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| − | [[Image:Kurukshetra.jpg|right|350px|thumb|A manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra, fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, recorded in the Mahabharata Epic.]]
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| − | '''Indian Martial Arts''' refers to a cluster of [[Religion|religious]] and [[Military|martial]] practices that arose in the Indian subcontinent beginning in Vedic times (c. 1500-700 B.C.E.). [[Vedas|Vedic]] literature includes a field of study known as ''Dhanurveda'' (from ''dhanus'' "bow" and ''veda'' "knowledge"), which developed into an important component of ancient [[Hinduism|Hindu]] society. This "science of archery" included armed and unarmed combat, and aspects such as meditation and mental conditioning. The theories behind [[Yoga]], [[Ayurveda]] and [[Tantra]], such as [[Kundalini]] (coiled energy), [[Prana]] (life force), Nadi (meridians), [[Chakra]] (aura) and Marmam (pressure points), are also present in Indian martial arts.
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| − | Although many Hindu saints have championed non-violence in modern times, it is also true that many ancient [[Hindu temple]]s have statues of [[deities]] and warriors in various postures related to combat. It is also true that The responsibility for the practice of Indian martial arts fell to the hands of the Hindu [[Kshatriya]]s (warrior caste). furthermore, a number of ancient [[Dravidian martial arts]] were developed in [[South India]], including Kuttu Varisai (empty hand combat) and Varma Kalai (the art of vital points) in [[Tamil Nadu]], and Kalarippayattu (way of the arena) and Adithada (attack and defend) in [[Kerala]].<ref>Luijendijk, D.H. (2005) Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art, Paladin Press, ISBN 1-58160-480-7</ref>
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| − | The ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' text describes Dhanur Veda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of knowledge.<ref name=Zarrilli1>Zarrilli, Phillip B. [http://www.spa.ex.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/power.html A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms.] [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]].</ref>
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| − | ==History==
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| − | ===Antiquity ===
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| − | The [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epics]] contain accounts of combat, describing warriors such as [[Bhima]]. The ''Mahabharata'' describes a prolonged battle between [[Arjuna]] and [[Karna]] using bows, swords, trees and rocks, and fists.<ref name=Zarrilli1/> Another unarmed battle in the ''Mahabharata'' describes two fighters [[boxing]] with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts.<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m04/m04013.htm Section XIII: ''Samayapalana Parva''], Book 4: ''Virata Parva'', ''[[Mahabharata]]''.</ref> Other boxing fights are also described in ''Mahabharata'' and ''[[Ramayana]]''.<ref>Shamya Dasgupta (June-September 2004). "An Inheritance from the British: The Indian Boxing Story," ''Routledge'' '''21''' (3), p. 433-451.</ref>
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| − | Stories describing [[Krishna]] report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds.<ref name=Svinth/> Based on such accounts, Svinth (2002) traces press ups and squats used by Indian wrestlers to the pre-classical era.<ref name=Svinth/>
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| − | Many authorities contend that the 4th century B.C.E. conquest of India by [[Alexander the Great]] laid the foundation of Indian martial arts by dispersing pankration techniques throughout the subcontinent.<ref>{{Citation | last=Arvanitis | first=Jim | year=2003 | title=Pankration}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | last=Todd | first=Tank | last2=Webb | first2=James | year=2005 | title=Military Combative Masters of the 20th Century}}.</ref> Notable figures, such as Tatsuo Suzuki, Hirokazu Kanazawa, and Masutasu Oyama have pointed out the influence of Pankration on Indian martial arts.<ref>[http://pic1.piczo.com/extremepankration/?g=13802396&cr=1 History and background of Pankration]</ref>
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| − | [[Image:Sabdha chakras.jpg|Kalarippayatt practitioners usually meditate to invoke inner energy.|200px|thumb|right]]
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| − | Around the 3rd century B.C.E., [[Patanjali]] wrote the ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga Sutras]]'', which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various [[mudra]] finger movements were taught in [[Yogacara]] Buddhism. These [[Yoga]] elements, as well as finger movements in the ''nata'' dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.<ref name=Svinth/>
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| − | The word "kalari" appears in the ''Puram'' <ref>verses 225, 237, 245, 356</ref> and ''Akam'' <ref>verses 34, 231, 293</ref> to describe to both a battlefield and combat arena. It is also mentioned in Sangam literature from the 2nd century B.C.E. The ''Akananuru'' and ''Purananuru'' describe the martial arts of ancient Tamilakkam, including forms of one-to-one combat, and the use of spears, swords, shields, bows and silambam.
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| − | The references to "Silappadikkaram" in Sangam literature dating back to the 2nd century refer to the sale of Silamabam staves, swords, pearls and armor to foreign traders. The silambam staff was one of the martial art weapons, which was in great demand with the visitors.<ref name=Raj>{{cite book |last= Raj|first= J. David Manuel |title= The Origin and the Historical Development of Silambam Fencing: An Ancient Self-Defence Sport of India |year= 1977 |publisher= College of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Univ. of Oregon |location= Oregon |pages= pp. 44, 50, & 83}}</ref><ref name=Sports>{{cite book |last= Sports Authority of India|first= |title= Indigenous Games and Martial Arts of India |year= 1987 |publisher= Sports Authority of India |location= New Delhi|pages= pp. 91 & 94}}</ref>
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| − | References to martial arts are found in early [[Buddhist texts]]. The ''[[Lotus Sutra]]'' (ca. 1st century C.E.) refers to a [[boxing]] art while speaking to [[Manjusri]].<ref name=Haines>Bruce A. Haines (1995). ''Karate's History and Traditions'' (p. 23-25). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-1947-5.</ref> The ''Lotus Sutra'' also categorized combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples, and throws,<ref>[http://www.uta.edu/student_orgs/umaa/htmlDocs/history.html University Martial Arts Association. History of Taekwondo.]</ref> and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called ''Nara''.<ref>[http://home.maine.rr.com/poiuyt/history.html Steinwachs, Tim.History of Karate.]</ref> Another early Buddhist sutra ''Hongyo-kyo'' describes a "strength contest" between Gautama Buddha's half-brother Prince Nanda and his cousin Devadatta.<ref name=Haines/> Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion of martial arts and archery before becoming the Buddha.<ref name=Svinth/>
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| − | The martial art of Vajra Mushti is also mentioned in sources of the early centuries CE.<ref name=Haines/>
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| − | ===Classical period (3rd to 9th centuries)===
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| − | Like other branches of [[Sanskrit literature]], treatises on martial arts became more systematic in the course of the 1st millennium C.E.
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| − | Indian military accounts of the [[Gupta Empire]] (c. 240-480) identified over 130 different classes of weapons. The ''[[Kama Sutra]]'' written by [[Vātsyāyana]] at the time suggested that women should regularly "practice with sword, single-stick, quarter-staff, and bow and arrow."
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| − | The ''Sushruta Samhita'' (c. 4th century) identifies 107 vital points of the human body in his ''Sushruta Samhita''.<ref>G. D. Singhal, L. V. Guru (1973). ''Anatomical and Obstetrical Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery Based on Sarira-Sthana of Susruta Samhita''.</ref> Of these 107 points, 64 were classified as being lethal if properly struck with a fist or stick.<ref name=Svinth/> Sushruta's work formed the basis of the medical discipline [[Ayurveda]], which was taught alongside various Indian martial arts that had an emphasis on vital points, such as [[Varma Kalai]] and [[Marma Adi]].<ref name=Svinth/> With numerous other scattered references to vital points in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that India's early martial practitioners knew and practiced attacking or defending vital points.<ref name=Zarrilli1992/>
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| − | Martial arts were not exclusive to the [[Kshatriya]] warrior caste, though they used the arts more extensively. The 8th century text ''Kuvalaymala'' by Udyotanasuri recorded martial arts being taught at ''salad'' and ''ghatika'' educational institutions, where [[Brahmin]] students from throughout the subcontinent (particularly from [[South India]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Bengal]]) "were learning and practicing archery, fighting with sword and shield, with daggers, sticks, lances, and with fists, and in duels (''niuddham'')."<ref name=Zarrilli1/>
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| − | Around 630 C.E., King Narasimhavarman of the Pallava dynasty commissioned dozens of granite sculptures showing unarmed fighters disarming armed opponents. These may have shown an early form of Varma Adi, a Dravidian martial art that allowed kicking, kneeing, elbowing, and punching to the head and chest, but prohibited blows below the waist. This is similar to the Dhanur Veda martial art described in the ''Agni Purana''.<ref name=Svinth/>
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| − | The earliest extant manual of Dhanur Veda is in the ''[[Agni Purana]]'' (c. 8th century),<ref name=Zarrilli1992>{{cite journal | author = Zarrilli, Phillip B. | year = 1992 | title = [http://www.spa.ex.ac.uk/drama/staff/kalari/healharm.html To Heal and/or To Harm: The Vital Spots (Marmmam/Varmam) in Two South Indian Martial Traditions] Part I: Focus on Kerala's Kalarippayattu | journal = Journal of Asian Martial Arts | volume = 1 | issue = 1 }}</ref> which contains several chapters giving descriptions and instructions on the fighting arts of Dhanur Veda, with reference earlier sutras on Dhanur Veda dating back centuries earlier.<ref>P. C. Chakravarti (1972). ''The art of warfare in ancient India''. Delhi.</ref> It described how to improve a warrior's individual prowess and kill enemies using various different methods in warfare, whether a warrior went to war in chariots, elephants, horses, or on foot. Foot methods were subdivided into armed combat and unarmed combat.<ref name=Svinth>J. R. Svinth (2002). [http://ejmas.com/kronos A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports.] ''Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences''.</ref> The former included the bow and arrow, the sword, spear, noose, armour, iron dart, club, battle axe, discus, and the trident.<ref name=Zarrilli1/> The latter included wrestling, knee strikes, and punching and kicking methods.<ref name=Svinth/>
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| − | ===Middle Ages ===
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| − | [[Image:Balarama Mural.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Martial are associated with [[avatars]] such as [[Balarama]] in the [[Puranas]] (17th century mural of Balarama from a wall hanging in South Indian temple)]]
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| − | Organised martial arts in ancient India include the martial art of [[Malla-yuddha]], a form of combat [[wrestling]] codified into four forms.<ref>[http://www.kathinayoga.com/KalariWorld/Articles/other_article3.html R.Venkatachalam (September 1999). Mallayuddha.]</ref> The ''Malla Purana'' (ca. 13th century) is the earliest treatise discussing the techniques of Malla-yuddha.
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| − | The modern forms of Marma Adi, Varma Ati,<ref name=Svinth/> and [[Kalarippayattu]] were developed by the 11th century, during an extended period of warfare between the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] and [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] dynasties.<ref name=Zarrilli1998>{{cite book | last = Zarrilli | first = Phillip B. | title = When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art | year = 1998 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford}}</ref>
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| − | ===Modern period ===
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| − | [[Image:Rajputs.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Rajput]] warriors, ca. 1860.]]
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| − | Kalarippayattu underwent a period of decline after the introduction of firearms and especially after the full establishment of British colonial rule in the 19th century.<ref name=Zarrilli1992/> More European modes of organizing police, armies and governmental institutions, and the increasing use of firearms, gradually eroded the need for traditional martial training associated with caste-specific duties.<ref name=Zarrilli1998/> The British colonial government banned kalarippayattu in 1804 in response to a series of revolts.<ref>{{cite book | last = Luijendijk | first = D.H. | title = Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art | url = http://www.martialartssupermarket.com/index.cfm?action=showProd&subid=1083 | year = 2005 | publisher = Paladin Press | location = Boulder | id = ISBN 1581604807}}</ref>
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| − | The resurgence of public interest in kalarippayattu began in the 1920s in Tellicherry as part of a wave of rediscovery of the traditional arts throughout South India, which characterized the growing reaction against British colonial rule.<ref name=Zarrilli1998/>
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| − | During this period, Indian wrestling became prominent in western catch wrestling tournaments. <ref>[http://ejmas.com/jalt/jaltart_noble_0502.htm The Lion of the Punjab – Gama in England, 1910 By Graham Noble]</ref><ref>[http://www.ejmas.com/jalt/jaltart_noble_0602.htm The Lion of the Punjab – Part II: Stanislaus Zbyszko By Graham Noble]</ref><ref>[http://www.ejmas.com/jalt/jaltart_noble_0702.htm The Lion of the Punjab – Part III: London, 1910 By Graham Noble]</ref><ref>[http://www.ejmas.com/jalt/jaltart_noble_0802.htm The Lion of the Punjab – Part IV: Aftermath by Graham Noble] </ref><ref>[http://bod.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/6/2/45 Subaltern Bodies and Nationalist Physiques: Gama the Great and the Heroics of Indian Wrestling by Joseph Alter, Department of Anthropology at the University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA] </ref>
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| − | ==Indian weapons==
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| − | [[Image:Rajput Khanda.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The [[Khanda (sword)|khanda]], a straight sword as opposed to the Persian-influenced curved [[talwar]], is a classical Indian weapon]]
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| − | According to P. C. Chakravati in ''The Art of War in Ancient India'', Indian armies used standard weapons such as wooden or metal tipped spears, swords, thatched bomboo shields, wooden shields, metal shields, axes, short bows and long bows in warfare as early as the invasion of India by the forces of [[Alexander the Great]], and these weapons are all mentioned in even earlier native texts. Some troops in ancient times wore personal armor, but the majority did not until medieval times. Armed forces were largely standardised, and it is unclear if regular infantry were trained in any recognisable Indian martial art, other than standard military drills. Over time, weapondary evolved, and India became famed for its flexible wootz steel. Invasion in the 13th century from the pourous northwestern mountain passes that lead from Cerntal Asia and the Middle East into India, likely inspired new forms of weapondary, such as the talwar, a curved blade resembling Persian and [[Turkic]] arms. Curved blades had been used in India since ancient times, some even curved toward the cutting side like a [[sickle]], but before the introduction of the talwar, the stright [[khanda]] type sword may have enjoyed greater popularity. Martial artists, typically coming from warrior [[jati]]s, employed other uniquely weapons such as the [[katar]] sword-gauntlet and [[urumi]] sword-whip.
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| − | ==Influence of Indian martial arts==
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| − | [[Image:JasmineSimhalan-kalaripayatt-silambam.gif|thumb|Jasmine simhalan performing silambam and kalaripayatt]]
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| − | The martial arts of India have influenced the martial arts of other countries, particularly within the [[Indosphere]], those regions outside India influenced by [[Culture of India|Indian culture]]. Examples of such arts include Bando,<ref>Draeger, Donn F. (1981). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts pg 155. Kodansha International.</ref> Silat,<ref>Draeger, Donn F. (1992). ''Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia''. pg 23. Tuttle Publishing</ref><ref>Shamsuddin, Sheikh (2005). ''The Malay Art of Self-Defense: Silat Seni Gayong'' pg 7. North Atlantic Books.</ref> Escrima,<ref>Mark V. Wiley (1994). ''Filipino Martial Arts: Serrada Escrima'' pg21. Tuttle Publishing</ref> and Muay Thai.<ref>Erwin de Castro, B. J. Oropeza and Ron Rhodes (1993). ''Enter The Dragon?
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| − | Wrestling With The Martial Arts Phenomenon''</ref><ref>[http://www.usmta.com/MYTHS%20&%20LEGENDS.htm United States Muay Thai Association. The Ramakien.].</ref>
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| − | The Tamil kingdoms were instrumental in the spread of Silambam throughout [[Southeast Asia]]. During the 18th and the 19th centuries, Silambam was much more prevalent in Southeast Asia than in India, where it was banned by the British government.<ref>Crego, Robert (2003). ''Sports and Games of the 18th and 19th Centuries'' pg 32. Greenwood Press</ref>
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| − | India has also influenced the Portuguese martial art of [[Jogo do Pau]].<ref>[http://ejmas.com/jmanly/articles/2003/jmanlyart_wolfcosta_0203.htm Jogo do Pau: Origins and Evolution (February 2003). Excerpted from O JOGO DO PAU, Origens e evolução by Nuno Curvello Russo. Originally published in Os Portugueses e o Mundo, Conferência Internacional, VI Volume, "Artes, Arqueologia e Etnografia." Translated by Tony Wolf and Gonçalo Costa]</ref><ref>[http://home.dbio.uevora.pt/~oliveira/Jogo_Pau/J_Pau.htm Jogo Do Pau]</ref>
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| − | The practice of Indian clubs swinging was first introduced to England by British soldiers who had studied the discipline while stationed in India during the 1800s. The Indian clubs were used by military cadets and appeared as a gymnastic event in the 1904 Olympics. Gymnasiums were built just to cater to club exercise groups.
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| − | <ref>[http://ejmas.com/pt/ptart_lewis_1101.htm ''Exercises with Clubs'', by Dio Lewis, M.D., 1862]</ref><ref>[http://www.sandowplus.co.uk/Competition/Kehoe/kehoe-intro.htm ''Indian Club Exercise'', by Sim D. Kehoe, 1866]</ref><ref>[http://ejmas.com/pt/dandfclub.html Indian Club Exercises from ''Athletic Sports for Boys'', by Dick and Fitzgerald, 1866]</ref><ref>[http://ejmas.com/pt/ptart_dick_0101.htm ''Dick's Indian-Club Exercises'', 1887]</ref><ref>[http://ejmas.com/pt/ptart_ymca_0401.htm ''Gymnastic Nomenclature for Apparatus and Indian Club Movements'', 1949]</ref><ref>[http://www.dolfzine.us/page654.htm ''The Clubbell: The Indian Club Reappears'', 2003]</ref>
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| − | Russian officials travelled to India, under the employ of NKVD (the leading secret police organization of the Soviet Union) physical training center, ''"Dinamo"'', to observe its native martial arts. The collection of techniques from martial arts of various countries—including India—formed the basis of the Russian martial art Sambo. V.A. Spiridinov was assigned to [[Mongolia]], [[China]] and India to research the [[Mongol]]-[[Vedic period|Vedic]] martial arts.<ref>Todd, Geoff (2006). ''Military Combative Masters of the 20th Century'' pg 150. ISBN 1411661966 </ref>
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| − | The Indian wrestling form of Pehlwani has influenced both catch wrestling and its derivative system of shoot wrestling. Karl Istaz applied the training methods of Indian wrestlers to shoot wrestling; this philosophy was later passed on to several of his students.<ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/public/91.cfm?sd=2 Shannon, Jake. ''My Christmas with Karl Gotch''. Lion's Share Ventures]</ref><ref>[http://www.scientificwrestling.com/public/180.cfm?sd=2 Laren Grey Umphlett (2007). ''Victory goes over a bridge''. Lion's Share Ventures.]</ref><ref>Karter, Karon, [[Guy Mezger|Mezger, Guy]] (2000). ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Kickboxing'' pg 163. Alpha Books</ref>
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| − | Doshin So, the founder of Shorinji Kempo, was convinced that a Shaolin temple wall painting depicted Chinese and Indian monks practicing martial arts together for spiritual edification.<ref>{{cite book | last = Cox | first = Rupert A. | title = Zen Arts: An Anthropological Study of the Culture of Anesthetics Form in Japan | year = 2003 | publisher = RoutledgeCurzon in association with the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland | id = ISBN 0700714758 | pages = p. 157}}</ref><ref>[http://www.uwesu.net/shorinji/hist.shtml UWE Shorinji Kempo club] Since his first visit to the Shaolin Temple, Doshin So had been impressed with the wall paintings which depicted Indian and Chinese monks training and enjoying themselves together. This method of training together stood in contrast to his own training, and he developed the idea that training should be a collaboration between partner, for the purpose of mutual progress. In Japanese this concept is expressed as "otagai renshu" (training for each other) or "jita kyoraku" (enjoying things with other people).</ref>
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| − | In addition, modern martial arts such as Brazilian Jiu Jitsu credit India as a founding influence on their fighting principles.<ref name=Machado>[http://www.carlosmachado.net/machado/history.jsp Origins of Jiu-Jitsu at Carlosmachado.net]</ref><ref name=Royler>[http://www.royler.com.br/historia.shtml Historia do Jiu-Jitsu at Royler Gracie's official website]</ref><ref name=Rickson>[http://www.rickson.com/history.htm History of Jiu-Jitsu :Rickson Gracie Official website]</ref><ref>[http://www.graciemiami.com/history.htm Official Gracie Miami Websites: History of BJJ]</ref><ref>[http://www.ibjjf.org/jjh.htm The History of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu: Official International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation Website]</ref><ref>[http://www.floridajiujitsufed.com/history.htm The beginning: Official Florida Federation of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Website]</ref>
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| − | ==Notes==
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| − | {{reflist|3}}
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| − | ==References==
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| − | *Chakravarti, P.C. (1972). The Art of Warfare in Ancient India. Delhi.
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| − | *Dasgupta, Shamya. "An Inheritance from the British: The Indian Boxing Story," Routledge 21 (3) June-September 2004: pgs. 433-451.
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| − | *Haines, Bruce A. (1995). Karate's History and Traditions (p. 23-25). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-1947-5.
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| − | *Kiyota, Minoru and Jordan Lee. (1997). "Personal Growth Through Martial Arts: Studies in Kendo, Fencing, and Indian Swordsmanship." Ctr for Southeast Asia Stds. ISBN 978-0965980104
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| − | *Luijendijk, D.H. (2005) Kalarippayat: India's Ancient Martial Art, Paladin Press, ISBN 1-58160-480-7
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| − | *Raj, J. David Manuel (1977). The Origin and the Historical Development of Silambam Fencing: An Ancient Self-Defence Sport of India. Oregon: College of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Univ. of Oregon.
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| − | *Zarrilli, Phillip B. (2000). "When the Body Becomes All Eyes: Paradigms, Discourses and Practices of Power in Kalarippayattu, a South Indian Martial Art." Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195655384
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