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| − | {{dablink|This entry covers '''entheogens''' as psychoactive substances used in religious or shamanic contexts. For general information about these substances and their use outside religious contexts, see [[psychedelics]], [[dissociatives]] and [[deliriants]].}}
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| − | [[Image:Flowering peyote cactus.jpg|thumb|right|A flowering [[peyote]], in cultivation.]]
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| − | An '''entheogen''', in the strictest sense, is a [[psychoactive]] substance used in a [[religion|religious]] or [[shamanism|shamanic]] context. Historically, entheogens are derived primarily from [[plant]] sources and have been used in a variety of traditional religious practices. With the advent of [[organic chemistry]], there now exist many [[chemical synthesis|synthetic]] substances with similar properties.
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| − | More broadly, the term ''entheogen'' is used to refer to such substances when used for their religious or [[spirituality|spiritual]] effects, whether or not in a formal religious or traditional structure. This terminology is often chosen in contrast with recreational use of the same substances. These spiritual effects have been demonstrated in peer-reviewed studies (see below) though research remains problematic due to ongoing [[Prohibition (drugs)|drug prohibition]].
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| − | Entheogens have been used in a [[ritual|ritualized]] context for thousands of years. Examples of entheogens from ancient sources include: Greek: [[kykeon]]; African: [[Iboga]]; Vedic: [[Soma]], Amrit. Chemicals used today as entheogens, whether in pure form or as plant-derived substances, include [[mescaline]], [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]], [[LSD]], [[psilocin]], [[ibogaine]], and [[salvinorin A]].
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| − | ==Terminology==
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| − | The word "entheogen" is a [[neologism]] derived from two words of ancient Greek, ἔνθεος ''(entheos)'' and γενέσθαι ''(genesthai)''. The adjective ''entheos'' translates to English as "full of the god, inspired, possessed," and is the root of the English word "enthusiasm." The Greeks used it as a term of praise for poets and other artists. ''Genesthai'' means "to come into being." Thus, an entheogen is a substance that causes one to become inspired or to experience feelings of inspiration, often in a religious or "spiritual" manner.
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| − | The word ''entheogen'' was coined in 1979 by a group of [[ethnobotany|ethnobotanists]] and scholars of [[mythology]] ([[Carl A. P. Ruck]], Jeremy Bigwood, Danny Staples, [[Richard Evans Schultes]], [[Jonathan Ott]] and [[R. Gordon Wasson]]). The literal meaning of the word is "that which causes God to be within an individual." The translation "creating the divine within" is sometimes given, but it should be noted that ''entheogen'' implies neither that something is created (as opposed to just perceiving something that is already there) nor that the experienced is ''within'' the user (as opposed to having independent existence).
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| − | It was coined as a replacement for the terms ''"hallucinogen"'' (popularized by [[Aldous Huxley]]'s experiences with [[mescaline]], published as ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'' in 1953) and ''"[[psychedelic]]"'' (a Greek neologism for "mind manifest," coined by psychiatrist [[Humphry Osmond]], who was quite surprised when the well-known author, Aldous Huxley, volunteered to be a subject in experiments Osmond was running on mescaline). Ruck et al. argued that the term "hallucinogen" was inappropriate due to its etymological relationship to words relating to delirium and [[insanity]]. The term "psychedelic" was also seen as problematic, due to the similarity in sound to words pertaining to [[psychosis]] and also due to the fact that it had become irreversibly associated with various connotations of [[The Sixties|1960s]] [[pop culture]]. In modern usage "entheogen" may be used synonymously with these terms, or it may be chosen to contrast with [[recreational drug use|recreational use]] of the same substances.
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| − | The meanings of the term "entheogen" were formally defined by Ruck et al.:
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| − | {{quote|In a strict sense, only those vision-producing drugs that can be shown to have figured in shamanic or religious rites would be designated entheogens, but in a looser sense, the term could also be applied to other drugs, both natural and artificial, that induce alterations of consciousness similar to those documented for ritual ingestion of traditional entheogens.}}
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| − | Since 1979, when the term was proposed, its use has become widespread in certain circles. In particular, the word fills a vacuum for those users of entheogens who feel that the term "hallucinogen," which remains common in medical, chemical and anthropological literature, denigrates their experience and the world view in which it is integrated. Use of the strict sense of the word has, therefore, arisen amongst religious entheogen users, and also amongst others who wish to practice [[religious tolerance|spiritual or religious tolerance]].
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| − | The use of the word "entheogen" in its broad sense as a synonym for "hallucinogenic drug" has attracted criticism on three grounds:
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| − | * On pragmatic grounds, the objection has been raised that the meaning of the strict sense of "entheogen," which is of specific value in discussing traditional, historical and mythological uses of entheogens in religious settings, is likely to be diluted by widespread, casual use of the term in the broader sense.
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| − | * Secondly, some people object to the misuse of the root ''theos'' (''god'' in [[ancient Greek]]) in the description of the use of [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogenic drug]]s in a non-religious context, and coupled with the climate of [[religion|religious]] [[tolerance]] or [[Religious pluralism|pluralism]] that prevails in many present-day societies, the use of the root ''theos'' in a term describing non-religious drug use has also been criticised as a form of [[taboo deformation]].
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| − | * Thirdly, there are some substances that at least partially fulfill the definition of an entheogen that is given above, but are not considered hallucinogenic in the usual sense. One important example is the bread and wine of the [[Christianity|Christian]] (especially [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Anglicanism|Episcopal]]) [[Eucharist]]—assuming that the Eucharist was always non-entheogenic as it has been in most modern-era Christian groups. The 'bread' and 'wine' of early Christianity were discussed and treated in a way that fits the description of an entheogenic substance; ingesting the Eucharist induced the Holy Spirit, as a shared unity-experience in the mystic altered state.
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| − | Ideological objections to the broad use of the term often relate to the widespread existence of [[taboo]]s surrounding [[psychoactive drug]]s, with both religious and secular justifications. The perception that the broad sense of the term "entheogen" is used as a [[euphemism]] by hallucinogenic drug-users bothers both critics and proponents of the secular use of hallucinogenic drugs. Critics frequently see the use of the term as an attempt to obscure what they perceive as illegitimate motivations and contexts of secular drug use. Some proponents also object to the term, arguing that the trend within their own subcultures and in the scientific literature towards the use of term "entheogen" as a synonym for "hallucinogen" devalues the positive uses of drugs in contexts that are secular but nevertheless, in their view, legitimate.
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| − | Beyond the use of the term itself, the validity of drug-induced, facilitated, or enhanced religious experience has been questioned. The claim that such experiences are less valid than religious experience without the use of any sacramental catalyst faces the problem that the descriptions of religious experiences by those using entheogens are indistinguishable from many reports of religious experiences which, are presumed in modern times to, have been experienced without their use. Such a claim, however, depends entirely on the assumption that the reports of well-known mystics were not influenced by ingesting visionary plants, a derivation which Dan Merkur calls into question.<ref name="amazon.com">[http://www.amazon.com/dp/089281862X The Psychedelic Sacrament: Manna, Meditation, and Mystical Experience] by Dan Merkur, 2001, Park Street Press. Retrieved January 9, 2009.</ref>
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| − | In an attempt to empirically answer the question about whether neurochemical augmentation through entheogens may enable religio-mystical experience, the [[Marsh Chapel Experiment]] was conducted by physician and theology doctoral candidate, [[Walter Pahnke]], under the supervision of [[Timothy Leary]] and the [[Harvard Psilocybin Project]]. In the [[double-blind]] experiment, volunteer graduate school divinity students from the Boston area almost all claimed to have had profound religious experiences subsequent to the ingestion of pure [[psilocybin]]. In 2006, a more rigorously controlled version of this experiment was conducted at [[Johns Hopkins University]], yielding very similar results.<ref>[http://charm.net/~profpan/GriffithsPsilocybin.pdf Griffiths; Richards & McCann et al. (2006) "Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance." ''Journal of Psychopharmacology''] Retrieved January 9, 2009.</ref> To date there is little [[peer review|peer-reviewed research]] on this subject, due to ongoing [[Prohibition (drugs)|drug prohibition]] and the difficulty of getting approval from [[institutional review board]]s. However, there is little doubt that entheogens can enable powerful experiences that are ''subjectively'' judged as important in a religious or spiritual context. Rather, it is the precise characterization and quantification of these experiences, and of religious experience in general, that is not yet developed.
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| − | ==Use of entheogens==
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| − | Naturally occurring entheogens such as [[psilocybin]] and [[dimethyltryptamine]], also known as ''N,N-dimethyltryptamine'', or simply DMT (in the preparation [[ayahuasca]]) were discovered and used by older cultures, as part of their spiritual and religious life, as plants and agents which were respected, or in some cases revered. By contrast, artificial and modern entheogens, such as [[MDMA]], never had a tradition of religious use.
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| − | Entheogens have been used in various ways, including as part of established religious traditions, secularly for personal spiritual development, as tools (or "plant teachers") to augment the mind,<ref>[http://www.kentupper.com/resources/Entheogens+$26+Education—JDEA+2003.pdf Tupper, K.W. (2003). Entheogens & education: Exploring the potential of psychoactives as educational tools. Journal of Drug Education and Awareness, 1(2), 145-161.] Retrieved January 9, 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.csse.ca/CJE/Articles/FullText/CJE27-4/CJE27-4-tupper.pdf Tupper, K.W. (2002). Entheogens and existential intelligence: The use of plant teachers as cognitive tools. Canadian Journal of Education, 27(4), 499-516.] Retrieved January 9, 2009.</ref> secularly as recreational drugs, and for medical and therapeutic use.
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| − | ==Entheogen-using cultures==
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| − | The use of entheogens in human cultures is nearly ubiquitous throughout recorded history.
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| − | ===Africa===
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| − | The best-known entheogen-using culture of [[Africa]] is the [[Bwiti]]sts, who used a preparation of the root bark of [[Iboga]] ''(Tabernanthe iboga)''.<ref>[http://ibogaine.desk.nl/fernandez.html Bwiti: An Ethnography of the Religious Imagination in Africa] by James W. Fernandez, Princeton University Press, 1982. Retrieved January 9, 2009.</ref> A famous entheogen of ancient [[Egypt]] is the [[Nymphaea caerulea|blue lotus]] ''(Nymphaea caerulea)''. There is evidence for the use of [[Psychedelic mushroom|entheogenic mushrooms]] in [[Côte d'Ivoire]] (Samorini 1995). Numerous other plants used in shamanic ritual in Africa, such as ''[[Silene capensis]]'' sacred to the [[Xhosa]], are yet to be investigated by western science.
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| − | ===Americas===
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| − | Entheogens have played a pivotal role in the spiritual practices of American cultures for millennia. The first American entheogen to be subject to scientific analysis was the [[peyote]] cactus ''(Lophophora williamsii)''. For his part, one of the founders of modern ethno-botany, the late [[Richard Evans Schultes]] of [[Harvard University]] documented the ritual use of peyote cactus among the [[Kiowa]] who live in what became Oklahoma. Used traditionally by many cultures of what is now [[Mexico]], its use spread throughout [[North America]], replacing the [[toxic]] entheogen ''Sophora secundiflora'' ([[Mescalbean|mescal bean]]). Other well-known entheogens used by Mexican cultures include [[magic mushrooms|psilocybin mushroom]]s (known to indigenous [[Mexican]]s under the [[Náhuatl]] name ''teonanácatl''), the seeds of several [[morning glory|morning glories]] (Náhuatl: [[Ipomoea tricolor|tlitlíltzin]] and [[Rivea corymbosa|ololiúhqui]]) and ''[[Salvia divinorum]]'' ([[Mazateco]]: Ska Pastora; Náhuatl: pipiltzintzíntli).
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| − | [[Image:Urarina shaman B Dean.jpg|thumb|right|Urarina [[shaman]], 1988]]
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| − | Indigenous peoples of [[South America]] employ a wide variety of entheogens. Better-known examples include [[ayahuasca]] (''Banisteriopsis caapi'' plus admixtures) among indigenous peoples (such as the [[Urarina]]) of Peruvian [[Amazonia]]. Other well-known entheogens include: borrachero (''[[Brugmansia]]'' spp); [[San Pedro (cactus)|San Pedro]] ''Trichocereus'' spp); and various [[tryptamine]]-bearing snuffs, for example [[Virola|Epená]] (''Virola'' spp), [[Vilca]] and [[Yopo]] (''Anadananthera'' spp). The familiar [[tobacco]] plant, when used uncured in large doses in [[shamanic]] contexts, also serves as an entheogen in South America. Additionally, a tobacco that contains higher nicotine content, and therefore smaller doses required, called ''[[Nicotiana rustica]]'' was commonly used.
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| − | Over and above the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] use of entheogens in the Americas, one should also note their important role in contemporary religious movements, such as the [[Rastafari movement]] and the [[Church of the Universe]].
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| − | ===Asia===
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| − | The indigenous peoples of [[Siberia]] (from whom the term ''shaman'' was appropriated) have used the [[fly agaric]] mushroom ''(Amanita muscaria)'' as an entheogen. The ancient inebriant [[Soma]], mentioned often in the [[Vedas]], may have been an entheogen. (In his 1967 book, Wasson argues that Soma was fly agaric. The active ingredient of Soma is presumed by some to be [[ephedrine]], an alkaloid with stimulant and (somewhat debatable) entheogenic properties derived from the soma plant, identified as ''Ephedra pachyclada''.) However, there are also arguments to suggest that Soma could have also been [[Syrian Rue]], [[Cannabis]], or some combination of any of the above plants.
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| − | ===Europe===
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| − | An early entheogen in [[Aegean civilization]], predating the introduction of wine, which was the more familiar entheogen of the reborn [[Dionysus]] and the [[maenad]]s, was fermented honey, known in Northern Europe as [[mead]]; its cult uses in the Aegean world are bound up with the [[Bee (mythology)|mythology of the bee]].
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| − | The extent of the use of visionary plants throughout European history has only recently been seriously investigated, since around 1960. The use of entheogens in [[Europe]] may have become greatly reduced by the time of the rise of [[Christianity]]. European [[witchcraft|witches]] used various entheogens, including thorn-apple ([[Datura]]), [[deadly nightshade]] ''(Atropa belladonna)'', [[Mandrake (plant)|mandrake]] ''(Mandragora officinarum)'' and [[henbane]] ''(Hyoscyamus niger)''. These plants were used, among other things, for the manufacture of "flying ointments."
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| − | The growth of Roman Christianity also saw the end of the two-thousand-year-old tradition of the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]], the initiation ceremony for the cult of [[Demeter]] and [[Persephone]] involving the use of a possibly entheogenic substance known as [[kykeon]]. Similarly, there is evidence that [[nitrous oxide]] or [[ethylene]] may have been in part responsible for the visions of the equally long-lived [[Delphic oracle]] (Hale et al., 2003).
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| − | In ancient [[Germanic culture]], [[cannabis]] was associated with the Germanic love goddess [[Freya]]. The harvesting of the plant was connected with an erotic [[religious festival|high festival]]. It was believed that Freya lived as a fertile force in the plant's feminine flowers and by ingesting them one became influenced by this divine force. Similarly, [[fly agaric]] was consecrated to [[Odin]], the god of ecstasy, while [[henbane]] stood under the dominion of the thunder god - [[Thor]] in Germanic mythology - and [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] among the [[Roman mythology|Romans]] (Rätsch 2003).
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| − | ===Middle East===
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| − | An ancient entheogenic substance in the [[Middle East]] is [[hashish]]. Its use by the "''[[Hashshashin]]''" to stupefy and recruit new initiates was widely reported during the [[Crusades]]. However, the drug used by the Hashshashin was likely [[wine]], [[opium]], [[henbane]], or some combination of these, and, in any event, the use of this drug was for stupefaction rather than for entheogenic use. It has been suggested that the ritual use of small amounts of [[Syrian Rue]] is an artifact of its ancient use in higher doses as an entheogen.
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| − | Philologist [[John Marco Allegro]] has argued in his book ''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross'' that early Jewish and Christian cultic practice was based on the use of ''[[Amanita muscaria]]'' which was later forgotten by its adherents, though this hypothesis has not received much consideration or become widely accepted. Allegro's hypothesis that Amanita use was forgotten after primitive Christianity seems contradicted by his own view that the chapel in Plaincourault shows evidence of Christian Amanita use in the 1200s.<ref name="ref1">
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| − | {{cite book
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| − | | last = Allegro
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| − | | first = John Marco
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| − | | year = 1970
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| − | | title = The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross: A Study of the Nature and Origins of Christianity within the Fertility Cults of the Ancient Near East
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| − | | publisher = Hodder and Stoughton
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| − | | isbn = 0-340-12875-5
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| − | }}</ref>
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| − | ===Oceania===
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| − | [[Indigenous Australians]] are generally thought not to have used entheogens, although there is a strong barrier of secrecy surrounding Aboriginal shamanism, which has likely limited what has been told to outsiders. There are no known uses of entheogens by the [[Māori]] of [[New Zealand]]. Natives of [[Papua New Guinea]] are known to use several species of entheogenic mushrooms (''Psilocybe'' spp, ''Boletus manicus'').<ref name="ref2">[http://www.shaman-australis.com/~benjamin-thomas/ Benjamin Thomas Ethnobotany & Anthropology Research Page] Retrieved January 9, 2009.</ref>
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| − | [[Kava]] or ''Kava Kava'' ''(Piper Methysticum)'' has been cultivated for at least 3000 years by a number of Pacific island-dwelling peoples. Historically, most [[Polynesian]], many [[Melanesian]], and some [[Micronesian]] cultures have ingested the psychoactive pulverized root, typically taking it mixed with water. Much traditional usage of Kava, though somewhat suppressed by Christian missionaries in the 19th and 20th centuries, is thought to facilitate contact with the spirits of the dead, especially relatives and ancestors (Singh 2004).
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| − | ==Archaeological record==
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| − | There have been several examples of the use of entheogens in the archaeological record. Many of these researchers, like [[R. Gordon Wasson]] or [[Giorgio Samorini]],<ref>Giorgio Samorini, “The ‘Mushroom-Tree’ of Plaincourault,” Eleusis: Journal of Psychoactive Plants and Compounds, n. 8, 1997, pp. 29-37</ref><ref>Giorgio Samorini, “The ‘Mushroom-Trees’ in Christian Art,” Eleusis: Journal of Psychoactive Plants and Compounds, n. 1, 1998, pp. 87-108</ref> have recently produced a plethora of evidence, which has not yet received enough consideration within academia. The first direct evidence of entheogen use comes from Tassili, Algeria, with a cave painting of a mushroom-man, dating to 8000 BP. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at [[Pazyryk]] suggest early ceremonial practices by the [[Scythians]] occurred during the 5th to 2nd century B.C.E., confirming previous historical reports by [[Herodotus]].
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| − | ==Classical mythology and cults==
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| − | Although entheogens are taboo and most of them are officially prohibited in Christian and Islamic societies, their ubiquity and prominence in the spiritual traditions of various other cultures is unquestioned. The entheogen, "the spirit, for example, need not be chemical, as is the case with the ivy and the olive: and yet the god was felt to be within them; nor need its possession be considered something detrimental, like drugged, hallucinatory, or delusionary: but possibly instead an invitation to knowledge or whatever good the god's spirit had to offer." (Ruck and Staples)
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| − | Most of the well-known modern examples, such as peyote, [[psilocybe]] and other psychoactive mushrooms and ''ololiuhqui,'' are from the native cultures of the Americas. However, it has also been suggested that entheogens played an important role in ancient Indo-European culture, for example by inclusion in the ritual preparations of the Soma, the "pressed juice" that is the subject of Book 9 of the [[Rig Veda]]. Soma was ritually prepared and drunk by priests and initiates and elicited a paean in the ''Rig Veda'' that embodies the nature of an entheogen:
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| − | {{quote|Splendid by Law! declaring Law, truth speaking, truthful in thy works, Enouncing faith, King Soma!... O [Soma] Pavāmana, place me in that deathless, undecaying world wherein the light of heaven is set, and everlasting lustre shines.... Make me immortal in that realm where happiness and transports, where joy and felicities combine...}}
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| − | The [[Kykeon]] that preceded initiation into the Eleusinian Mysteries is another entheogen, which was investigated (before the word was coined) by Carl Kerenyí, in ''Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter.'' Other entheogens in the Ancient Near East and the Aegean include the poppy, Datura, the unidentified "lotus" eaten by the Lotus-Eaters in the ''[[Odyssey]]'' and ''[[Narcissus|Narkissos]].''
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| − | According to Ruck, Eyan, and Staples, the familiar shamanic entheogen that the [[Indo-Europeans]] brought with them was knowledge of the wild [[Amanita]] mushroom. It could not be cultivated; thus it had to be found, which suited it to a nomadic lifestyle. When they reached the world of the Caucasus and the Aegean, the Indo-Europeans encountered [[wine]], the entheogen of [[Dionysus]], who brought it with him from his birthplace in the mythical [[Nysa (mythology)|Nysa]], when he returned to claim his Olympian birthright. The Indo-European proto-Greeks "recognized it as the entheogen of Zeus, and their own traditions of shamanism, the Amanita and the 'pressed juice' of Soma — but better since no longer unpredictable and wild, the way it was found among the [[Hyperborea]]ns: as befit their own assimilation of agrarian modes of life, the entheogen was now cultivable" (Ruck and Staples). [[Robert Graves]], in his foreword to ''The Greek Myths,'' argues that the ambrosia of various pre-[[Greeks|Hellenic]] tribes were amanita and possibly [[panaeolus]] mushrooms.
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| − | Amanita was [[divinity|divine]] food, according to Ruck and Staples, not something to be indulged in or sampled lightly, not something to be profaned. It was the food of the gods, their [[ambrosia]], and it mediated between the two realms. It is said that [[Tantalus]]'s crime was inviting commoners to share his ambrosia.
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| − | The entheogen is believed to offer godlike powers in many traditional tales, including immortality. The failure of [[Gilgamesh]] in retrieving the plant of immortality from beneath the waters teaches that the blissful state cannot be taken by force or guile: when Gilgamesh lay on the bank, exhausted from his heroic effort, the [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] came and ate the plant.
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| − | Another attempt at subverting the natural order is told in a (according to some) strangely metamorphosed myth, in which natural roles have been reversed to suit the Hellenic world-view. The Alexandrian Apollodorus relates how [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] (spelled "Ge" in the following passage), Mother Earth herself, has supported the [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]] in their battle with the Olympian intruders. The Giants have been defeated:
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| − | {{quote|When Ge learned of this, she sought a drug that would prevent their destruction even by mortal hands. But Zeus barred the appearance of Eos (the Dawn), Selene (the Moon), and Helios (the Sun), and chopped up the drug himself before Ge could find it.}}
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| − | ==Judaism and Christianity==
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| − | According to ''[[The Living Torah]]'', cannabis was an ingredient of [[holy anointing oil]] mentioned in various sacred [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] texts.<ref>Kaplan, Aryeh. (1981). ''The Living Torah'' New York. p. 442.</ref> The herb of interest is most commonly known as ''kaneh-bosm'' (Hebrew: קְנֵה-בֹשֶׂם). This is mentioned several times in the [[Old Testament]] as a bartering material, [[Religious use of incense|incense]], and an ingredient in holy anointing oil used by the high priest of the temple. Although Chris Bennett's research in this area focuses on cannabis, he mentions evidence suggesting use of additional visionary plants such as henbane, as well.<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/dp/1550567985 Sex, Drugs, Violence and the Bible], by Chris Bennett and Neil McQueen, 2001, Forbidden Fruit Publishing. Retrieved January 9, 2009.</ref>
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| − | The [[Septuagint]] translates ''kaneh-bosm'' as [[Sweet flag|calamus]], and this translation has been propagated unchanged to most later translations of the [[Hebrew Bible]]. However, [[Poland|Polish]] anthropologist [[Sula Benet]] published [[etymology|etymological]] arguments that the [[Aramaic]] word for hemp can be read as ''kannabos'' and appears to be a [[cognate]] to the modern word 'cannabis',<ref>[http://www.njweedman.com/kanehbosm.html kanehbosm] Retrieved January 9, 2009.</ref> with the root ''kan'' meaning reed or hemp and ''bosm'' meaning fragrant. Both cannabis and calamus are fragrant, reedlike plants containing [[psychotropic]] compounds.
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| − | Although [[philologist]] [[John Marco Allegro]] has suggested that the self-revelation and healing abilities attributed to the figure of Jesus may have been associated with the effects of the plant medicines [from the Aramaic: "to heal"], this evidence is dependent on pre-[[Septuagint]] interpretation of [[Torah]], and goes firmly against the accepted teachings of the [[Holy See]]. However Merkur contends that a minority of Christian hermits and mystics could possibly have used entheogens, in conjunction with [[fasting]],[[meditation]] and [[prayer]].<ref name="amazon.com"/>
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| − | Allegro was the only non-Catholic appointed to the position of translating the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]. His extrapolations are often the object of scorn due to Allegro's theory of Jesus as a mythological personification of the essence of the psychoactive sacrament, furthermore they seem to conflict with the position of the Catholic Church in regards to the exclusivity of the non-canonical practice of [[transubstantiation]] and endorsement of alcohol ingestion as the exclusive means to attain communion with God. Allegro's book, ''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross'', relates the development of language to the development of myths, religions and cultic practices in world cultures. Allegro believed he could prove, through etymology, that the roots of [[Christianity]], as of many other religions, lay in [[fertility cult]]s; and that cult practices, such as ingesting visionary plants (or "[[psychedelics]]") to perceive the Mind of God [Avestan: Vohu Mana], persisted into the early [[Christian]] era, and to some unspecified extent into the 1200s with reoccurrences in the 1700s and mid 1900s, as he interprets the Plaincourault chapel's fresco to be an accurate depiction of the ritual ingestion of [[Amanita Muscaria]] as the Eucharist.
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| − | The historical picture portrayed by the Entheos journal is of fairly widespread use of visionary plants in early Christianity and the surrounding culture, with a gradual reduction of use of entheogens in Christianity.<ref>[http://entheomedia.org/Issue%20one.htm Conjuring Eden: Art and the Entheogenic Vision of Paradise], by Mark Hoffman, Carl Ruck, and Blaise Staples. Entheos: The Journal of Psychedelic Spirituality, Issue No. 1, Summer, 2001. Retrieved January 9, 2009.</ref> R. Gordon Wasson's book <u>Soma</u> prints a letter from art historian Erwin Panofsky asserting that art scholars are aware of many 'mushroom trees' in Christian art.<ref>[http://www.egodeath.com/WassonEdenTree.htm Wasson and Allegro on the Tree of Knowledge as Amanita], Michael S. Hoffman, Journal of Higher Criticism, 2007. Retrieved January 9, 2009.</ref>
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| − | The question of the extent of visionary plant use throughout the history of Christian practice has barely been considered yet by academic or independent scholars. The question of whether visionary plants were used in pre-Theodosius Christianity is distinct from evidence that indicates the extent to which visionary plants were utilized or forgotten in later Christianity, including so-called "heretical" or "quasi-" Christian groups,<ref>[http://entheomedia.org/Entheos_Issue_2.htm Daturas for the Virgin], José Celdrán and Carl Ruck, Entheos: The Journal of Psychedelic Spirituality, Vol. I, Issue 2, Winter, 2002. Retrieved January 9, 2009.</ref> and the question of other groups such as elites or laity within "orthodox" Catholic practice.<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/dp/1594601445 The Hidden World: Survival of Pagan Shamanic Themes in European Fairytales], by Carl Ruck, Blaise Staples, Jose Alfredo Celdran, Mark Hoffman, Carolina Academic Press, 2007. Retrieved January 9, 2009.</ref>
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| − | James Arthur asserts that the little scroll from the angel with writing on it referred to in [[Ezekiel]] 2: 8,9,10 and Ezekiel 3: 1,2,3 and [[Book of Revelation]] 10: 9,10 was the speckled cap of the ''Amanita Muscaria'' mushroom.<ref>[http://www.egodeath.com/amanita.htm Amanita Muscaria Mushrooms and Religion - Research Page] Retrieved January 9, 2009.</ref>
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| − | ==Entheogens in literature==
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| − | The substance [[melange]] (spice) in [[Frank Herbert]]'s [[Dune universe|''Dune universe]] acts as both an entheogen and a [[geriatric]] medicine. Control of the supply of melange was crucial to the Empire, as it was necessary for, among other things, faster than light navigation.
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| − | Consumption of the imaginary [[mushroom]] ''anochi'' as the entheogen underlying the creation of Christianity is the premise of Philip K. Dick's last novel, ''The Transmigration of Timothy Archer'', a theme which seems to be inspired by John Allegro's book.
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| − | Aldous Huxley's final novel, ''Island'' (1962), depicted a fictional [[psychedelic mushroom|entheogenic mushroom]]—termed "moksha medicine"—used by the people of Pala in rites of passage, such as the transition to adulthood and at the end of life.
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| − | Bruce Sterling's ''Holy Fire'' novel refers to the religion in the future as a result of entheogens, used freely by the population.
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| − | In [[Stephen King]]'s ''The Gunslinger'', Book 1 of ''The Dark Tower'' series, the main character receives guidance after taking [[mescaline]].
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| − | The Alastair Reynolds novel ''Absolution Gap'' features a moon under the control of a religious government which uses neurological viruses to induce religious faith.
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| − | ==Notes==
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| − | {{reflist}}
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| − | ==References==
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| − | *Bock, M. (2000) "Māori kava ''(Macropiper excelsum)''" in ''Eleusis'' n.s. vol 4.
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| − | *McGraw, John. J. ''Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul'', 2004, Aegis Press, ISBN 0-9747645-07
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| − | *Rätsch, Christian. ''The Sacred Plants of our Ancestors'' TYR: Myth—Culture—Tradition Vol. 2, 2003–2004 - ISBN 0-9720292-1-4
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| − | *Roberts, Thomas B. (editor) (2001). ''Psychoactive Sacramentals: Essays on Entheogens and Religion'' San Francisco: Council on Spiritual Practices.
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| − | *Roberts, Thomas B. (2006) "Chemical Input, Religious Output—Entheogens" Chapter 10 in ''Where God and Science Meet: Vol. 3: The Psychology of Religious Experience'' Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood.
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| − | *Ruck, Carl and Danny Staples, ''The World of Classical Myth'' 1994. [http://www.csp.org/chrestomathy/world_of.html Introductory excerpts] Retrieved January 9, 2009.
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| − | *Samorini, Giorgio (1995) "Traditional use of psychoactive mushrooms in Ivory Coast." ''Eleusis'' 1, 22-27.
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| − | *Singh, Yadhu N. (ed.), ''Kava: From Ethnology to Pharmacology'', 2004, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 0-4153232-74
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| − | *Schultes,Christian Ratsch, Richard Evans and Albert Hofmann, ''Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing and Hallucinogenic Powers'' ISBN 0-89281-979-0
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| − | *Smith, Huston, ''Cleansing the Doors of Perception: The Religious Significance of Entheogenic Plants and Chemicals'', 2000, Tarcher/Putnam, ISBN 1-58542-034-4
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| − | *Stafford, Peter. (2003). ''Psychedlics''. Ronin Publishing, Oakland, California. ISBN 0-914171-18-6.
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| − | ==External links==
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| − | * [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0009BD34-398C-1F0A-97AE80A84189EEDF Hale, J.R, J.Z. de Boer, J.P. Chanton and H.A. Spiller (2003) Questioning the Delphic Oracle, 2003, Scientific American, vol 289, no 2, 67-73.] Retrieved January 9, 2009.
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| − | *[http://www.csp.org/chrestomathy Roberts, Thomas, and Hruby, Paula J. (1995-2003). ''Religion and Psychoactive Sacraments: An Entheogen Chrestomathy''] Retrieved January 9, 2009.
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| − | * [http://www.csp.org/docs/nomenclature On Nomenclature] Retrieved January 9, 2009.
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| − | * [http://www.egodeath.com/ViewsOnEntheogensInReligiousHistory.htm Typology of views regarding entheogens in religious history] Retrieved January 9, 2009.
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| − | * [http://www.entheogenreview.com entheogenreview.com] Retrieved January 9, 2009.
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| − | * [http://www.csp.org/practices/entheogens Council on Spiritual Practices Entheogen Project] Retrieved January 9, 2009.
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| − | * [http://www.erowid.org/ The Vaults of Erowid] Retrieved January 9, 2009.
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| − | * [http://www.csp.org/psilocybin/ Media reports of 2006 Johns Hopkins Research] Retrieved January 9, 2009.
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| − | [[Category: Religion]]
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| − | [[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
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| − | [[Category: Life sciences]]
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| − | [[Category: Plants]]
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| − | [[Category: Chemistry]]
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| − | [[Category: Physical sciences]]
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