menander perhaps?"—> Senior, ''Indo-Scythian coins'', p.xxvii</ref>
 
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Although the Indo-Scythians clearly ruled militarily and politically, they remained surprisingly respectful of Greek and Indian cultures. Greek mints produced their coins, continued using proper Greek and Kharoshthi legends, and incorporated depictions of Greek deities, particularly Zeus.<ref><!--"The Indo-Scythian conquerors, who, also they adopted the greek types, minted money with their own names."—> Bopearachchci, "Monnaies," p.121</ref> The [[Mathura lion capital]] inscription attests that they adopted the Buddhist faith, as do the depictions of deities forming the vitarka mudra on their coins. Greek communities, far from being exterminated, probably persisted under Indo-Scythian rule. A fusion, rather than a confrontation, may have occurred between the Greeks and the Indo-Scythians: in a recently published coin, [[Artemidoros]] presents himself as "son of Maues",<ref>Described in R.C. Senior "The Decline of the Indo-Greeks" [http://www.onsnumis.org/news/0499newrecpubl.shtml]. See also [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/ot_grp8/ot_indoscyth_20050802.html this source].</ref> and the [[Buner reliefs]] show Indo-Greeks and Indo-Scythians reveling in a Buddhist context.
 
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The Indo-Greeks continued to rule a territory in the eastern Punjab, until the kingdom of the last Indo-Greek king [[Strato II]] the Indo-Scythian ruler [[Rajuvula]] took over around 10 C.E.<ref><!--"Around 10 C.E., with the joint rule of Straton II and his son Straton in the area of Sagala, le last Greek kingdom succumbed to the attacks of Rajuvula, the Indo-Scythian satrap of Mathura.,"—> Bopearachchi, "Monnaies," p.125</ref>
 
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====Western kings and Yuezhi expansion (70 B.C.E.-)====
 
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{{main|Yuezhi}}
 
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[[Image:HermaeusCalliope.jpg|thumb|300px|Silver bilingual drachm of [[King Hermaeus|Hermaeus]] (ruled 90-70 B.C.E.) with his wife Kalliope. King on horse, equipped with the [[recurve bow]] of the steppes.]]
 
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Approximately eight western Indo-Greek kings have been identified. The last important king,  [[Hermaeus]], reigned until around 70 B.C.E.; soon after his death the [[Yuezhi]] took over his areas from neighbouring Bactria. Chinese chronicles (the [[Hou Hanshu]]) actually tend to suggest that the Chinese general Wen-Chung had helped negotiate the alliance of Hermaeus with the Yuezhi, against the [[Indo-Scythians]].<ref><!--Following the embassy of [[Zhang Qian]] in Central Asia around 126 B.C.E., from around 110 B.C.E. ''"more and more envoys (from China) were sent to Anxi (Parthia), Yancai, Lixuan, Tiazhi, and Shendu (India)... The largest embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred person, while even the smaller parties included over 100 members"''—> ("[[Records of the Grand Historian]]," by [[Sima Qian]], trans. Robert Watson, pp. 240–241). <!--According to the [[Hou Hanshu]], W'ou-Ti-Lao ([[Spalirises]]), king of Ki-pin ([[Kophen]], upper [[Kabul]] valley), killed some Chinese envoys. After the death of the king, his son ([[Spalagadames]]) sent an envoy to China with gifts. The Chinese general Wen-Chung, commander of the border area in western [[Gansu]], accompanied the escort back. W'ou-Ti-Lao's son formented to kill Wen-Chung. When Wen-Chung discovered the plot, he allied himself with Yin-Mo-Fu (Hermaeus), "son of the king of Yung-Kiu" ([[Yonaka]], the Greeks). They attacked Ki-Pin (possibly with the support of the [[Yuezhi]], themselves allies of the Chinese since around 100 B.C.E. according to the Hou Hanshu) and killed W'ou-Ti-Lao's son. The Chinese throne installed Yin-Mo-Fu (Hermaeus) as king of Ki-Pin, as a vassal of the Chinese Empire,  receiving the Chinese seal and ribbon of investiture. Later Yin-Mo-Fu (Hermaeus) has been recorded as killing Chinese envoys in the reign of [[Emperor Yuan of Han|Emperor Yuan-ti]] (48-33 B.C.E.), then sending envoys to apologize to the Chinese court, which disregarded him. During the reign of [[Emperor Cheng of Han|Emperor Ching-ti]] (51-7 B.C.E.), they rejected other envoys as simple traders. (Tarn, "The Greeks in Bactria and India")—></ref> Coins depict Hermaeus horse equipped with the [[recurve bow]] and bow-case of the steppes.
 
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After 70 B.C.E., the Yuezhi nomads became the new rulers of the Paropamisadae, and minted vast quantities of posthumous issues of [[Hermaeus]] up to around 40 C.E., when they blend with the coinage of the [[Kushan]] king [[Kujula Kadphises]].<ref><!--"Kujula Kadphises, founder of the Kushan Empire, succeeded there (in the Paropamisadae) to the nomads who minted imitations of Hermaeus"—> Bopearachchi, "Monnaies," p. 117</ref> The first documented Yuezhi prince, [[Sapadbizes]], ruled around 20 B.C.E., and minted in Greek and in the same style as the western Indo-Greek kings, probably depending on Greek mints and celators.
 
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An inscription on a signet ring of the 1st century CE in the name of a king [[Theodamas]], from the [[Bajaur]] area of [[Gandhara]], in modern [[Pakistan]] constitutes the last known mention of an Indo-Greek ruler. The signet bears in [[kharoshthi]] script the inscription ''"Su Theodamasa"'', ''"Su"'' being explained as the Greek transliteration of the ubiquitous [[Kushan]] royal title ''"Shau"'' ("[[Shah]]," "King"), although coins of him have never been found.<ref><!--"We get two Greeks of the Parthian period, the first half of the first century AD, who used the Indian form of their names, King Theodamas on his signet-ring found in Bajaur, and Thedorus son of Theoros on two silver bowls from Taxila."—> Tarn, p. 389</ref>
 
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==Ideology==
 
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[[Image:MenanderCoin.jpg|thumb|Bilingual silver [[drachm]] of '''Menander I''' (160-135 B.C.E.). With obverse and reverse legends in [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] "BASILEOS SOTĒROS MENANDROY" and [[Kharosthi]] "MAHARAJA TRATASA MENADRASA": "Of The Saviour King Menander." Reverse shows [[Athena]] advancing right, with thunderbolt and shield.]][[Image:AppolodotusCoin.JPG|thumb|Indian-standard coin of [[Apollodotus I]] (180–160 B.C.E.).]]
 
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[[Buddhism]] flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and their rule, especially that of Menander, has been remembered as benevolent. Although lacking direct evidence, their invasion of India may have been intended to show their support for the [[Mauryan empire]] which may have had a long history of marital alliances,<ref>Marital alliances:
 
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*Discussion on the dynastic alliance in Tarn, pp. 152–153. <!--:  "It has been recently suggested that Asoka was grandson of the Seleucid princess, whom [[Seleucus]] gave in marriage to [[Chandragupta]]. Should this far-reaching suggestion be well founded, it would not only throw light on the good relations between the Seleucid and Maurya dynasties, but would mean that the Maurya dynasty was descended from, or anyhow connected with, Seleucus… when the Mauryan line became extinct, he (Demetrius) may well have regarded himself, if not as the next heir, at any rate as the heir nearest at hand." Also: "The Seleucid and Maurya lines were connected by the marriage of Seleucus' daughter (or niece) either to Chandragupta or his son Bindusara"—>, [[John Marshall]], Taxila, p. 20. <!-- This thesis originally appeared in "The Cambridge Shorter History of India":"If the usual oriental practice was followed and if we regard Chandragupta as the victor, then it would mean that a daughter or other female relative of Seleucus was given to the Indian ruler or to one of his sons, so that Asoka may have had Greek blood in his veins."—> The Cambridge Shorter History of India, J. Allan, H. H. Dodwell, T. Wolseley Haig, p. 33 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=88816404 Source].<!--
 
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*Description of the 302 B.C.E. marital alliance in—> [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D%23120 Strabo 15.2.1(9)]: <!-- "The Indians occupy [in part] some of the countries situated along the Indus, which formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived the Ariani of them, and established there settlements of his own. But [[Seleucus Nicator]] gave them to [[Sandrocottus]] in consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return five hundred elephants." The ambassador [[Megasthenes]] was also sent to the Mauryan court on this occasion.—></ref> exchange of presents,<ref><!--Exchange of presents:
 
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*Classical sources have recorded that Chandragupta sent various [[aphrodisiac]]s to Seleucus: "And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people more amourous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love"—> [[Athenaeus of Naucratis]], "[[The deipnosophists]]" Book I, chapter 32 [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=turn&entity=Literature000701860036&isize=M&pview=hide Ath. Deip. I.32]
 
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<!--*[[Ashoka]] claims he introduced herbal medicine in the territories of the Greeks, for the welfare of humans and animals (Edict No2).
 
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*[[Bindusara]] asked [[Antiochus I]] to send him some sweet [[wine]], dried [[figs]] and a [[sophist]]: "But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, as [[Aristophanes]] says, "There's really nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote to [[Antiochus I Soter|Antiochus]], entreating him (it is [[Hegesander]] who tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be sold in Greece"—> [[Athenaeus]], "[[Deipnosophistae]]" XIV.67[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=goto&id=Literature.AthV3&isize=M&page=1044 Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67]</ref> demonstrations of friendship,<ref><!--Treaties of friendship:
 
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*When [[Antiochos III]], after having made peace with [[Euthydemus]], went to India in 209 B.C.E., he is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king there and received presents from him: "He crossed the Caucasus ([[Hindu Kush]]) and descended into India; renewed his friendship with [[Sophagasenus]] the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him."—>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.39 Polybius 11.39]</ref> exchange of ambassadors<!--<ref>Ambassadors:
 
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*Known ambassadors to India are [[Megasthenes]], [[Deimakos]] and [[Dionysius (ambassador)|Dionysius]].</ref>—> and religious missions<!--<ref>Religious missions:
 
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*In the [[Edicts of Ashoka]], king [[Ashoka]] claims to have sent Buddhist emissaries to the Hellenistic west around 250 B.C.E.</ref>—> with the Greeks. The historian [[Diodorus]] even wrote that the king of Pataliputra had "great love for the Greeks".<ref>
 
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<!--The historian [[Diodorus]] wrote that the king of [[Pataliputra]], apparently a Mauryan king, "loved the Greeks": "Iambulus, having found his way to a certain village, was then brought by the natives into the presence of the king of Palibothra, a city which was distant a journey of many days from the sea. And since the king loved the Greeks ("Philhellenos") and devoted to learning he considered Iambulus worthy of cordial welcome; and at length, upon receiving a permission of safe-conduct, he passed over first of all into Persia and later arrived safe in Greece"—> Diodorus ii,60.</ref><ref><!--"Diodorus testifies to the great love of the king of Palibothra, apparently a Mauryan king, for the Greeks"—> Narain, "The Indo-Greeks," p. 362</ref>
 
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The Greek expansion into Indian territory may have been intended to protect Greek populations in India,<ref><!-- "Obviously, for the Greeks who survived in India and suffered from the oppression of the Sunga (for whom they were aliens and heretics), Demetrios must have appeared as a saviour"—> Mario Bussagli, p. 101</ref> and to protect the Buddhist faith from the religious persecutions of the [[Sunga]]s.<ref><!--"We can now, I think, see what the Greek 'conquest' meant and how the Greeks were able to traverse such extraordinary distances. To parts of India, perhaps to large parts, they came, not as conquerors, but as friends or 'saviors'; to the Buddhist world in particular they appeared to be its champions"—> Tarn, p. 180</ref> The city of [[Sirkap]] founded by Demetrius combines Greek and Indian influences without signs of segregation between the two cultures. Alternatively, some described the Greek invasions in India as purely materialistic, only taking advantage of the ruin of the Mauryan Empire to acquire territory and wealth. 
 
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The first Greek coins minted in India, those of [[Menander I]] and [[King Apollodotus I|Appolodotus I]], bear the mention "Saviour king" (BASILEOS SOTHROS), a title with high value in the Greek world which indicated an important deflective victory. For instance, [[Ptolemy I]] had been ''Soter'' (saviour) because he had helped save [[Rhodes]] from [[Demetrius I of Macedon|Demetrius the Besieger]], and [[Antiochus I]] because he had saved [[Asia Minor]] from the [[Gauls]]. Artisans also inscribed the title in Pali as ("Tratarasa") on the reverse of their coins. Menander and Apollodotus may indeed have been saviours to the Greek populations residing in India, and to some of the Indians as well.<ref>Tarn pp. 175, 178.<!-- Also: "The people to be 'saved' were in fact usually Buddhists, and the common enimity of Greek and Buddhists to the Sunga king threw them into each other's arms," Tarn p. 175. "Menander was coming to save them from the oppression of the Sunga kings",Tarn p. 178—></ref>
 
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Also, coiners minted most coins of the Greek kings in India in Greek on the front and in [[Pāli|Pali]] on the back (in the [[Kharoshthi]] script, derived from [[Aramaic]], rather than the more eastern [[Brahmi]], used only once on coins of [[Agathocles of Bactria]]), a tremendous concession to another culture never before made in the Hellenic world.<ref>Whitehead, "Indo-Greek coins," p 3-8</ref> From the reign of [[Apollodotus II]], around 80 B.C.E., Kharoshthi letters served as mintmarks on coins in combination with Greek monograms and mintmarks, suggesting the participation of local technicians to the minting process.<ref>[[Bopearachchi]] p. 138</ref> Incidentally, those bilingual coins of the Indo-Greeks provided the key in the [[decipherment]] of the Kharoshthi script by [[James Prinsep]] (1799–1840).<ref>Whitehead, p.vi</ref> Kharoshthi became extinct around the 3rd century CE.
 
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Indian literature describes the Indo-Greeks as [[Yavana]]s (in [[Sanskrit]]),<ref><!--"These Indo-Greeks were called Yavanas in ancient Indian litterature" p.9 + note 1 "The term had a precise meaning until well into the Christian era, when gradually its original meaning was lost and, like the word ''Mleccha'', it degenerated into a general term for a foreigner" p.18,—> Narain "The Indo-Greeks," p. 18.</ref><ref><!--"All Greeks in India were however known as Yavanas,"—> Burjor Avari, "India, the ancient past," p. 130</ref><ref><!--"The term Yavana may well have been first applied by the Indians to the Greeks of various cities of Asia Minor who were settled in the areas contiguous to north-west India"—> Narain "The Indo-Greeks," p. 227</ref> or [[Yona]]s (in [[Pali]])<ref><!--"Of the Sanskrit Yavana, there are other forms and derivatives, viz. Yona, Yonaka, Javana, Yavana, Jonon or Jononka, Ya-ba-na etc... Yona is a normal Prakrit form from Yavana,"—> Narain "The Indo-Greeks," p.228</ref> both considered transliterations of "[[Ionians]]." Direct epigraphical evidence involves the Indo-Greek kings, such as the mention of the "Yavana" embassy of king [[Antialcidas]] on the [[Heliodorus pillar]] in Vidisha,<ref><!--"The Besnagar Garuda pillar inscription witnesses to the presence of the Yavana Heliodorus son of Dion in Vidisa as an envoy from Taxila of king Antialkidas around 140 B.C.E.,"—> Mitchener, ''The Yuga Purana'', p. 64</ref> or the mention of [[Menander I]] in the Buddhist text of the [[Milinda Panha]].<ref><!--"Before the Greeks came, Ashoka called the Greeks Yonas, while after they came, the Milinda calls them Yonakas",—>Tarn, quoted in Narain, "The Indo-Greeks," p. 228</ref> In the Harivamsa, the "Yavana" Indo-Greeks cluster  together with the [[Sakas]], [[Kambojas]], Pahlavas and Paradas as ''Kshatriya-pungava'' i.e foremost among the Warrior caste, or [[Kshatriyas]]. The [[Majjhima Nikaya]] explains that in the lands of the Yavanas and Kambojas, in contrast with the numerous Indian castes, only two classes of people existed, [[Arya]]s and [[Dasa]]s (masters and slaves). The Arya could become Dasa and vice versa.
 
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==Religion==
 
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{{main|Religions of the Indo-Greeks}}
 
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[[Image:MenanderChakra.jpg|thumb|Indian-standard coinage of [[Menander I]] with a Buddhist [[Dharmacakra|eight-spoked wheel]],<ref><!--"It is probable that the wheel on some coins of Menander is connected with Buddhism,"—> Narain, ''The Indo-Greeks'', p. 122</ref> and a palm of victory on the reverse ([[British Museum]]).]]
 
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In addition to the worship of the Classical [[pantheon (gods)|pantheon]] of the Greek deities found on their coins ([[Zeus]], [[Herakles]], [[Athena]], [[Apollo]]...), the Indo-Greeks  involved with local faiths, particularly with Buddhism, but also with Hinduism and Zoroastrianism.
 
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After the Greco-Bactrians militarily occupied parts of northern India from around 180 B.C.E., histories record numerous instances of interaction between Greeks and Buddhism. Histories describe [[Milinda|Menander I]], the "Saviour king," seemingly a convert to [[Buddhism]], as a great benefactor of the religion, on a par with [[Ashoka]] or the future [[Kushan]] emperor [[Kanishka]].<ref><!--"Menander, the probable conqueror of Pataliputra, seems to have been a Buddhist, and his name belongs in the list of important royal patrons of Buddhism along with Asoka and Kanishka,"—> McEvilley, p. 375</ref> A Buddhism wheel seems impressed on coins representing him,<ref><!--"It is probable that the wheel on some coins of Menander is connected with Buddhism,"—> Narain, ''The Indo-Greeks'', p. 122</ref> and his dialogues with the Buddhist monk [[Nagasena]] made him famous, transmitted to us in the [[Milinda Panha]], which explain that he became a Buddhist [[arhat]]:
 
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{{quote|"And afterwards, taking delight in the wisdom of the Elder, he (Menander) handed over his kingdom to his son, and abandoning the household life for the house-less state, grew great in insight, and himself attained to [[Arhat|Arahatship]]!"|[[Milinda Panha|The Questions of King Milinda]], Translation by T. W. Rhys Davids.}}
 
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Another Indian writing, the ''Stupavadana'' of Ksemendra, mentions in the form of a prophecy that Menander will build a stupa in Pataliputra.<ref>Stupavadana, Chapter 57, v.15. Quotes in E.Seldeslachts.</ref>
 
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[[Plutarch]] also presents Menander as an example of benevolent rule, and explains that upon his death, the honour of sharing his remains was claimed by the various cities under his rule, and they were enshrined in "monuments" (μνημεία, probably [[stupa]]s), in a parallel with the historic [[Buddha]]:<ref>McEvilley, p.377</ref>
 
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{{quote|"But when one Menander, who had reigned graciously over the Bactrians, died afterwards in the camp, the cities indeed by common consent celebrated his funerals; but coming to a contest about his relics, they were difficultly at last brought to this agreement, that his ashes being distributed, everyone should carry away an equal share, and they should all erect monuments to him."|[[Plutarch]], "Political Precepts" Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6).<ref>Plutarch "Political precepts," p147–148 [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/Plutarch0206/Morals/0062-05_Bk.pdf Full text]</ref>}}
 
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==Art==
 
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{{main|Art of the Indo-Greeks}}
 
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[[Image:GandharaDonorFrieze2.JPG|thumb|450px|Greek Buddhist devotees, holding [[plantain]] leaves, in purely Hellenistic style, inside [[Corinthian column]]s, [[Buner reliefs|Buner relief]], [[Victoria and Albert Museum]].]]
 
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In general, little documentation on the art of the Indo-Greeks exists, and few works of art (apart from their coins and a few [[stone palette]]s) may be directly attributed to them. Historians generally consider the coinage of the Indo-Greeks as some of the most artistically brilliant of Antiquity.<ref><!--"The extraordinary realism of their portraiture. The portraits of Demetrius, Antimachus and of Eucratides are among the most remarkable that have come down to us from antiquity"—> Hellenism in Ancient India, Banerjee, p. 134</ref> The Hellenistic heritage ([[Ai-Khanoum]]) and artistic proficiency of the Indo-Greek would suggest a rich sculptural tradition as well, but traditionally very few sculptural remains have been attributed to them. On the contrary, Art historians attribute most Gandharan Hellenistic works of art to the direct successors of the Indo-Greeks in India in 1st century CE, such as the nomadic [[Indo-Scythians]], the [[Indo-Parthians]] and, in an already decadent state, the [[Kushans]]<ref><!--"Just as the [[Franks|Frank]] [[Clovis]] had no part in the development of [[Gallo-Roman art]], the Indo-Scythian Kanishka had no direct influence on that of Indo-Greek Art; and besides, we have now the certain proofs that during his reign this art was already stereotyped, of not decadent"—> Hellenism in Ancient India, Banerjee, p. 147</ref> In general, precise dating of Gandharan sculpture has been impossible, leaving the exact chronology open to interpretation.
 
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[[Image:Indo-GreekBanquet.JPG|thumb|left|Hellenistic culture in the Indian subcontinent: Greek clothes, [[amphora]]s, wine and music (Detail of [[Chakhil-i-Ghoundi stupa]], [[Hadda]], [[Gandhara]], 1st century CE).]]
 
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The possibility of a direct connection between the Indo-Greeks and [[Greco-Buddhist art]] has been reaffirmed recently as the dating of the rule of Indo-Greek kings has been extended to the first decades of the 1st century CE, with the reign of [[Strato II]] in the Punjab.<ref><!--"The survival into the 1st century AD of a Greek administration and presumably some elements of Greek culture in the Punjab has now to be taken into account in any discussion of the role of Greek influence in the development of Gandharan sculpture,"—> The Crossroads of Asia, p. 14</ref> Also, Foucher, Tarn and more recently Boardman, Bussagli or McEvilley have taken the view that some of the most purely Hellenistic works of northwestern India and Afghanistan, may actually be wrongly attributed to later centuries, and instead belong to a period one or two centuries earlier, to the time of the Indo-Greeks in the 2nd-1st century B.C.E.:<ref><!--On the Indo-Greeks and the Gandhara school:
 
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*1) "It is necessary to considerably push back the start of Gandharan art, to the first half of the first century B.C.E., or even, very probably, to the preceding century.(...) The origins of Gandharan art... go back to the Greek presence. (...) Gandharan iconography was already fully formed before, or at least at the very beginning of our era"—> Mario Bussagli "L'art du Gandhara," pp. 331–332; <!--
 
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*2) "The beginnings of the Gandhara school have been dated everywhere from the first century B.C.E. (which was M.Foucher's view) to the Kushan period and even after it" (Tarn, p394). Foucher's views can be found in "La vieille route de l'Inde, de Bactres a Taxila," pp340–341). The view is also supported by—> Sir John Marshall, "The Buddhist art of Gandhara," pp. 5–6;—>
 
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<!--*3) Also the recent discoveries at [[Ai-Khanoum]] confirm that "Gandharan art descended directly from Hellenized Bactrian art"—> Chaibi Nustamandy, "Crossroads of Asia," 1992;<!--
 
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*4) On the Indo-Greeks and Greco-Buddhist art: "It was about this time (100 B.C.E.) that something took place which is without parallel in Hellenistic history: Greeks of themselves placed their artistic skill at the service of a foreign religion, and created for it a new form of expression in art"—> Tarn, p. 393;<!-- "We have to look for the beginnings of Gandharan Buddhist art in the residual Indo-Greek tradition, and in the early Buddhist stone sculpture to the South (Bharhut etc...)"—>Boardman, 1993, p. 124;<!-- "Depending on how the dates are worked out, the spread of Gandhari Buddhism to the north may have been stimulated by Menander's royal patronage, as may the development and spread of the Gandharan sculpture, which seems to have accompanied it"—McEvilley, 2002, "The shape of ancient thought," p. 378.</ref>
 
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[[Image:Siddhartha.JPG|thumb|200px|Indo-Greek princes may have been the models for the [[Bodhisattvas]] of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]].<ref>Benjamin Rowland JR, foreword to "The Dyasntic art of the Kushan," John Rosenfield, 1967</ref>]]
 
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Particularly the case of some purely Hellenistic works in [[Hadda]], [[Afghanistan]], an area which "might indeed be the cradle of incipient Buddhist sculpture in Indo-Greek style".<ref>Boardman, p. 141</ref> Referring to one of the Buddha triads in Hadda, in which the very Classical depictions of [[Herakles]]/[[Vajrapani]] and [[Tyche]]/[[Hariti]] side with Buddha, Boardman explains that both figures "might at first (and even second) glance, pass as, say, from Asia Minor or Syria of the first or second century B.C.E. (...) these are essentially Greek figures, executed by artists fully conversant with far more than the externals of the Classical style".<ref>Boardman, p. 143</ref>
 
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Alternatively, those works of art may have been executed by itinerant Greek artists during the time of maritime contacts with the West from the 1st to the 3rd century CE.<ref><!--"Others, dating the work to the first two centuries C.E., after the waning of Greek autonomy on the Northwest, connect it instead with the Roman Imperial trade, which was just then getting a foothold at sites like [[Barbaricum]] (modern [[Karachi]]) at the Indus-mouth. It has been proposed that one of the embassies from Indian kings to Roman emperors may have brought back a master sculptorto oversee work in the emerging Mahayana Buddhist sensibility (in which the Buddha came to be seen as a kind of deity), and that "bands of foreign workmen from the eastern centers of the [[Roman Empire]]" were brought to India"—> McEvilley "The shape of ancient thought," quoting Benjamin Rowland "The art and architecture of India" p121 and A.C. Soper "The Roman Style in Gandhara" American Journal of Archaeology 55 (1951) pp. 301–319</ref>
 
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The [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]], beyond the omnipresence of Greek style and stylistic elements which might be simply considered as an enduring artistic tradition,<ref>Boardman, p. 115</ref> offers numerous depictions of people in Greek [[classical antiquity|Classical]] realistic style, attitudes and fashion (clothes such as the [[chiton (costume)|chiton]] and the [[himation]], similar in form and style to the 2nd century B.C.E. [[Greco-Bactrian]] statues of [[Ai-Khanoum]], hairstyle), holding contraptions characteristic of Greek culture ([[amphora]]s, "kantaros" Greek drinking cups), in situations which range from festive (such as [[Bacchanal]]ian scenes) to Buddhist-devotional.<ref>McEvilley, p. 388-390</ref><ref>Boardman, pp. 109-153</ref>
 
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Uncertainties in dating make it unclear whether those works of art actually depict Greeks of the period of Indo-Greek rule up to the 1st century B.C.E., or remaining Greek communities under the rule of the [[Indo-Parthians]] or [[Kushans]] in the 1st and 2nd century CE. Benjamin Rowland thinks that the Indo-Greeks, rather than the Indo-Scythians or the Kushans, may have been the models for the [[Bodhisattva]] statues of Gandhara.<ref><!--"It is noteworthy that the dress of the Gandharan Bodhisattva statues has no resemblance whatever to that of the Kushan royal portrait statues, which has many affiliations with Parthian costume. The finery of the Gandhara images must be modeled on the dress of local native nobility, princes of Indian or Indo-Greek race, who had no blood connection with the Scythian rulers. It is also evident that the facial types are unrelated to the features of the Kushans as we know them from their coins and fragmentary portrait statues.,"—> Benjamin Rowland JR, foreword to "The Dyasntic art of the Kushan," John Rosenfield, 1967</ref>
 
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==Economy==
 
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Very little is known about the economy of the Indo-Greeks. The abundance of their coins would tend to suggest large mining operations, particularly in the mountainous area of the [[Hindu-Kush]], and an important monetary economy. The Indo-Greek did strike bilingual coins both in the Greek "round" standard and in the Indian "square" standard,<ref>Bopearachchi, "Monnaies," p.27</ref> suggesting that monetary circulation extended to all parts of society. The adoption of Indo-Greek monetary conventions by neighbouring kingdoms, such as the [[Kuninda kingdom|Kunindas]] to the east and the [[Satavahanas]] to the south,<ref>Rapson, clxxxvi-</ref> would also suggest that Indo-Greek coins were used extensively for cross-border trade.
 
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====Tribute payments====
 
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The coins emitted by the Indo-Greek kings, particularly those in the monolingual [[Attica|Attic]] standard, may have been used to pay some form of tribute to the Yuezhi tribes north of the Hindu-Kush.<ref><!--"P.Bernard thinks that these emissions were destined to commercial exchanges with Bactria, then controled by the Yuezhi, and were post-Greek coins remained faithful to Greco-Bactrian coinage. In a slightly different perspective (...) G. Le Rider considers that these emission were used to pay tribute to the nomads of the north, who were thus incentivized not to pursue their forays in the direction of the Indo-Greek realm,"—> Bopearachchi, "Monnaies," p. 76.</ref> The coins finds of the [[Qunduz]] hoard in northern Afghanistan have yielded quantities of Indo-Greek coins in the Hellenistic standard (Greek weights, Greek language), although most likely none of the kings represented in the hoard ruled so far north.<ref>Bopearachchi, "Monnaies," p.75</ref> Conversely, none of those coins have ever been found south of the Hindu-Kush.<ref>Fussman, JA 1993, p. 127 and Bopearachchi, "Graeco-Bactrian issues of the later Indo-Greek kings," Num. Chron.1990, pp. 79–104)</ref>
 
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====Trade with China====
 
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An indirect testimony by the Chinese explorer [[Zhang Qian]], who visited Bactria around 128 B.C.E., suggests that intense trade with [[Southern China]] went through northern India. Zhang Qian explains that he found Chinese products in the Bactrian markets, transiting through northwestern India, which he incidentally describes as a civilization similar to that of Bactria:
 
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{{quote|"When I was in Bactria," Zhang Qian reported, "I saw bamboo canes from [[Qiong]] and cloth (silk?) made in the province of [[Shu (state)|Shu]]. When I asked the people how they had gotten such articles, they replied: "Our merchants go buy them in the markets of Shendu (northwestern India). Shendu, they told me, lies several thousand [[Li (Chinese unit)|li]] southeast of Bactria. The people cultivate land, and live much like the people of Bactria".|[[Sima Qian]], "Records of the Great Historian," trans. Burton Watson, p236.}}
 
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====Indian Ocean trade====
 
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Maritime relations across the Indian ocean started in the 3rd century B.C.E., and further developed during the time of the Indo-Greeks together with their territorial expansion along the western coast of India. The first contacts started when the [[Ptolemies]] constructed the [[Red Sea]] ports of [[Myos Hormos]] and [[Berenice (port)|Berenike]], with destination the [[Indus River|Indus]] delta, the [[Kathiawar]] peninsula or [[Muziris]]. Around 130 B.C.E., [[Eudoxus of Cyzicus]] is reported ([[Strabo]], ''Geog.''&nbsp; II.3.4)<ref>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/2C*.html#3.4 Strabo II.3.4‑5 on Eudoxus]</ref> to have made a successful voyage to [[India]] and returned with a cargo of [[perfume]]s and [[gemstone]]s. By the time Indo-Greek rule approached an end, up to 120 ships set sail every year from Myos Hormos to India (Strabo ''Geog.'' II.5.12).<ref><!--"Since the merchants of Alexandria are already sailing with fleets by way of the Nile and of the Persian Gulf as far as India, these regions also have become far better known to us of today than to our predecessors. At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia, and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos for India, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise."—> [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/2E1*.html Strabo II.5.12]</ref>
 
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==Armed forces==
 
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[[Image:Phalera.jpg|thumb|250px|Greek combatants in an armored turret on an Indian [[war elephant]]. [[Phalera]] of the 3rd-2nd century B.C.E., Greco-Bactrian or Indo-Greek work, found in the [[Ural (region)|Ural]]. [[Hermitage Museum]], [[Russia]]. Click image for references.]]
 
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The coins of the Indo-Greeks provide rich clues on their uniforms and weapons depicting typical Hellenistic uniforms, with helmets being either round in the Greco-Bactrian style, or the flat [[kausia]] of the Macedonians (coins of [[Apollodotus I]]). 
 
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====Military technology====
 
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Their weapons consisted of spears, swords, longbow (on the coins of [[Agathokleia]]) and arrows. Interestingly, around 130 B.C.E. the Central Asian [[recurve bow]] of the steppes with its [[gorytos]] box starts to appear for the first time on the coins of [[Zoilos I]], suggesting strong interactions (and apparently an alliance) with nomadic peoples, either Yuezhi or Scythian. The recurve bow becomes a standard feature of Indo-Greek horsemen by 90 B.C.E., as seen on some of the coins of [[King Hermaeus|Hermaeus]].
 
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Generally, artists often represent Indo-Greek kings riding horses, as early as the reign of [[Antimachus II]] around 160 B.C.E. The equestrian tradition probably goes back to the [[Greco-Bactrians]], whom [[Polybius]] said faced a [[Seleucid]] invasion in 210 B.C.E. with 10,000 horsemen.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+10.49 Polybius 10.49, Battle of the Arius]</ref> A harness plate ([[phalera]]) of Greco-Bactrian or Indo-Greek work, dated to the 3-2nd century B.C.E., today in the [[Hermitage Museum]], depicts a helmetted Greek combatant on an Indian war elephant. Indian war elephants constituted a standard feature of Hellenistic armies, and this would naturally have been the case for the Indo-Greeks as well.
 
−
 
−
[[Image:MenanderIIQ.jpg|thumb|left|Indo-Greek officer (on a coin of [[Menander II]]), circa 90 B.C.E. He is equipped with a cuirass, [[lamellar armour]] for the thighs, and leg protections (cnemids).<ref>Photographic reference on a coin of Menander II, circa 90 B.C.E.: [[:Image:MenanderIIQ.jpg]]</ref>]]
 
−
The Milinda Panha, in the questions of [[Nagasena]] to king Menander, provides a rare glimpse of the military methods of the period:
 
−
 
−
:"(Nagasena) Has it ever happened to you, O king, that rival kings rose up against you as enemies and opponents?
 
−
:-(Menander) Yes, certainly.
 
−
:-Then you set to work, I suppose, to have moats dug, and ramparts thrown up, and watch towers erected, and strongholds built, and stores of food collected?
 
−
:-Not at all. All that had been prepared beforehand.
 
−
:-Or you had yourself trained in the management of war elephants, and in horsemanship, and in the use of the war chariot, and in archery and fencing?
 
−
:-Not at all. I had learnt all that before.
 
−
:-But why?
 
−
:-With the object of warding off future danger."
 
−
:([[Milinda Panha]], Book III, Chap 7)
 
−
 
−
The Milinda Panha also describes the structure of Menander's army:
 
−
:"Now one day Milinda the king proceeded forth out of the city to pass in review the innumerable host of his mighty army in its fourfold array (of elephants, cavalry, bowmen, and soldiers on foot)." (Milinda Panha, Book I)
 
−
 
−
====Size of Indo-Greek armies====
 
−
[[Image:Tetradrachm Eukratides.jpg|thumb|right|The Greco-Bactrian king [[Eucratides I|Eucratides]] (171-145 B.C.E.) vanquished 60,000 Indo-Greeks, before being himself defeated by Menander.]]
 
−
The armed forces of the Indo-Greeks engaged in important battles with local India forces. The ruler of [[Kalinga]], [[Kharavela]], claims in the [[Hathigumpha inscription]] that he led a "large army" in the direction of Demetrius' own "army" and "transports," and that he induced him to retreat from Pataliputra to Mathura. A "large army" for the state of Kalinga must indeed have been quite considerable. The Greek ambassador [[Megasthenes]] took special note of the military strength of Kalinga in his ''Indica'' in the middle of the 3rd century B.C.E.:
 
−
{{quote|"The royal city of the Calingae ([[Kalinga]]) is called Parthalis. Over their king 60,000 foot-soldiers, 1,000 horsemen, 700 elephants keep watch and ward in "procinct of war."|Megasthenes fragm. LVI. in Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8–23. 11.<ref>[http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/Megasthenes-Indika.htm Megasthenes Indica]</ref>}}
 
−
 
−
An account by the Roman writer [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]] gives another hint of the size of Indo-Greek armies, which, in the case of the conflict between the Greco-Bactrian [[Eucratides]] and the Indo-Greek [[Demetrius II of India|Demetrius II]], he numbers at 60,000 (although they allegedly lost to 300 Greco-Bactrians):
 
−
 
−
{{quote|"[[Eucratides]] led many wars with great courage, and, while weakened by them, was put under siege by [[Demetrius II of India|Demetrius]], king of the Indians. He made numerous sorties, and managed to vanquish 60,000 enemies with 300 soldiers, and thus liberated after four months, he put India under his rule"|Justin, XLI,6<ref>[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/texte41.html Justin XLI]</ref>}}
 
−
 
−
Considerable numbers, since large armies during the Hellenistic period typically numbered between 20,000 to 30,000.<ref>On the size of Hellenistic armies, see accounts of Hellenistic battles by [[Diodorus]], books XVIII and XIX</ref> The military strength of nomadic tribes from Central Asia ([[Yuezhi]] and [[Indo-Scythians|Scythians]]) probably constituted a significant threat to the Indo-Greeks. According to [[Zhang Qian]], the Yuezhi represented a considerable force of between 100,000 and 200,000 mounted archer warriors,<ref><!--''"They are a nation of nomads, moving from place to place with their herds, and their customs are like those of the Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 or 200,000 archer warriors... The Yuezhi originally lived in the area between the [[Qilian]] or Heavenly mountains and [[Dunhuang]], but after they were defeated by the Xiongnu they moved far away to the west, beyond [[Ta-Yuan|Dayuan]], where they attacked and conquered the people of [[Daxia]] (Bactria) and set up the court of their king on the northern bank of the Gui ([[Oxus]]) river"''—> "[[Records of the Great Historian]]," [[Sima Qian]], trans. Burton Watson, p. 234)</ref> with customs identical to those of the [[Xiongnu]]. The Indo-Greek seem to have combined forces with other "invaders" during their expansion into India, since accounts often referred to in combination with others (especially the [[Kambojas]]), in the Indian accounts of their invasions.<!--{{Fact|date=October 2007}}—>
 
−
 
−
==Legacy of the Indo-Greeks==
 
−
{{main|Legacy of the Indo-Greeks}}
 
−
From the 1st century CE, the Greek communities of central Asia and northwestern India lived under the control of the [[Kushan]] branch of the Yuezhi, apart from a short-lived invasion of the [[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]].<ref><!--"Though the Indo-Greek monarchies seem to have ended in the first century B.C.E., the Greek presence in India and Bactria remained strong,"—> McEvilley, p. 379</ref> The Kushans founded the [[Kushan Empire]], which prospered for several centuries. In the south, the Greeks came under the rule of the [[Western Kshatrapas]]. Historians have been unable to determine the time the Greeks disappeared in the Indian sub-continent.
 
−
 
−
==List of the Indo-Greek kings and their territories==
 
−
Today 36 Indo-Greek kings are known. Several of them are also recorded in Western and Indian historical sources, but the majority are known through [[numismatic]] evidence only. The exact [[chronology]] and sequencing of their rule is still a matter of scholarly inquiry, with adjustments regular being made with new analysis and coin finds (overstrikes of one king over another's coins being the most critical element in establishing chronological sequences).<ref>All information in this paragraph sourced from Bopearachchi (1991)</ref>
 
−
<br clear=all>
 
−
 
−
==Notes==
 
−
<!--This article uses the Cite.php citation mechanism. If you would like more information on how to add references to this article, please see http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Cite/Cite.php —>
 
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{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
 
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−
 
−
{{Indo-Greek kings}}
 
−
 
−
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−
==See also==
 
−
{{portalpar|Classical Civilisation}}
 
−
*[[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]]
 
−
*[[Seleucid Empire]]
 
−
*[[Greco-Buddhism]]
 
−
*[[Indo-Scythians]]
 
−
*[[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]]
 
−
*[[Kushan Empire]]
 
−
*[[Roman commerce]]
 
−
*[[Timeline of Indo-Greek Kingdoms]]
 
−
 
−
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}
 
−
 
−
 
−
 
−
==External links==
 
−
{{commons|Category:Indo-Greeks}}
 
−
{{commons|Category:Coins of the Indo-Greeks}}
 
−
*[http://www.sparta.markoulakispublications.org.uk/index.php?id=100 News story of the latest archaeological discovery of artefacts dated back to Indo-Greek period]. Retrieved October 27, 2007.
 
−
*[http://www.med.unc.edu/~nupam/greek1.html Indo-Greek history and coins]. Retrieved October 27, 2007.
 
−
*[http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/baktria/i.html Ancient coinage of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms]. Retrieved October 27, 2007.
 
−
<!--*[http://www.gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~hkum/bactrian.html Text of Prof. Nicholas Sims-Williams (University of London) mentioning the arrival of the Kushans and the replacement of Greek Language.]—>
 
−
*[http://www.dbaol.com/armies/army_50_figure_1.htm Wargame reconstitution of Indo-Greek armies]. Retrieved October 27, 2007.
 
−
 
−
[[Category:History]]
 
−
 
−
{{credits|166243720}}
 

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