Encyclopedia, Difference between revisions of "Edvard Westermarck" - New World
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| − | He is known for | + | '''Edvard Alexander Westermarck''' (born November 20, 1862 in Helsinki, Finland; died September 3, 1939 in Tenhola) was a Finnish philosopher and sociologist. Among other subjects, he studied exogamy and the incest taboo. He is known for the Westermarck effect. |
| − | == | + | == Life == |
| − | + | Edvard Westermarck was born in Helsinki, Finland, in a family of college professors. His father thought Latin at the University of Helsinki, and his mother was a daughter of a professor of the History of Learning. Due to his fragile health, Westermarck was more prone to books and reading than physical activities, what turned him toward academia. | |
| − | + | Westermarck graduated from the Swedish lyceum in 1881, and entered the University of Helsinki where he earned his Ph.D. in 1890. He studied English in order to read books of Darwin and Lubbock in their native language. In 1887 he visited England after which he wrote his famous dissertation - ''The Origins of Human Marriage'' – which open him a door into academic circles. He became a close friend with Edmund Gosse and James Sully who will play important roles throughout Westermarck’s life. | |
| − | + | From 1907 until 1931 Westermarck was a professor of sociology at the London School of Economics and Political Science. He was also a visiting professor of practical philosophy at the University of Helsinki (from 1906 till 1918). In 1918 he moved to Turku, and became a professor at the local university there. | |
| − | '' | + | Westermarck made several field studies to Morocco, studying local customs and beliefs. He published several books based on those trips - ''Marriage Ceremonies in Morocco'' (1914), ''Ritual and Belief in Morocco'' (1926), ''Wit and Wisdom in Morocco'' (1931), and some others. |
| − | + | Westermarck has never married, and his homosexual orientation was well known in London (Liukkonen, n.d.). In some of his works he argued for homosexuality be the natural sexual tendency. After his retirement in 1931, Westermarck continued publishing. He died in 1939. | |
| − | + | == Work == | |
| − | + | Westermarck work can be generally divided in two major spheres – philosophical and sociological/anthropological. | |
| − | + | ===Philosopher=== | |
| + | As a philosopher Westermarck mainly worked in the field of moral philosophy. His two-volume ''The Origin And Development Of Moral Ideas'' (1906-08) deals with the problem of human morality. It argues that there is no absolute standard of morality, and that people act more through emotions than reason. For him moral judgment is based in the human emotional experience of approval and disapproval. When certain moral decision is followed by an approval of others, people tend to continue to make those moral decisions. Disapproval on the other side negatively reinforces such decisions. For Westermarck, thus, morality is not absolute or universal to all people. Westermarck bases his claims on his anthropological and sociological research, combining in that way different social sciences and trying to make philosophy more scientific. | ||
| + | Westermarck was a fierce critic of Christianity, especially its idea that only Christians possess absolute truth, and that because of that truth scientific progress was possible. Westermarck rather advocated for the Enlightenment be the reason for that progress. He was never involved with the religion, remaining agnostic throughout his entire life. In his major philosophical work ''Christianity And Morals'' (1939), Westermarck expresses his views on religion and particularly Christianity. In it he also argues in favor of homosexual practices as a part of normal sexual behavior. | ||
| + | In the same book Westermarck advocates for the female equality with men. He writes: | ||
| + | :''It has taken nearly 2000 years for the married woman to get back that personal independence which she enjoyed under the later Roman Law, but lost through the influence which Christianity exercised on European legislation. And it may be truly said that she regained it, not by the aid of the churches, but despite the opposition''. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===Sociologist/Anthropologist=== | ||
| + | Westermarck is well-known for his studies on marriage, exogamy and incest taboo, what when combined together makes his famous Westermarck effect. The effect can be understood best if we start with sexual imprinting. Sexual imprinting is the process by which a young animal learns the characteristics of a desirable mate. For example, male zebra finches appear to prefer mates with the appearance of the female bird that rears them, rather than mates of their own type. ''Reverse'' sexual imprinting is seen when two people live in close domestic proximity during the first few years in the life of either one, both are desensitized to later close sexual attraction and bonding. That is Westermarck effect. | ||
| + | |||
| + | The Westermarck effect has since been observed in many places and cultures, including in the Israeli kibbutz system, and the Shim-pua marriage customs of Taiwan, as well as in biological-related families. In the case of the Israeli kibbutz farms, children grew up in a common children's house, away from their parents. They spent the entire day and night together. This resulted in a generation that was not interested in the opposite sex within their class. It is an extreme example of grouping since the adults were also removed from the environment. | ||
| + | |||
| + | When this does not occur, for example where a brother and sister are brought up not knowing about one another, they may find one another highly sexually attractive when they meet as adults – a phenomenon known as genetic sexual attraction. This observation is consistent with the theory that the Westermarck effect evolved to suppress inbreeding. | ||
| + | |||
| + | The idea of Westermarck effect brought Westermarck in conflict with Sigmund Freud. Freud argued that members of the same family naturally lust for one another, making it necessary for societies to create incest taboos, but Westermarck argued the reverse, that the taboos themselves arise naturally as products of a simple inherited epigenetic response. Subsequent research over the years supports Westermarck's observations and interpretation. But still psychoanalysts do agree with and support the Freudian concept. One argument used to support their stance is that such taboos would obviously be meaningless if there was no desire to perform the acts in question. | ||
| + | |||
| + | == Legacy == | ||
| + | |||
| + | Westermarck left visible mark on the development of both Finnish and European modern philosophical and sociological thought. As a philosopher, Westermarck worked on a scientific background of moral philosophy, approaching it from the anthropological and ethnological side. It added a more human component to philosophy, a mark that will be visible in the modern philosophical thought that includes in its paradigm strains of psychology, sociology, anthropology, and other social sciences. | ||
| + | |||
| + | As a sociologist and anthropologist, Westermarck contributed toward understanding of the institution of marriage, especially the practice of exogamy. Through his research on incest he discovered what is called Westermarck effect, something that he will remain famous for. | ||
| + | |||
| + | After his death The Westermarck Society was founded in 1943. It published several journals, among which are ''Sosiologia (Sociology),'' ''Acta Sociologica'', and ''Transactions of the Westermarck Society'' series. Westermarck influenced numerous young Finnish scholars - Rolf Lagerborg, who continued in Westermarck’s steps to criticize Christianity; Gunnar Landtman, an anthropologist who studied tribes in New Guinea; Rafael Karsten, another anthropologist who studied Incas in Peru; and many others. | ||
| + | |||
| + | == References == | ||
| + | |||
| + | Liukkonen, P. (n.d.). ''Edvard (Alexander) Westermarck'' (1862-1939). http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/ewester.htm, as on 6/7/2006. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Wolf, Arthur P. (1995). Sexual Attraction and Childhood Association: A Chinese Brief for Edward Westermarck. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804724261 | ||
| + | |||
| + | Ihanus, Juhani. (1999). ''Multiple Origins: Edward Westermarck in Search of Mankind''. Peter Lang Publishing. ISBN 0820443069 | ||
| + | |||
| + | == Bibliography == | ||
| + | |||
| + | * Westermarck, Edvard A. (1906/1974). ''Origin and Development of Moral Ideas''. Arno Press. ISBN 0836967062 | ||
| + | |||
| + | * Westermarck, Edvard A. (1914/1972). ''Marriage ceremonies in Morocco''. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0874710898 | ||
| + | |||
| + | * Westermarck, Edvard A. (1921/1975). ''History of Human Marriage''. Johnson Reprint Corp. ISBN 0384669549 | ||
| + | |||
| + | * Westermarck, Edvard A. (1926/2003). ''Ritual and Belief in Morocco''. Trubner & Co. ISBN 1844530655 | ||
| + | |||
| + | * Westermarck, Edvard A. (1931/2003). ''Wit and Wisdom in Morocco''. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0766157806 | ||
| + | |||
| + | * Westermarck, Edvard A. (1932). ''Early beliefs and their social influence''. Macmillan and co. | ||
| + | |||
| + | * Westermarck, Edvard A. (1939/1969). ''Christianity and morals''. Books for Libraries Press. ISBN 0836910559 | ||
| + | |||
| + | * Westermarck, Edvard A. (1970). ''Ethical Relativity''. Greenwood Press Reprint. ISBN 0837143667 | ||
| + | |||
| + | == Links == | ||
| + | |||
| + | *[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/ewester.htm Edvard Westermarck’s biography (in English)] | ||
| + | *[http://org.utu.fi/yhd/westermarck/ Westermarck Society] | ||
{{credit2|Edvard_Westermarck|40202171|Imprinting_(psychology)|51790084|}} | {{credit2|Edvard_Westermarck|40202171|Imprinting_(psychology)|51790084|}} | ||
Revision as of 01:55, 8 June 2006
Edvard Alexander Westermarck (born November 20, 1862 in Helsinki, Finland; died September 3, 1939 in Tenhola) was a Finnish philosopher and sociologist. Among other subjects, he studied exogamy and the incest taboo. He is known for the Westermarck effect.
Life
Edvard Westermarck was born in Helsinki, Finland, in a family of college professors. His father thought Latin at the University of Helsinki, and his mother was a daughter of a professor of the History of Learning. Due to his fragile health, Westermarck was more prone to books and reading than physical activities, what turned him toward academia.
Westermarck graduated from the Swedish lyceum in 1881, and entered the University of Helsinki where he earned his Ph.D. in 1890. He studied English in order to read books of Darwin and Lubbock in their native language. In 1887 he visited England after which he wrote his famous dissertation - The Origins of Human Marriage – which open him a door into academic circles. He became a close friend with Edmund Gosse and James Sully who will play important roles throughout Westermarck’s life.
From 1907 until 1931 Westermarck was a professor of sociology at the London School of Economics and Political Science. He was also a visiting professor of practical philosophy at the University of Helsinki (from 1906 till 1918). In 1918 he moved to Turku, and became a professor at the local university there.
Westermarck made several field studies to Morocco, studying local customs and beliefs. He published several books based on those trips - Marriage Ceremonies in Morocco (1914), Ritual and Belief in Morocco (1926), Wit and Wisdom in Morocco (1931), and some others.
Westermarck has never married, and his homosexual orientation was well known in London (Liukkonen, n.d.). In some of his works he argued for homosexuality be the natural sexual tendency. After his retirement in 1931, Westermarck continued publishing. He died in 1939.
Work
Westermarck work can be generally divided in two major spheres – philosophical and sociological/anthropological.
Philosopher
As a philosopher Westermarck mainly worked in the field of moral philosophy. His two-volume The Origin And Development Of Moral Ideas (1906-08) deals with the problem of human morality. It argues that there is no absolute standard of morality, and that people act more through emotions than reason. For him moral judgment is based in the human emotional experience of approval and disapproval. When certain moral decision is followed by an approval of others, people tend to continue to make those moral decisions. Disapproval on the other side negatively reinforces such decisions. For Westermarck, thus, morality is not absolute or universal to all people. Westermarck bases his claims on his anthropological and sociological research, combining in that way different social sciences and trying to make philosophy more scientific.
Westermarck was a fierce critic of Christianity, especially its idea that only Christians possess absolute truth, and that because of that truth scientific progress was possible. Westermarck rather advocated for the Enlightenment be the reason for that progress. He was never involved with the religion, remaining agnostic throughout his entire life. In his major philosophical work Christianity And Morals (1939), Westermarck expresses his views on religion and particularly Christianity. In it he also argues in favor of homosexual practices as a part of normal sexual behavior.
In the same book Westermarck advocates for the female equality with men. He writes:
- It has taken nearly 2000 years for the married woman to get back that personal independence which she enjoyed under the later Roman Law, but lost through the influence which Christianity exercised on European legislation. And it may be truly said that she regained it, not by the aid of the churches, but despite the opposition.
Sociologist/Anthropologist
Westermarck is well-known for his studies on marriage, exogamy and incest taboo, what when combined together makes his famous Westermarck effect. The effect can be understood best if we start with sexual imprinting. Sexual imprinting is the process by which a young animal learns the characteristics of a desirable mate. For example, male zebra finches appear to prefer mates with the appearance of the female bird that rears them, rather than mates of their own type. Reverse sexual imprinting is seen when two people live in close domestic proximity during the first few years in the life of either one, both are desensitized to later close sexual attraction and bonding. That is Westermarck effect.
The Westermarck effect has since been observed in many places and cultures, including in the Israeli kibbutz system, and the Shim-pua marriage customs of Taiwan, as well as in biological-related families. In the case of the Israeli kibbutz farms, children grew up in a common children's house, away from their parents. They spent the entire day and night together. This resulted in a generation that was not interested in the opposite sex within their class. It is an extreme example of grouping since the adults were also removed from the environment.
When this does not occur, for example where a brother and sister are brought up not knowing about one another, they may find one another highly sexually attractive when they meet as adults – a phenomenon known as genetic sexual attraction. This observation is consistent with the theory that the Westermarck effect evolved to suppress inbreeding.
The idea of Westermarck effect brought Westermarck in conflict with Sigmund Freud. Freud argued that members of the same family naturally lust for one another, making it necessary for societies to create incest taboos, but Westermarck argued the reverse, that the taboos themselves arise naturally as products of a simple inherited epigenetic response. Subsequent research over the years supports Westermarck's observations and interpretation. But still psychoanalysts do agree with and support the Freudian concept. One argument used to support their stance is that such taboos would obviously be meaningless if there was no desire to perform the acts in question.
Legacy
Westermarck left visible mark on the development of both Finnish and European modern philosophical and sociological thought. As a philosopher, Westermarck worked on a scientific background of moral philosophy, approaching it from the anthropological and ethnological side. It added a more human component to philosophy, a mark that will be visible in the modern philosophical thought that includes in its paradigm strains of psychology, sociology, anthropology, and other social sciences.
As a sociologist and anthropologist, Westermarck contributed toward understanding of the institution of marriage, especially the practice of exogamy. Through his research on incest he discovered what is called Westermarck effect, something that he will remain famous for.
After his death The Westermarck Society was founded in 1943. It published several journals, among which are Sosiologia (Sociology), Acta Sociologica, and Transactions of the Westermarck Society series. Westermarck influenced numerous young Finnish scholars - Rolf Lagerborg, who continued in Westermarck’s steps to criticize Christianity; Gunnar Landtman, an anthropologist who studied tribes in New Guinea; Rafael Karsten, another anthropologist who studied Incas in Peru; and many others.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
Liukkonen, P. (n.d.). Edvard (Alexander) Westermarck (1862-1939). http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/ewester.htm, as on 6/7/2006.
Wolf, Arthur P. (1995). Sexual Attraction and Childhood Association: A Chinese Brief for Edward Westermarck. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804724261
Ihanus, Juhani. (1999). Multiple Origins: Edward Westermarck in Search of Mankind. Peter Lang Publishing. ISBN 0820443069
Bibliography
- Westermarck, Edvard A. (1906/1974). Origin and Development of Moral Ideas. Arno Press. ISBN 0836967062
- Westermarck, Edvard A. (1914/1972). Marriage ceremonies in Morocco. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0874710898
- Westermarck, Edvard A. (1921/1975). History of Human Marriage. Johnson Reprint Corp. ISBN 0384669549
- Westermarck, Edvard A. (1926/2003). Ritual and Belief in Morocco. Trubner & Co. ISBN 1844530655
- Westermarck, Edvard A. (1931/2003). Wit and Wisdom in Morocco. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0766157806
- Westermarck, Edvard A. (1932). Early beliefs and their social influence. Macmillan and co.
- Westermarck, Edvard A. (1939/1969). Christianity and morals. Books for Libraries Press. ISBN 0836910559
- Westermarck, Edvard A. (1970). Ethical Relativity. Greenwood Press Reprint. ISBN 0837143667
Links
Credits
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