Difference between revisions of "Biometrics" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Biometrics.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|At [[Disney World]], biometric measurements are taken from the fingers of multi-day pass users to ensure that the pass is used by the same person from day to day.]]  
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[[Category:Public]]
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:''For the use of statistics in biology, see [[Biostatistics]].''
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{{Copyedited}}{{Paid}}{{Approved}}{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}
  
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'''Biometrics''' (derived from the [[Greek language|ancient Greek]] words ''bios'' = "life" and ''metron'' = "measure") is the study and development of automated methods for the identification and authentication of individuals based on unique physical and behavioral traits. Examples of unique physical characteristics include [[fingerprint]]s, eye [[retina scan|retinas]] and [[iris scan|irises]], facial patterns and [[hand geometry|hand measurements]], while examples of chiefly behavioral characteristics include [[signature]], [[gait analysis|gait]], and typing patterns. [[voice analysis|Voice]] is considered a mix of both physical and behavioral characteristics.
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[[Image:Biometrics.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|At [[Disney World]], biometric measurements are taken from the fingers of multi-day pass users to ensure that the pass is used by the same person from day to day.]]
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'''Biometrics''' (derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''bios'' = "life" and ''metron'' = "measure") is the study and development of automated methods for the identification and authentication of individuals based on each person's unique physical and behavioral traits. The term biometrics is also used to refer to the automated methods themselves. In addition, the word ''biometric'' is sometimes used as a noun to refer to the particular characteristic being measured, and sometimes as an adjective to describe the measurements, products, or technologies in this field.
 +
 
 +
Examples of unique physical characteristics include [[fingerprint]]s, eye retinas and irises, facial patterns, hand measurements, and [[DNA]] sequences (DNA "fingerprints"). Examples of chiefly behavioral characteristics include signature, gait, and typing patterns. [[voice analysis|Voice]] is considered a mix of both physical and behavioral characteristics.
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{{toc}}
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Biometric systems have been designed to function either as instruments of surveillance that look for terrorist or criminal activity, or as a means to verify the identity of individuals who wish to gain access to a secure place or system. In today's world, such capabilities appear necessary. These systems, however, have technical limitations and associated error rates. In addition, systems used for surveillance could intrude on individual privacy and freedoms, and if biometric information were not sufficiently safeguarded, people with criminal intent, exacerbating the problem of identity theft, could steal it. Thus, although these technologies can help enhance safety and security, they could, if misused, lead to the opposite effects.
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
−
While biometrics did not show up in practice in [[Western Culture|Western cultures]] until the late nineteenth century, it was being used in China by at least the fourteenth century. An explorer and writer by the name of Joao de Barros wrote that Chinese merchants stamped children’s palm prints and footprints on paper with ink. The merchants did this as a way to distinguish young children from one another.
+
While biometrics did not show up in practice in [[Western Culture|Western cultures]] until the late nineteenth century, it was being used in China by at least the fourteenth century. Explorer and writer Joao de Barros recorded that Chinese merchants stamped children’s palm prints and footprints on paper with ink, as a way to distinguish young children from one another.
  
−
In the West, identification relied heavily simply on [[Eidetic memory|"photographic memory"]] until the French police desk clerk and anthropologist [[Alphonse Bertillon]] developed the anthropometric system (later also known as [[Bertillonage]]) in 1883. This was the first precise, scientific system that was widely used to identify criminals. It turned biometrics into a field of study. It worked by precisely measuring certain lengths and widths of the head and body, as well as recording individual markings such as [[tattoo|tattoos]] and [[scar|scars]]. Bertillon’s system was widely adopted in the West until the system’s flaws became apparent – mainly problems with differing methods of measurement and changing measurements. After that, Western police forces turned to [[fingerprint|fingerprinting]] – essentially the same system seen in China hundreds of years prior.  
+
In the West, identification relied heavily on [[Eidetic memory|"photographic memory"]] until [[Alphonse Bertillon]], a French police desk clerk and anthropologist, developed the "anthropometric" system (later known as [[Bertillonage]]) in 1883. It was the first precise, scientific system widely used to identify criminals. It turned biometrics into a field of study. It involved precisely measuring certain lengths and widths of the head and body, as well as recording individual markings such as tattoos and scars. Bertillon’s system was widely adopted in the West until its flaws became apparent—mainly problems associated with differing methods of measurement and changing measurements. After that, Western police forces turned to [[fingerprint|fingerprinting]]—essentially the same system seen in China hundreds of years earlier.
  
−
In recent years biometrics has moved from simply fingerprinting to many different methods that use various physical and behavioral measurements. The uses of biometrics have also increased, from just identification to verification as used in security systems and more.
+
Until recently, fingerprinting was used mainly for forensics and criminal identification. With the development of biometrics technologies, silicon-based sensors that produce digital images of the fingerprint have replaced printer’s ink, and this new approach can be used as a means to secure access to a place (such as an office) or device (such as a computer). Moreover, the scope of biometrics has been expanded to include many different methods involving the measurement of various physical and behavioral traits.
  
 
==Operation and performance==
 
==Operation and performance==
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In a typical IT biometric system, a person registers with the system when one or more of his physical and behavioral characteristics are obtained. This information is then processed by a numerical algorithm, and entered into a database. The algorithm creates a digital representation of the obtained biometric. If the user is new to the system, he or she enrolls, which means that the digital template of the biometric is entered into the database. Each subsequent attempt to use the system, or authenticate, requires the biometric of the user to be captured again, and processed into a digital template. That template is then compared to those existing in the database to determine a match. The process of converting the acquired biometric into a digital template for comparison is completed each time the user attempts to authenticate to the system. The comparison process involves the use of a [[Hamming distance]]. This is a measurement of how similar two [[String (computer science)|bit strings]] are.  For example, two identical bit strings have a Hamming Distance of zero, while two totally dissimilar ones have a Hamming Distance of one. Thus, the Hamming distance measures the percentage of dissimilar bits out of the number of comparisons made. Ideally, when a user logs in, nearly all of his features match; then when someone else tries to log in, who does not fully match, and the system will not allow the new person to log in. Current technologies have widely varying [[Equal Error Rates]], varying from as low as 60% to as high as 99.9%.
+
The use of biometric systems for human recognition is based on the premise that the chosen traits are unique to each individual and can be recorded at a high level of accuracy. These systems can serve two types of functions: (a) surveillance of a crowd to identify potential terrorists or criminals; and (b) authentication (verification) of a person's identity to allow or deny access to a place or system. Biometric systems serving both types of functions can be used to ensure the security of critical locations, such as military bases, power plants, and water reservoirs. They can also be used at border crossings, supplementing the system of checking passports and visas.
 +
 
 +
For the biometric surveillance of large numbers of people, facial images are thought to be the method of choice, especially because remotely located cameras can obtain the images. Each digitized image is converted to a template that defines the geometry of the facial features, and the template is compared with others in a database to look for possible matching templates.
 +
 
 +
When a biometric system is set up as an authentication device (to verify personal identity), it offers authorized users the advantage of being able to identify themselves and gain access to secure systems without having to carry a key or remember a password or personal identification number. First-time users are required to begin with an enrollment process, when the system records one or more of the person's physical and behavioral traits. The system uses a numerical algorithm (procedure for handling mathematical data) to convert the information into a digital representation, which is then entered into a database.
 +
 
 +
During each subsequent attempt to use the system, the person's biometric is captured again and processed into a digital template. That template is then compared with those in the database to determine a match. Ideally, when a user logs in, nearly all his features match and the system accepts the person as a valid user. On the other hand, when someone whose traits do not fully match tries to log in, the system rejects the attempt and does not allow the person to log in.
  
 
[[Image:Biometrics error.jpg|right]]
 
[[Image:Biometrics error.jpg|right]]
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Performance of a biometric measure is usually referred to in terms of the false accept rate (FAR), the false non match or reject rate (FRR), and the failure to enroll rate (FTE or FER). The FAR measures the percent of invalid users who are incorrectly accepted as genuine users, while the FRR measures the percent of valid users who are rejected as impostors.
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The performance of a biometric device is usually measured in terms of its "false accept rate" (FAR), "false reject (or nonmatch) rate" (FRR), and "failure to enroll" rate (FTE or FER). The FAR is a measure of the percentage of invalid users who are incorrectly accepted as genuine users, while the FRR is a measure of the percentage of valid users who are rejected as impostors.
  
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In real-world biometric systems, the FAR and FRR can typically be traded off against each other by changing some parameter. One of the most common measures of real-world biometric systems is the rate at which both accept and reject errors are equal: the equal error rate (EER), also known as the cross-over error rate (CER). The lower the EER or CER, the more accurate the system is considered to be.
+
In real-world biometric systems, if an instrument's sensitivity is adjusted to lower its FAR, then its FRR tends to increase, as shown (in a simplified form) in the graph on the right. Conversely, if the sensitivity is adjusted to lower FRR, then FAR tends to increase. Thus the instrument's FAR and FRR can be typically traded off against each other by changing some parameter.
  
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Claimed error rates sometimes involve idiosyncratic or subjective elements. For example, one biometrics vendor set the acceptance threshold high, to minimize false accepts. In the trial, three attempts were allowed, and so a false reject was counted only if all three attempts failed. At the same time, when measuring performance biometrics (e.g. writing, speech etc.), opinions may differ on what constitutes a false reject. If a signature verification system is trained with an initial and a surname, can a false reject be legitimately claimed when it then rejects the signature incorporating a full first name?
+
One of the most common measures of biometric systems is the rate at which both accept and reject errors are equal. It is called the equal error rate (EER) or the cross-over error rate (CER). The lower the EER or CER, the more accurate the system is considered to be. Current technologies have widely varying equal error rates, ranging from as low as 60 percent to as high as 99.9 percent.
  
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Despite these misgivings, biometric systems have the potential to identify individuals with a very high degree of certainty. Forensic DNA evidence enjoys a particularly high degree of public trust at present (ca. 2004) and substantial claims are being made in respect of iris recognition technology, which has the capacity to discriminate between individuals with identical DNA, such as monozygotic [[Twin|twins]].
+
Although there are various misgivings about the use of biometric systems, some of these systems have the potential to identify individuals with a high degree of certainty. In particular, substantial claims are being made about the accuracy of iris recognition technology, which is said to have the capacity to distinguish between identical [[Twin|twins]].
  
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===A comparison of biometrics===
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===A comparison of biometrics technologies===
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[[Image:Biometric_comparisons.jpg|thumb|A Comparison of Biometrics (Yun 2003) [http://www.itsc.org.sg/synthesis/2002/biometric.pdf]]]
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The table on the right (Yau Wei Yun 2003 [http://www.itsc.org.sg/synthesis/2002/biometric.pdf]) compares the performance of various biometrics technologies with one another in seven categories of evaluation:
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The figure on the right (Yun 2003) compares several biometrics with each other against seven categories:
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* '''Universality''' describes how commonly a biometric trait occurs in each individual.
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* '''Universality''' describes how common a biometric is found in each individual.  
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* '''Uniqueness''' is how well the biometric distinguishes one individual from another.
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* '''Uniqueness''' is how well the biometric separates one individual from another.  
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* '''Permanence''' measures how well a biometric resists aging.
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* '''Permanence''' measures how well a biometric resists aging.  
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* '''Collectability''' explains how easy it is to acquire the biometric for measurement.
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* '''Collectability''' explains how easy it is to acquire a biometric for measurement.  
 
 
* '''Performance''' indicates the accuracy, speed, and robustness of the system capturing the biometric.
 
* '''Performance''' indicates the accuracy, speed, and robustness of the system capturing the biometric.
 
* '''Acceptability''' indicates the degree of approval of a technology by the public in everyday life.
 
* '''Acceptability''' indicates the degree of approval of a technology by the public in everyday life.
−
* '''Circumvention''' is how easy it is to fool the authentication system.  
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* '''Circumvention''' is how easy it is to fool the authentication system.
 +
Each system is ranked as low, medium, or high in each category. A low ranking indicates poor performance in the evaluation criterion, whereas a high ranking indicates very good performance.
  
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Yun ranks each biometric based on the categories as being either low, medium, or high. A low ranking indicates poor performance in the evaluation criterion, whereas a high ranking indicates a very good performance.
+
The chart shows that iris scanning has a high rating in practically every category, but a low rating in acceptability, perhaps because people may be hesitant to look into an eye scanner. On the other hand, signature receives a high rating in acceptability but a low rating in most other categories, probably because signatures can be forged.
  
 
==Issues and concerns==
 
==Issues and concerns==
−
As with many interesting and powerful developments of technology, excessive concern with the biometric may have the effect of eclipsing a more general critical faculty. Biometrics may become associated with severe miscarriages of justice if bedazzlement with the performance of the technology blinds us to the following possibilities. An individual could:
+
As biometrics technologies continue to advance, more and more private companies and public utilities may be expected to use them for safe, accurate identification, and governments may use them to monitor and restrict criminal and terrorist activity. The use of biometric systems, however, has also raised various concerns, as follows.
  
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* plant DNA at the scene of the crime;
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One set of issues is related to the technical limitations of biometric systems. The biometrics approach to identity verification is only as good as the performance of the software and hardware used, and the accuracy of information in the database. Glitches in the software or hardware or computer vandalism (hacking) may cause a system to fail to recognize a genuine user, leading to a false rejection, or it may allow access to an unregistered person, leading to a false acceptance. As noted above, the "equal error rate" (the point at which the false accept rate is equal to the false reject rate) varies widely for different technologies.
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* associate another's identity with his biometrics, thereby impersonating without arousing suspicion; or
 
−
* interfere with the interface between a biometric device and the host system, so that a "fail" message gets converted to a "pass".
 
  
−
===Identity theft and privacy issues===
+
Moreover, if biometric information is not sufficiently safeguarded, criminals may steal, rearrange, or copy it, and use it to access personal data and financial accounts. Alternatively, the stolen data may be sold to other parties. In this manner, the problem of identity theft could be exacerbated, severely harming the victims. A related concern is that biometric information "skimmed" from a passport could be used for international criminal schemes, including kidnapping.
−
Concerns about identity theft through biometrics use have not been resolved. If a person's credit card number is stolen, for example, it can cause them great difficulty. If their iris scan is stolen, though, and it allows someone else to access personal information or financial accounts, the damage could be irreversible. Often, biometric technologies have been rolled out without adequate safeguards for personal information gathered about individuals.
 
  
−
Also, the biometric solution to identity theft is only as good as the information in the database that is used for verifying identity. Problems of getting accurate and usuable initial information — witness the current troubles with the ''[[No fly list]]'' of the Dept of [[Homeland security]]. Presumably after the initial information is correctly stored, future computer error or vandalism (hacking) would prevent biometrics from being 100% foolproof against idenity theft.
+
An individual who wishes to foil the system may:
 +
* plant DNA at the scene of a crime;
 +
* associate another's identity with his own biometrics, thereby impersonating without arousing suspicion; or
 +
* interfere with the interface between a biometric device and the host system, so that a "fail" message gets converted to a "pass".
 +
In such cases, an innocent person may be charged with a crime, while the real culprit may escape.
  
−
Though biometrics often are touted as a way to restrict criminality, privacy advocates fear biometrics may be used to diminish the personal liberties of law-abiding citizens as well. Developments in a huge range of new technologies besides biometrics—[[digital video]], [[infrared]], [[X ray]], [[wireless]], [[global positioning satellite systems]], [[image scanning]], [[voice recognition]], [[DNA]], and [[brain-wave fingerprinting]]—provide the government with new ways to "search" individuals and collect vast databases of information on law-abiding members of the public.
+
Some believe that certain biometric systems may cause physical harm to its users, particularly if the instruments used are unsanitary. For example, there are concerns that retina scanners might not always be clean.
  
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===Sociological concerns===
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Others have expressed the fear that governments may use biometrics technologies to diminish the privacy and personal liberties of law-abiding citizens. Today, a government can use a huge range of new technologies, including but not limited to biometric systems, to "search" individuals and collect vast databases of information on them. These technologies include [[digital video]] recorders, [[infrared]] scanners, [[X ray]] scanners, [[wireless]] devices, [[global positioning satellite systems]], [[voice recognition]] devices, [[DNA]] analyzers, and [[brain-wave fingerprinting]] instruments.
−
As technology advances, and time goes on, more and more private companies and public utilities will use biometrics for safe, accurate identification. These advances, however, will raise many concerns throughout society, where many may not be educated on the methods. Here are some examples of concerns society has with biometrics:
 
  
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*Physical - Some believe this technology can cause physical harm to an individual using the methods, or that instruments used are unsanitary. For example, there are concerns that retina scanners might not always be clean.
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In light of these issues, the very technologies that are intended to enhance safety and security could, if misused, lead to the opposite effects.
−
 
 
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*Personal Information - There are concerns whether our personal information taken through biometric methods can be misused, tampered with, or sold. For instance, criminals may steal, rearrange, or copy the biometric data. Also, the data obtained using biometrics can be used in unauthorized ways without the individual's consent.
 
−
 
 
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Societal fears about the use of biometrics may continue over time. As the public becomes better educated about the practices and the methods are used more widely, these concerns may become more and more evident.
 
  
 
==Uses and initiatives==
 
==Uses and initiatives==
 
===Brazil===
 
===Brazil===
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Since the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Brazil|Brazilian]] citizens have used ID cards. The decision by the Brazilian government to adopt fingerprint-based biometrics was spearheaded by Dr. [[Felix Pacheco]]* at [[Rio de Janeiro]], at that time capital of the Federative Republic. Dr. Pacheco was a friend of Dr. [[Juan Vucetich]]*, who invented one of the most complete tenprint classification systems in existence. The Vucetich system was adopted not only in Brazil but also by most of the other South American countries. The oldest and most traditional ID Institute in Brazil (Instituto de Identificação Félix Pacheco) was integrated into the civil and criminal [[Automated Fingerprint Identification System|AFIS]] system in 1999.
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Since the early twentieth century, [[Brazil|Brazilian]] citizens have used identification (ID) cards. The Brazilian government's decision to adopt fingerprint-based biometrics was spearheaded by Dr. [[Felix Pacheco]] at [[Rio de Janeiro]], then the capital of the federal republic. Dr. Pacheco was a friend of Dr. [[Juan Vucetich]], an Argentine anthropologist and police official, who invented one of the most complete fingerprint classification systems in existence. The Vucetich system was adopted not only by Brazil but also by most other South American countries.
  
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Each state in Brazil is allowed to print its own ID card, but the layout and data are the same for all of them. The ID cards printed in Rio de Janeiro are fully digitized using a 2D bar code with information that can be matched against its owner off-line. The 2D bar code encodes a color photo, a signature, two fingerprints, and other citizen data. This technology was developed in 2000 in order to enhance the security of the Brazilian ID cards.
+
Each state in Brazil has the authority to print its own ID cards, but they all have the same layout and type of data. To enhance the security of these cards, they are now fully digitized, using a 2D bar code that encodes a color photo, a signature, two fingerprints, and other data. This information can be matched against its owner off-line.
  
 
===Canada===
 
===Canada===
−
Canada has recently introduced biometrics in the use of passports with the help of digitized photos. The passports contain a chip that holds a picture of the person and personal information such as name and date of birth.
+
Canada has introduced biometrics in its passports, with the use of digitized photos. Each passport has a chip that contains the person's picture, name, date of birth, and other information. Border crossings have electronic readers that can read the chip and verify the information on the passport.
  
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This technology is being used at border crossings that have electronic readers that are able to read the chip in the cards and verify the information present in the card and on the passport. This method allows for increased efficiency and accuracy of identifying people at border crossings. CANPASS, developed by Canada Customs, is currently being used by some major airports that have kiosks set up to take digital pictures of a person’s eye as a means of identification.
+
In addition, the Canadian customs agency has instituted a system called CANPASS at major airports and other border crossings. The system involves iris-recognition technology, which allows for the efficient identification and clearance of pre-approved travelers.
  
 
===United States===
 
===United States===
−
The United States government has become a strong advocate of biometrics, as security concerns have increased in recent years. Starting in 2005, U.S. passports with facial (image-based) biometric data were scheduled to be produced. Privacy activists in many countries have criticized the technology's use for the potential harm to civil liberties, privacy, and the risk of identity theft. Currently, there is some apprehension in the United States (and the European Union) that the information can be "skimmed" and identify people's citizenship remotely for criminal intent, such as kidnapping. In addition, technical difficulties are currently delaying biometric integration into passports in the United States and the European Union. These difficulties include compatibility of reading devices, information formatting, and nature of content (e.g. the US and UK currently expect to use only image data, whereas the EU intends to use fingerprint and image data in their passport [[RFID]] biometric chip(s)).
+
The United States government has become a strong advocate of biometrics, as security concerns have increased in recent years. Starting in 2005, U.S. passports with facial (image-based) biometric data were scheduled to be produced. Technical difficulties, however, are delaying the integration of biometrics into passports in the United States and European Union. These difficulties include compatibility of reading devices, information formatting, and nature of content (e.g. the US and UK currently expect to use only image data, whereas the EU intends to use fingerprint and image data in their passport [[RFID]] biometric chip(s)).
 +
 
 +
==References==
 +
* [http://ctl.ncsc.dni.us/biomet%20web/BMHistory.html A Brief History of Biometrics] Retrieved March 19, 2005.
 +
* Ashborn, Julian. ''Guide to Biometrics''. Springer Professional Computing, 2004.
 +
* Yun, Yau Wei. [http://www.itsc.org.sg/synthesis/2002/biometric.pdf The ‘123’ of Biometric Technology], 2003. Retrieved on November 21, 2005.
 +
 
  
−
==See also==
 
−
*[[Biometric passport]]
 
−
*[[Biometric word list]]
 
−
*[[British national identity card|British biometric national identity card]]
 
−
*[[Facial recognition system]]
 
−
*[[Physical anthropology]]
 
−
*[[Three-dimensional face recognition]]
 
  
−
==References==
 
−
{{commons|Category:Biometrics}}
 
−
* [http://www.biometricnewsportal.com Biometric news portal] Dedicated portal for biometric systems and products: fingerprint, iris, retina, hand, palm vein, voice and DNA recognition and identification.
 
−
*[http://ctl.ncsc.dni.us/biomet%20web/BMHistory.html A Brief History of Biometrics] Retrieved March 19, 2005.
 
−
*[http://www.m2sys.com M2SYS TECHNOLOGY] - Vendor Provides Accelarated Fingerprint Adoption Technology
 
−
*[http://www.techsvg.com TechSense Ventures Group] - Biometrics and fingerprint technology in Singapore.
 
−
*[http://www.sigma-foco.scire.coppe.ufrj.br/UFRJ/SIGMA/trabalhos_conclusao/consulta/relatorio.stm?app=TRABALHOS_CONCLUSAO&id_trabalho_conclusao=9294&estrutura_org_pai=636&estrutura_org_pai=CURSOPGSS&estrutura_org_pai=INFORM%c1TICA&buscas_cruzadas=ON Reconhecimento Automático de Impressões digitais: O Sistema de Identificação do Estado do Rio de Janeiro]
 
−
*[http://www.zvetcobiometrics.com Maker of Biometric Devices] - Biometrics and fingerprint technology.
 
−
*Ashborn, Julian. "Guide to Biometrics". Springer Professional Computing. 1st edition. 2004
 
−
* [http://www.accesscontrolnewsportal.com Access Control news portal] Authoritative news site for access control and for biometric systems and products
 
−
* Yun, Yau Wei. The ‘123’ of Biometric Technology, 2003. Retrieved from on November 21, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.itsc.org.sg/synthesis/2002/biometric.pdf
 
−
* Biometric Digest newsletter. Published monthly with weekly updates. 64 issues per year. Primary source of news & information, vendors, case studies, calendar of events for expositions & conferences, financial reports, names in the news and more. http://www.mydocsonline.com/pub/wrogers/26Mar.pdf
 
  
 
[[Category:Physical sciences]]
 
[[Category:Physical sciences]]
 
[[Category:Technology]]
 
[[Category:Technology]]
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[[Category:Biometrics| ]]
 
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==External Links==
 
−
*[http://www.biometrics2006.com Biometrics 2006 Conference and Exhibition]
 
  
 
{{credit|48888692}}
 
{{credit|48888692}}

Latest revision as of 17:56, 31 October 2023


At Disney World, biometric measurements are taken from the fingers of multi-day pass users to ensure that the pass is used by the same person from day to day.

Biometrics (derived from the Greek words bios = "life" and metron = "measure") is the study and development of automated methods for the identification and authentication of individuals based on each person's unique physical and behavioral traits. The term biometrics is also used to refer to the automated methods themselves. In addition, the word biometric is sometimes used as a noun to refer to the particular characteristic being measured, and sometimes as an adjective to describe the measurements, products, or technologies in this field.

Examples of unique physical characteristics include fingerprints, eye retinas and irises, facial patterns, hand measurements, and DNA sequences (DNA "fingerprints"). Examples of chiefly behavioral characteristics include signature, gait, and typing patterns. Voice is considered a mix of both physical and behavioral characteristics.

Biometric systems have been designed to function either as instruments of surveillance that look for terrorist or criminal activity, or as a means to verify the identity of individuals who wish to gain access to a secure place or system. In today's world, such capabilities appear necessary. These systems, however, have technical limitations and associated error rates. In addition, systems used for surveillance could intrude on individual privacy and freedoms, and if biometric information were not sufficiently safeguarded, people with criminal intent, exacerbating the problem of identity theft, could steal it. Thus, although these technologies can help enhance safety and security, they could, if misused, lead to the opposite effects.

History

While biometrics did not show up in practice in Western cultures until the late nineteenth century, it was being used in China by at least the fourteenth century. Explorer and writer Joao de Barros recorded that Chinese merchants stamped children’s palm prints and footprints on paper with ink, as a way to distinguish young children from one another.

In the West, identification relied heavily on "photographic memory" until Alphonse Bertillon, a French police desk clerk and anthropologist, developed the "anthropometric" system (later known as Bertillonage) in 1883. It was the first precise, scientific system widely used to identify criminals. It turned biometrics into a field of study. It involved precisely measuring certain lengths and widths of the head and body, as well as recording individual markings such as tattoos and scars. Bertillon’s system was widely adopted in the West until its flaws became apparent—mainly problems associated with differing methods of measurement and changing measurements. After that, Western police forces turned to fingerprinting—essentially the same system seen in China hundreds of years earlier.

Until recently, fingerprinting was used mainly for forensics and criminal identification. With the development of biometrics technologies, silicon-based sensors that produce digital images of the fingerprint have replaced printer’s ink, and this new approach can be used as a means to secure access to a place (such as an office) or device (such as a computer). Moreover, the scope of biometrics has been expanded to include many different methods involving the measurement of various physical and behavioral traits.

Operation and performance

The use of biometric systems for human recognition is based on the premise that the chosen traits are unique to each individual and can be recorded at a high level of accuracy. These systems can serve two types of functions: (a) surveillance of a crowd to identify potential terrorists or criminals; and (b) authentication (verification) of a person's identity to allow or deny access to a place or system. Biometric systems serving both types of functions can be used to ensure the security of critical locations, such as military bases, power plants, and water reservoirs. They can also be used at border crossings, supplementing the system of checking passports and visas.

For the biometric surveillance of large numbers of people, facial images are thought to be the method of choice, especially because remotely located cameras can obtain the images. Each digitized image is converted to a template that defines the geometry of the facial features, and the template is compared with others in a database to look for possible matching templates.

When a biometric system is set up as an authentication device (to verify personal identity), it offers authorized users the advantage of being able to identify themselves and gain access to secure systems without having to carry a key or remember a password or personal identification number. First-time users are required to begin with an enrollment process, when the system records one or more of the person's physical and behavioral traits. The system uses a numerical algorithm (procedure for handling mathematical data) to convert the information into a digital representation, which is then entered into a database.

During each subsequent attempt to use the system, the person's biometric is captured again and processed into a digital template. That template is then compared with those in the database to determine a match. Ideally, when a user logs in, nearly all his features match and the system accepts the person as a valid user. On the other hand, when someone whose traits do not fully match tries to log in, the system rejects the attempt and does not allow the person to log in.

Biometrics error.jpg

The performance of a biometric device is usually measured in terms of its "false accept rate" (FAR), "false reject (or nonmatch) rate" (FRR), and "failure to enroll" rate (FTE or FER). The FAR is a measure of the percentage of invalid users who are incorrectly accepted as genuine users, while the FRR is a measure of the percentage of valid users who are rejected as impostors.

In real-world biometric systems, if an instrument's sensitivity is adjusted to lower its FAR, then its FRR tends to increase, as shown (in a simplified form) in the graph on the right. Conversely, if the sensitivity is adjusted to lower FRR, then FAR tends to increase. Thus the instrument's FAR and FRR can be typically traded off against each other by changing some parameter.

One of the most common measures of biometric systems is the rate at which both accept and reject errors are equal. It is called the equal error rate (EER) or the cross-over error rate (CER). The lower the EER or CER, the more accurate the system is considered to be. Current technologies have widely varying equal error rates, ranging from as low as 60 percent to as high as 99.9 percent.

Although there are various misgivings about the use of biometric systems, some of these systems have the potential to identify individuals with a high degree of certainty. In particular, substantial claims are being made about the accuracy of iris recognition technology, which is said to have the capacity to distinguish between identical twins.

A comparison of biometrics technologies

The table on the right (Yau Wei Yun 2003 [1]) compares the performance of various biometrics technologies with one another in seven categories of evaluation:

  • Universality describes how commonly a biometric trait occurs in each individual.
  • Uniqueness is how well the biometric distinguishes one individual from another.
  • Permanence measures how well a biometric resists aging.
  • Collectability explains how easy it is to acquire the biometric for measurement.
  • Performance indicates the accuracy, speed, and robustness of the system capturing the biometric.
  • Acceptability indicates the degree of approval of a technology by the public in everyday life.
  • Circumvention is how easy it is to fool the authentication system.

Each system is ranked as low, medium, or high in each category. A low ranking indicates poor performance in the evaluation criterion, whereas a high ranking indicates very good performance.

The chart shows that iris scanning has a high rating in practically every category, but a low rating in acceptability, perhaps because people may be hesitant to look into an eye scanner. On the other hand, signature receives a high rating in acceptability but a low rating in most other categories, probably because signatures can be forged.

Issues and concerns

As biometrics technologies continue to advance, more and more private companies and public utilities may be expected to use them for safe, accurate identification, and governments may use them to monitor and restrict criminal and terrorist activity. The use of biometric systems, however, has also raised various concerns, as follows.

One set of issues is related to the technical limitations of biometric systems. The biometrics approach to identity verification is only as good as the performance of the software and hardware used, and the accuracy of information in the database. Glitches in the software or hardware or computer vandalism (hacking) may cause a system to fail to recognize a genuine user, leading to a false rejection, or it may allow access to an unregistered person, leading to a false acceptance. As noted above, the "equal error rate" (the point at which the false accept rate is equal to the false reject rate) varies widely for different technologies.

Moreover, if biometric information is not sufficiently safeguarded, criminals may steal, rearrange, or copy it, and use it to access personal data and financial accounts. Alternatively, the stolen data may be sold to other parties. In this manner, the problem of identity theft could be exacerbated, severely harming the victims. A related concern is that biometric information "skimmed" from a passport could be used for international criminal schemes, including kidnapping.

An individual who wishes to foil the system may:

  • plant DNA at the scene of a crime;
  • associate another's identity with his own biometrics, thereby impersonating without arousing suspicion; or
  • interfere with the interface between a biometric device and the host system, so that a "fail" message gets converted to a "pass".

In such cases, an innocent person may be charged with a crime, while the real culprit may escape.

Some believe that certain biometric systems may cause physical harm to its users, particularly if the instruments used are unsanitary. For example, there are concerns that retina scanners might not always be clean.

Others have expressed the fear that governments may use biometrics technologies to diminish the privacy and personal liberties of law-abiding citizens. Today, a government can use a huge range of new technologies, including but not limited to biometric systems, to "search" individuals and collect vast databases of information on them. These technologies include digital video recorders, infrared scanners, X ray scanners, wireless devices, global positioning satellite systems, voice recognition devices, DNA analyzers, and brain-wave fingerprinting instruments.

In light of these issues, the very technologies that are intended to enhance safety and security could, if misused, lead to the opposite effects.

Uses and initiatives

Brazil

Since the early twentieth century, Brazilian citizens have used identification (ID) cards. The Brazilian government's decision to adopt fingerprint-based biometrics was spearheaded by Dr. Felix Pacheco at Rio de Janeiro, then the capital of the federal republic. Dr. Pacheco was a friend of Dr. Juan Vucetich, an Argentine anthropologist and police official, who invented one of the most complete fingerprint classification systems in existence. The Vucetich system was adopted not only by Brazil but also by most other South American countries.

Each state in Brazil has the authority to print its own ID cards, but they all have the same layout and type of data. To enhance the security of these cards, they are now fully digitized, using a 2D bar code that encodes a color photo, a signature, two fingerprints, and other data. This information can be matched against its owner off-line.

Canada

Canada has introduced biometrics in its passports, with the use of digitized photos. Each passport has a chip that contains the person's picture, name, date of birth, and other information. Border crossings have electronic readers that can read the chip and verify the information on the passport.

In addition, the Canadian customs agency has instituted a system called CANPASS at major airports and other border crossings. The system involves iris-recognition technology, which allows for the efficient identification and clearance of pre-approved travelers.

United States

The United States government has become a strong advocate of biometrics, as security concerns have increased in recent years. Starting in 2005, U.S. passports with facial (image-based) biometric data were scheduled to be produced. Technical difficulties, however, are delaying the integration of biometrics into passports in the United States and European Union. These difficulties include compatibility of reading devices, information formatting, and nature of content (e.g. the US and UK currently expect to use only image data, whereas the EU intends to use fingerprint and image data in their passport RFID biometric chip(s)).

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